Thermodynamics 01

The Concept of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics comes from two Greek words;
Therme - meaning heat
Dynamis - meaning force or power/work
Thermodynamics may be defined as an engineering
science, primarily concerned with heat and work
conversions
Kinds of Thermodynamics Systems
Open Closed Isolated
System System System

Mass
Energy
Properties of
Working
Substance
Temperature, T
- Degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
Zeroth’s Law of Thermodynamics
- states that “two systems which are
equal in temperature with a third system
are equal in temperature with each other”.
Basic Temperature Formula
Freezing point 0 32
C F
Boiling point 100 212

5 9
𝐶 = 𝐹 − 32 𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32
9 5
1. The temperature of a solution is 31 °C.
What is the temperature in °R and in
Reaumur Scale?
547.8 R
24.8 Re
2. Two thermometers, one Celsius and the
other Fahrenheit, are both at the same
temperature, but the reading on the
Fahrenheit thermometer is exactly twice that
on the Celsius thermometer, what is the
temperature?

160 °C
3. Compute the temperature difference if
the inside a furnace is 320 °C and the
outside temperature is – 10 °C?

330 °C
Density (𝜌, 𝑟ℎ𝑜) kg/m 3

- is the mass per unit volume. 𝑚

𝜌=
𝑉
Sp. Volume (𝜈, 𝑛𝑢) 3
m /kg
- is volume per unit mass.
𝑉 1
𝜈= =
𝑚 𝜌
Specific Weight (𝛾, 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎) N/m3

- is the weight per unit volume .

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉
𝑚𝑔 𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
=
𝑉
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
- is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal
volume of a substance taken as a standard
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝐺 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
=
𝛾𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑
4. Supposing two liquids of different densities ρ=1500
kg/m3 and ρ=500 kg/m3 were poured together inside a
100 L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of
liquids used. Also find the weight of the mixture if the
local acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.675 m/s2?

WT = 774 N
35 kg, 45 kg
Law of conservation of mass
- states that mass is indestructible, meaning that mass is a
commodity that can neither be created nor destroyed, with
the exception of nuclear processes where the conversion of
mass into energy is a fundamental principle.
5. Air enters a nozzle steadily at 2.21
3
kg/m and 30 m/s. What is the mass flow
rate through the nozzle if the inlet area
2
of the nozzle is 80 cm ?

0.5304 kg/s
6. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner
between two sections in the same flowline. At
section 1: A1=0.10 m2, 𝒱1=6 m/s, ν1=0.33
3 2
m /kg. At section 2: A2=0.2 m , ρ2=0.27 kg/m . 3

Calculate for the velocity of flow of section 2.

33.67 m/s
Pressure and Pressure Scales
- is the normal force acting on a unit area

𝐹
𝑃= The unit used is Pascal (Pa)
𝐴
2
which is equivalent to 1 N/m .
Atmospheric Pressure (Patm)
- is the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on
any surface it comes in contact with.

Note: barometer is the instrument used to

measure the pressure of the atmosphere.

Therefore the atmospheric pressure is also called

barometric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure (patm)
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 760 mm hg
= 760 torr
= 29.92 in hg
= 1.032 kg/cm2
7. What is the depth in furlong of the
ocean (S.G. = 1.03). If the pressure at
the sea bed is 2032.57 kPag.

1 furlong
8. Convert a vacuum pressure of 110 mm
of mercury into absolute pressure.
Atmospheric pressure is 10.5 m of H2O.

9.005 m H2O
Concepts of
Energy
Energy and Energy Forms
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
• 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑃𝐸) • 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 (𝑄)
• 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝐾𝐸) • 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 (𝑊)
• 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈)
Heat (Q)
- is energy in transit, it is the energy transferred between a
system and its surroundings due to temperature difference
between them.
Sign convention for heat

(+) → if heat is received/added by the system

(-) → if heat is rejected by the system

 Heat (Q)
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝑄𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝑄𝐿
- Heat that causes a - Heat that causes a
change in temperature of change in phase with the
a substance. temperature remaining
constant.

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑚𝐿
Work, W
- is defined as the product of a displacement and the
component of the force in the direction of displacement.
2
𝑊 = න 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1
Sign convention for work
(+) → work done by a system on the surroundings

(-) → work done on the system by the surrounding

First Law of Thermodynamics
- The principle of conservation of energy states that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed.

𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡

Non-flow Energy Equation

→ For closed system
Steady-flow Energy Equation
→ For open system
9. If a block of copper weighing 0.50 lb is
dropped from a height of 100 ft. into the tank,
what is the change in internal energy of the
water?
A.0.08575 BTU
B. 0.0645 BTU
C. 0.09543 BTU
D.0.0465 BTU
Power (𝑷)
- is used to determine the rate at which energy is converted

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Power = Joule/seconds = watts

10. If a 1/3 horsepower pump runs
for 20 minutes, what is the energy
used?
A.0.06 ergs
B.0.30 MJ
C. 0.25 kW
D.0.11 kW . h
11. A machine is capable of accelerating a 1 kg
2
mass at 1 m/s for 1 minute. The machine runs
at 60 rpm. What is the power output of the
machine?
A.1 erg
B.1 J
C.1 cal
D.1 W
12. What is the power required to
transfer 97,000 coulombs of charge
through a potential rise of 50 volts in one
hour?
A.0.55 kW
B. 0.95 kW
C. 1.3 kW
D.2.8 kW
13. A current of 7 amperes passes
through a 12 ohm resistor. What is the
power dissipated in the resistor?
A.84 W
B.0.79 hp
C.0.59 hp
D.7.5 hp
14. If the average energy in a nuclear
reaction is 200 MeV/fission, what is the
power output of a reactor if there are
19
2.34 x 10 fissions per second?
A.550 W
B. 30 MW
C. 120 kW
D.750 MW
General Formula:
Non-flow Energy Equation
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛𝑓

