Automatic Controllers.

An automatic controller compares the actual value of the plant

output with the reference input (desired value), determines the deviation, and produces a
control signal that will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small value. The manner in
which the automatic controller produces the control signal is called the control action.
Figure 2–6 is a block diagram of an industrial control system, which

Figure 2–6 Block diagram of an industrial control system, which consists of an automatic controller, an
actuator, a plant, and a sensor (measuring element).
consists of an automatic controller, an actuator, a plant, and a sensor (measuring
element).The controller detects the actuating error signal, which is usually at a very low
power level, and amplifies it to a sufficiently high level. The output of an automatic
controller is fed to an actuator, such as an electric motor, a hydraulic motor, or a
pneumatic motor or valve. (The actuator is a power device that produces the input to the
plant according to the control signal so that the output signal will approach the reference
input signal.)
The sensor or measuring element is a device that converts the output variable into
another suitable variable, such as a displacement, pressure, voltage, etc., that can be
used to compare the output to the reference input signal.This element is in the feedback
path of the closed-loop system.The set point of the controller must be converted to a
reference input with the same units as the feedback signal from the sensor or measuring
element.
Classifications of Industrial Controllers. Most industrial controllers may be classified
according to their control actions as:
1. Two-position or on–off controllers
2. Proportional controllers
3. Integral controllers
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers
Most industrial controllers use electricity or pressurized fluid such as oil or air as power
sources. Consequently, controllers may also be classified according to the kind of power
employed in the operation, such as pneumatic controllers, hydraulic controllers, or
electronic controllers.What kind of controller to use must be decided based on the
nature of the plant and the operating conditions, including such considerations as safety,
cost, availability, reliability, accuracy, weight, and size.
Two-Position or On–Off Control Action. In a two-position control system, the
actuating element has only two fixed positions, which are, in many cases, simply on and
off.Two-position or on–off control is relatively simple and inexpensive and, for this
reason, is very widely used in both industrial and domestic control systems. Let the
output signal from the controller be u(t) and the actuating error signal be e(t). In two-
position control, the signal u(t) remains at either a maximum or minimum value,
depending on whether the actuating error signal is positive or negative, so that where
U1 and U2 are constants. The minimum value U2 is usually either zero or –U1 . Two-
position controllers are generally electrical devices, and an electric solenoid-operated
valve is widely used in such controllers. Pneumatic proportional controllers with very
high gains act as two-position controllers and are sometimes called pneumatic
twoposition controllers.

Figures 2–7(a) and (b) show the block diagrams for two-position or on–off controllers.
The range through which the actuating error signal must move before the switching
occurs is called the differential gap.A differential gap is indicated in Figure 2–7(b).
Such a differential gap causes the controller output u(t) to maintain its present value
until the actuating error signal has moved slightly beyond the zero value. In some cases,
the differential gap is a result of unintentional friction and lost motion; however, quite
often it is intentionally provided in order to prevent too-frequent operation of the on–off
mechanism.

Figure 2–7 (a) Block diagram of an on–off controller;

(b) block diagram of an on–off controller with differential gap.
Consider the liquid-level control system shown in Figure 2–8(a), where the
lectromagnetic valve shown in Figure 2–8(b) is used for controlling the inflow rate.This
valve is either open or closed.With this two-position control, the water inflow rate is
either a positive constant or zero. As shown in Figure 2–9, the output signal
continuously moves between the two limits required to cause the actuating element to
move from one fixed position to the other. Notice that the output curve follows one of
two exponential curves, one corresponding to the filling curve and the other to the
emptying curve. Such output oscillation between two limits is a typical response
characteristic of a system under two-position control.

Figure 2–8 (a) Liquid-level control system; (b) electromagnetic valve.

 Figure 2–9 Level h(t)-versus-t curve for the system shown in Figure 2–8(a).
From Figure 2–9, we notice that the amplitude of the output oscillation can be reduced
by decreasing the differential gap. The decrease in the differential gap, however,
increases the number of on–off switchings per minute and reduces the useful life of the
component. The magnitude of the differential gap must be determined from such
considerations as the accuracy required and the life of the component.
Proportional Control Action. For a controller with proportional control action, the
relationship between the output of the controller u(t) and the actuating error signal e(t)
is

or, in Laplace-transformed quantities,

where Kp is termed the proportional gain.

