COUNTING

statistical experiment – any process that generates outcomes

sample point – an outcome of the statistical experiment

sample space – denoted by S, the set of all the sample points of the statistical experiment

event – any subset of the sample space of the statistical experiment

Problem: How many points are there in the sample space of a statistical experiment?
How many points are there in an event?

To count the number of outcomes of a statistical experiment, one can use the following:
1. Enumeration Method – list all the outcomes of the experiment, then count them.

2. Fundamental Principle of counting

If the statistical experiment can be thought of as consisting of a sequence of operations O 1, O2, …, Ok, and if these operations can be done in n1, n2, …, nk ways
respectively, then the number of outcomes in the experiment is given by
n1 × n2 × … × nk

Examples: Solve the following problems using either

a. Enumeration method
b. Fundamental principle of counting

1. No. of ways of tossing 3 coins

S = {TTT, TTH, THT, HTT, HHH, THH, HTH, HHT}
or
2 × 2 × 2 =8
st nd rd
Toss 1 coin Toss 2 coin Toss 3 coin

2. No. of ways of rolling 2 dice

S = {(1,1), (1,2), …, (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), …, (2,6), …, (6,1), (6,2), …, (6,6)}
or
6 × 6 = 36
st nd
Roll 1 die Roll 2 die

NOTE: The enumeration method is not used if the experiment involves a lot of operations and/or the
number of outcomes per operation is big. In such cases, use the Fundamental Principle of Counting.

3. No. of ways of entering and leaving a building if there are 5 doors in the building, which can be used to
enter and exit the building without restriction
5 × 5 = 25
Enter Exit

4. No. of ways of entering and leaving a building if there are 5 doors in the building, which can be used to
enter and exit the building in such a way that the exit door is different from the entrance door
5 × 4 = 20
Enter Exit

5. No. of ways of forming a 3 digit number using the digits 1, 2 and 3 if

a. digits are allowed to repeat
3 × 3 × 3 = 27
Hundreds Tens Ones

b. no repetition of digits is allowed

3 × 2 × 1 = 6
Hundreds Tens Ones

6. No. of ways of arranging 3 men and 4 women in a row

a. without restriction
 b. men and the women alternate
c. men are together and the women are together
a. without restriction
7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5,040
1st seat 2nd seat 3rd seat 4th seat 5th seat 6th seat 7th seat

b. men and the women alternate

4 3 3 2 2 1 1 = 144
st th
1 seat 2nd seat 3rd seat 4th seat 5th seat 6th seat 7 seat
W M W M W M W

c. men are together and the women are together

MEN THEN WOMEN WOMEN THEN MEN
( 3 × 2 × 1 × 4 × 3 × 2× 1 ) + ( 4 × 3 × 2× 1 × 3 × 2 × 1 ) = 288
no. of ways no. of ways no of ways no of ways
of arranging of arranging of arranging of arranging
the men the women the women the men
Exercises:
1. In how many ways can a car plate be manufactured (3 letters, 3 digits)
a. without restriction?
b. characters do not repeat?
c. letters are all vowels
i. with repetition
ii. without repetition
d. starts with an X and ends with an 8.
i. with repetition
ii. without repetition

2. How many 3 digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

a. without restriction?
b. digits don’t repeat?
c. number is even
i. with repetition
ii. without repetition
d. number is greater than 300.
i. with repetition
ii. without repetition

SOLUTION:
1. Operations: ____ ____ ____ ____ _____ _____
Letters Digits

26 26 26 10 10 10 = 17,576,000
a. ____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____
Letters Digits

26 25 24 10 9 8 = 11,232,000
b. ____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____
Letters Digits

5 5 5 10 10 10 = 125,000
c. i) ____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____
Letters Digits

5 4 3 10 9 8 = 43,200
c. ii) ____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____
 Letters Digits

1 26 26 10 10 1 = 67,600
d. i)____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____

Letters Digits
1 25 24 9 8 1 = 43,200
d. ii)____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____
Letters Digits

3. How many 3 digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
a. without restriction?
b. Digits don’t repeat?
c. Number is even
i. with repetition
ii. without repetition
d. number is greater than 300.
i. with repetition
ii. without repetition