Steady-flow Energy Equation

𝑄 = ∆𝐻 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + 𝑊𝑠𝑓
15. During a “non-flow” process, the internal energy of
a fluid changes fro an initial value of 500 Btu/lb to a
final value of 440 Btu/lb. If 30 000 ft – lb/lb of work is
performed by the fluid, compute the quantity of heat in
Btu/lb added to or removed from the fluid during the
process?
A.– 21.5 Btu/lb
B. 35.5 Btu/lb
C. – 104.5 Btu/lb
D.24.5 Btu/lb
16. When steam expands through a nozzle from a
pressure of 300 psia to a final pressure of 5 psia and
initial and final enthalpy values are 1187 Btu/lb and
1041 Btu/lb, respectively, calculate the final velocity in
ft/s. Neglect inlet velocity, gravitational effects, and heat
loss through the casing.
A. 2710 fps
B. 3102 fps
C. 2192 fps
D. 3124 fps
17. How much power is there in the kinetic
energy of the atmosphere (density =
3)
1.217 kg/m at 56 kph wind velocity?
Consider the section that passes through a 3m
diameter circular area to the velocity.

16.19 kW
18. Calculate the quantity of heat to
be transferred to 2.25 kg of iron to raise
its temperature from 20 ℃ to 240 ℃
taking the specific heat of the iron as
0.46 kJ/kg-K.

227.7 kJ
19. Determine the average CP value in kJ/kg-K
of a gas if 522 kJ of heat is necessary to raise
the temperature from 300 K to 800 K making
the pressure constant.

1.044 kJ/kg - K
20. A steam turbine receives 1630 kg of steam
per hour at 340 km/s velocity and 3550 kJ/kg
enthalpy. The steam leaves at 259 m/s and
3020 kJ/kg. Which of the following most
nearly equals the power output?

250.96 kW
Concepts of Ideal
Gas
Equation of State
- gives a definite relation between the properties of a pure
substance.

𝑓 𝑚, 𝑉, 𝑃, 𝑇 = 0
The term “ state” indicates an equilibrium state, that is the
pressure and temperature are the same at all points of the
system.
Boyle’s Law. Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691)
- “If the temperature of a fixed quantity of a gas is held
constant during a change of state, the volume varies
inversely with the absolute pressure.”

With T = C, isothermal process:

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Charles’ Law. Jacques Charles (1746 – 1823)
“If the pressure is held constant, the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.”

With P = C, isobaric process:

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Charles’ Law. Jacques Charles (1746 – 1823)
Also, “if the volume is held constant the pressure of a gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.”

With V = C, isometric process:

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Equation of State of an Ideal gas (Ideal Gas Law)
The equation of state of an ideal gas is obtained by
combining both Boyle’s and Charles' Law.

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

(Combined Gas Law)

Equation of State of an Ideal gas (Ideal Gas Law)
The equation of state of an ideal gas is obtained by
combining both Boyle’s and Charles' Law.

𝑃1 𝜈1 𝑃2 𝜈2 ∴ 𝑃𝜈 = 𝑅𝑇
= =𝑅
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
(Ideal Gas Law)
Relation of cp , cv , k and R for an Ideal Gas

𝑐𝑃
𝑘= 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑃 − 𝑐𝑣
𝑐𝑣

𝑅 𝑘𝑅
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐𝑃 =
𝑘−1 𝑘−1
21. A 3.0 lbm of air are contained at 25
psia and 100 °F. Given that, what is the
volume of the container?
A.10.7 ft3
B.15 ft3

C.14.7 ft3

D.24.9 ft3
22. Find the change in internal energy of
5 lbm of oxygen gas when the
temperature changes from 100 °F to 120
°F. cv = 0.157 BTU/lbm – R.
A.14.7 BTU
B.16.8 BTU
C.15.7 BTU
D.147 BTU
23. What mass of nitrogen is contained in
3
a 57 m tank if the pressure and
temperature are 1 atm and 21 ℃
respectively?

66.157 kg
24. A 0.71 m3 tank contains 4.5 kg of an
ideal gas. The gas has a molecular weight
of 44 and is at 21 ℃. What is the
pressure of the gas?

352.11 kPa
25. A volume of 450 cm3 of air is
measured at a pressure of 740 mmHg
absolute and a temperature of 20 ℃.
3
What is the volume in cm at 760 mmHg
absolute and 0 ℃?

408.25 cm3
26. A closed vessel contains air at a
2
pressure of 160 kN/m gauge and
temperature of 30 ℃. The air is heated at
a constant volume to 60 ℃ with the
atmospheric pressure of 759 mmHg.
What is the final gauge pressure?
185.86 kPag
27. An air bubble rises from the bottom of a well
where the temperature is 25 ℃, to the surface
where the temperature is 27 ℃. Find the percent
increase in the volume of the bubble if the depth
of the well is 5 m. Atmospheric pressure is 101,528
Pa.
%Inc. V = 49.3 %
Thermodynamics 01