Whatever the actual mechanism may be and whatever the form of the operating power,
the proportional controller is essentially an amplifier with an adjustable gain.
Integral Control Action. In a controller with integral control action, the value of the
controller output u(t) is changed at a rate proportional to the actuating error signal
e(t).That is,

atau

where Ki is an adjustable constant.The transfer function of the integral controller is

Proportional-Plus-Integral Control Action. The control action of a proportionalplus-

integral controller is defined by
or the transfer function of the controller is

Where Ti is called the integral time.

Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control Action. The control action of a proportional
plus-derivative controller is defined by

and the transfer function is

where Td is called the derivative time.

Proportional-Plus-Integral-Plus-Derivative Control Action. The combination of
proportional control action, integral control action, and derivative control action is
termed proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control action. It has the advantages of
each of the three individual control actions. The equation of a controller with this
combined action is given by

or the transfer function is

where Kp is the proportional gain, Ti is the integral time, and Td is the derivative time.
The block diagram of a proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controller is shown in
Figure 2–10.

Figure 2–10 Block diagram of a proportional-plusintegral- plusderivative controller.

Closed-Loop System Subjected to a Disturbance. Figure 2–11 shows a closedloop

system subjected to a disturbance. When two inputs (the reference input and
disturbance) are present in a linear time-invariant system, each input can be treated
independently of the other; and the outputs corresponding to each input alone can be
added to give the complete output.The way each input is introduced into the system is
shown at the summing point by either a plus or minus sign.
 Figure 2–11 Closed-loop system subjected to a disturbance.
Consider the system shown in Figure 2–11. In examining the effect of the disturbance
D(s), we may assume that the reference input is zero; we may then calculate the
response CD(s) to the disturbance only.This response can be found from

G2 (S )
D(s) CD(s)

G1(S ) H (S )

On the other hand, in considering the response to the reference input R(s), we may
assume that the disturbance is zero.Then the response CR(s) to the reference input R(s)
can be obtained from

G1(S ) G2 (S )
R(s) CR(s)

H (S )

The response to the simultaneous application of the reference input and disturbance can
be obtained by adding the two individual responses. In other words, the response C(s)
due to the simultaneous application of the reference input R(s) and disturbance D(s) is
given by

Consider now the case where |G1(s)H(s)| >> 1 and |G1(s)G2(s)H(s)| >> 1. In this case,
the closed-loop transfer function CD(s)/D(s) becomes almost zero, and the effect of the
disturbance is suppressed.This is an advantage of the closed-loop system.
On the other hand, the closed-loop transfer function CR(s)/R(s) approaches 1/H(s) as the
gain of G1(s)G2(s)H(s) increases.This means that if |G1(s)G2(s)H(s)| >> 1, then the
closed-loop transfer function CR(s)/R(s) becomes independent of G1(s) and G2(s) and
inversely proportional to H(s), so that the variations of G1(s) and G2(s) do not affect the
closed-loop transfer function CR(s)/R(s). This is another advantage of the closed-loop
system. It can easily be seen that any closed-loop system with unity feedback, H(s) = 1,
tends to equalize the input and output.
Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram. To draw a block diagram for a system,
first write the equations that describe the dynamic behavior of each component. Then
take the Laplace transforms of these equations, assuming zero initial conditions, and
represent each Laplace-transformed equation individually in block form.Finally,
assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.
As an example, consider the RC circuit shown in Figure 2–12(a).The equations for this
circuit are

Figure 2–12 (a) RC circuit; (b) block diagram representing Equation (2–6); (c) block diagram
representing Equation (2–7); (d) block diagram of the RC circuit.

...................................................................... (2-4)

........................................................................ (2-5)
The Laplace transforms of Equations (2–4) and (2–5), with zero initial condition,
become

............................................................. (2-6)

......................................................................... (2-7)
Equation (2–6) represents a summing operation, and the corresponding diagram is
shown in Figure 2–12(b). Equation (2–7) represents the block as shown in Figure 2–
12(c). Assembling these two elements, we obtain the overall block diagram for the
system as shown in Figure 2–12(d).