OPERATIONS: ____ ____ ____

H T O
5 5 5 = 125
i. ____ ____ ____
H T O

5 4 3 = 60
ii. ____ ____ ____
H T O

Even w/ rep
2 5 5 = 50
i. ____ ____ ____
O H T
{2,4}
Even w/o rep
2 4 3 = 24
ii. ____ ____ ____
O H T

> 300, with rep

3 5 5 = 75
i. ____ ____ ____
H T O
{3,4,5}

> 300, without rep

3 4 3 = 36
ii. ____ ____ ____
H T O
{3,4,5}
VENN DIAGRAMS AND COUNTING

1. One hundred fifty households were surveyed on their detergent soap preference and it was found that 80 use both detergent bar and detergent powder, 100 use powder and
120 use bar. How many
 a. Use only powder?
b. do not use bar?
c. Use neither bar nor powder? Bar Powder
a.
b.
20
30
40 80 20
c. 10 10

2. In a survey of 500 students, the following information was gathered: 200 watch Dyesebel (D), 180 watch Legal Wife (L), 150 watch Sana Bukas Pa Ang Kahapon (S), 100
watch D and L, 80 watch D and S and 70 watch L and S, and 50 watch all three TV shows. Find the number of students who
a. watch D and L but not S
b. watch D but not S
c. watch D only
d. do not watch L =
e. do not watch D nor L
f. watch L and S only
g. watch exactly one show
h. watch exactly two shows
i. does not watch any of the three shows
j. watch D or L
k. watch at least one of the three shows

THE FACTORIAL
Def. n! = read as the “factorial of n”
= 1 if n = 0
= n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)321, n > 0

Examples:
0! = 1 6! = 654321=720
1! = 1
4! = 4321=24

Exercises:
Find the value of the following:
1. 7!
8!
2.
5!
10!
3.
8! 2!

PERMUTATION

Given n distinct objects, the number of ways these objects can be arranged taken all at the same time is given by
P  n, n   n!
This is read as “the permutation of n objects taken all at the same time”.

Given n objects, the number of ways these objects can be arranged taken only r at a time, with r < n, is given by
n!
P ( n, r ) 
 n  r !
This is read as “the permutation of n objects taken only r at a same time”.

NOTE: Permutation is used in solving a counting problem if its involves arranging some or all at the same time of a given set of distinct objects.

Examples:
1. In how many ways can a student arrange his 5 books on a shelf?
P (5,5) = 5! = 120

2. How many possible schedules can a student have if she is to enroll in 6 subjects?
P (6,6) = 6! = 720

3. In how many ways can 4 persons be seated in a sofa with only 3 seats?
P (4,3) = 4! / (4-3)! = 24

4. In how many ways can 10 pages be arranged in a folder if the folder can only accommodate 6 pages at a time?
P(10,6) = 10! / (10-6)! = 151, 200

Special Permutations:
1. Circular Permutation
Given n distinct objects, the number of ways of arranging these objects around a circle is (n-1)!

2. Permutation Involving Non-Distinct Objects

Given n objects such that n1 of these are alike, n2 of these are alike, …, and nk of these are alike, with n1 + n2 + … + nk = n, then the number of distinct permutations of
these n objects taken all at the same time is equal to
 n!
n1!n2 !...  nk !
Examples:
1. Enumerate the possible seating arrangement of 4 persons around a circular table.

2. In how many ways can 6 persons be arranged around a circle?

3. In how many ways can 4 identical Math books, 3 identical Science books and 5 identical Computer Science books be arranged in a row?

4. How many possible arrangements are there of the letters in the word “MISSISSIPPI”?

COMBINATION

A combination is a selection from a group of n distinct objects. The selection can involve either all the n objects or only a few objects at a time. Note that the order in
which the objects are selected is not important.

Ex. In how many ways can one select the winning number in the 6/42 lotto game?
Ex. In how many ways can a committee of 4 persons be formed from a group of 4 men and 6 women?
Ex. In how many ways can one get a spade flush (5 spade cards) from a deal of 5 cards from a regular deck of cards?

Given n objects, the number of selections

a. if all n objects are taken at a time is
nCn  1
b. if only r objects are taken at a time, with r < n
n!
nCr 
r! n  r !
c. if only 1 object is to be selected at a time
nC1  n
Ex. In how many ways can one select the winning number in the 6/42 lotto game?
42! 42!
42C 6    5,245,786
6! 42  6 ! 6!36!
Ex. In how many ways can one select the winning number in the 6/45 lotto game?
45! 45!
45C 6    8,145,060
6! 45  6 ! 6!39!
Ex. In how many ways can a committee of 4 persons be formed from a group of 4 men and 6 women?
Order in which the committee members is not important, hence this is a combination problem.
10! 10!
10C 4    210
4!10  4 ! 4!6!
Ex. In how many ways can one get a spade flush (5 spade cards) from a deal of 5 cards given a regular deck of cards?
regular deck of cards = 52 cards, 4 suits, 13 cards per suit
13! 13!
13C 5    1287
5!13  5! 5!8!
Ex. In how many ways can one get a flush (5 cards of the same suit), any suit, from a deal of 5 cards given a regular deck of cards?
Getting a flush of any suit = get a suit and get a flush for that suit
4! 13!
= 4C1  13C 5    4  1287  5148
1! 4  1! 5!13  5!
Ex. In how many ways can one get a 5 face cards (J, Q or K) from a deal of 5 cards given a regular deck of cards?
12! 12!
12C 5    792
5!12  5! 5!7!
Ex. In how many ways can one get a fullhouse combination consisting of 3 K’s and 2 Q’s from a deal of 5 cards given a regular deck of cards?
No of combinations of 3 K’s and 2Q’s
= no of ways of getting 3 K’s × no. of ways of getting 2 Q’s
4! 4!
= 4C 3  4C 2    4  6  24
3! 4  3! 2! 4  2 !

Seatwork:
n!
nCr 
r! n  r !
Exercises:
In how many ways can the following be done?
1. Form a committee of 5 from 6 men and 4 women
a. without restriction on the membership
b. such that 3 men and 2 women are in the committee
c. a particular man is automatically a member of the committee
d. all women are to be part of the committee

2. A lot of 20 working and 5 defective computers were delivered. In how many ways can one make a selection of 4 computers such that
a. all computers are working
b. all computers are defective
c. two computers are working and two are defective

3. A drawer has 5 identical black socks and 7 identical white socks. In how many ways can one get a pair of identical socks (that is, same color socks)?

4. A drawer has 5 identical black socks and 7 identical white socks. In how many ways can one get a pair of different colored socks?

Answers:
1. Form a committee of 5 from 6 men and 4 women
a. without restriction on the membership
10C 5  252
b. such that 3 men and 2 women are in the committee
6C 3  4C 2  120
c. a particular man is automatically a member of the committee
1C1  9C 4  126
d. all women are to be part of the committee
4C 4  6C1  6
2. A lot of 20 working and 5 defective computers were delivered. In how many ways can one make a selection of 4 computers such that
a. all computers are working
20C 4  4,845
b. all computers are defective
5C 4  5
c. two computers are working and two are defective
20C 2  5C 2  1900
3. A drawer has 5 identical black socks and 7 identical white socks. In how many ways can one get a pair of identical socks (that is, same color socks)?
Solution:
 5C2 × 7C2 (selects 2 black socks and 2 white socks)
Number of ways of getting either both black or both white socks
= 5C2 + 7C2 = 31.

4. A drawer has 5 identical black socks and 7 identical white socks. In how many ways can one get a pair of different colored socks?
No of ways of selecting 2 socks – no of ways of selecting 2 socks with same color
12C2 – (5C2 + 7C2) = 66 – 31 = 35.

OR
No of ways of selecting 1 black sock × No of ways of selecting 1 white sock
= 5C1 × 7C1 = 5 × 7 = 35

PROBABILITY

The probability of an event is a number that measures the likelihood or chances of the occurrence of that event.

P(E) = probability of event E

number of sample points favorable to the occurrence of E

number of sample points in the sample space
Properties of the probability of an event:
1. 0  P E   1
2. If E’ is the complementary event of E (consisting of sample points NOT favorable to the occurrence of event E), then
P  E '  1  P  E 
NOTE: E  E’ = S

Ex 1. The probability of getting the correct answer in a multiple choice type of problem with 5 choices is 1/5.

Ex 2. Find the probability of getting 2 blue balls from a box containing 4 blue and 3 red balls.
n(S) = n(select 2 balls) = 7C2 = 21
n(E) = n(getting 2 blue balls) = 4C2 = 6
Therefore, P(E) = 6/21 = 2/7.

Ex 3. Find the probability of getting 1 blue and 1 red from a box containing 4 blue and 3 red balls.
n(S) = n(select 2 balls) = 7C2 = 21
n(E) = n(getting 1 blue and 1 red) = 4C1 × 3C1 = 4 × 3 = 12
Therefore, P(E) = 12/21 = 4/7.
Ex 4. Find the probability of getting 2 balls with the same color from a box containing 4 blue and 3 red balls.
n(S) = n(select 2 balls) = 7C2 = 21
n(E) = n(getting either 2 blue or 2 red) = 4C2 + 3C2 = 6 + 3 = 9
Therefore, P(E) = 9/21 = 3/7.

Ex 5. Find the probability of getting 2 balls with different colors from a box containing 4 blue and 3 red balls.
Solution 1: see example 3.
Solution 2: Treat this event as the complement of the event in example 4.
P  E '  1  P  E 
Therefore,
P(different colors) = 1 – P(same colors) = 1 – 3/7 = 4/7.

Seatwork:
Find the probability of the following events:
1. getting a sum of 7 when 2 dice are rolled
2. getting more heads than tails in a toss of 3 coins
3. getting five face cards from a regular deck of cards
4. getting five non-face cards from a regular deck of cards
5. getting the correct PIN of an ATM if it is known that the PIN consists of 4 digits.
6. getting a fullhouse consisting of 3 King and 2 Queen cards from a regular deck of cards
7. getting a least one defective computer when one must make a random selection of 3 computers from 10 working and 5 defective computers.
8. the men are together and the women are together when 3 men and 4 women are seated in a row.
9. the men and the women are seated alternately when 3 men and 4 women are seated in a row.
10. getting an odd 3 digit number when a three digit number is formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

SOLUTION:
1. getting a sum of 7 when 2 dice are rolled
n(S) = n(roll 2 dice) = 6 × 6 = 36
n(E) = n(get a sum of 7) = 6
Therefore, P(E) = 6/36 = 1/6.

2. getting more heads than tails in a toss of 3 coins

n(S) = n(tossing 3 coins) = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
n(E) = n(heads > tails) = 4
Therefore, P(E) = 4/8 = 1/2.

3. getting five face cards when one is dealt with 5 cards (called a hand) from a regular deck of cards
n(S) = n(getting a hand) = 52C5 = 2,598,960
n(E) = n(getting 5 face cards) = 12C5 = 792
Therefore, P(E) = 792/2,598,960

4. getting five non-face cards from a regular deck of cards

n(S) = n(getting a hand) = 52C5 = 2,598,960
n(E) = n(5 non-face cards) = 40C5 = 658,008
Therefore, P(E) = 658,008/2,598,960

Note: The complement of (5 face cards) is not (5 non-face cards). Hence the two events in examples 3 and 4 are not complementary. The complement of (5 face cards) is
(at least one of the 5 cards is a non-face card).

5. getting the correct PIN of an ATM card if it is known that the PIN consists of 4 digits.
n(S) = n(getting a 4 digit combination for the PIN) = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10,000
n(E) = n(getting the correct combination) = 1
P(E) = 1/10,000 = 0.0001

6. getting a fullhouse consisting of 3 King and 2 Queen cards from a regular deck of cards
n(S) = n(getting a hand) = 52C5 = 2,598,960
n(E) = n(get 3K and 2Q) = 4C3 × 4C2 = 24
P(E) = 24/2,598,960

7. getting at least one defective computer when one must make a random selection of 3 computers from 10 working and 5 defective computers.

n(S) = getting 3 computers from 15 computers = 15C3 = 455

at least one defective = exactly one is defective or exactly 2 are defective or exactly 3 are defective
P(at least one defective) = P(exactly one defective) + P(exactly 2 defective) +
P(exactly 3 defective)

P(exactly one defective) = P(2 working and 1 defective) = (10C2 × 5C1)/15C3

= 225/455
P(exactly 2 defective) = P(1 working and 2 defective) = (10C1 × 5C2)/15C3
= 100/455
P(exactly 3 defective) = 5C3/15C3 = 10/455

Therefore,
P(at least one defective) = P(exactly one defective) + P(exactly 2 defective) +
P(exactly 3 defective) = 225/455 + 100/455 + 10/455 = 335/455.

8. the men are together and the women are together when 3 men and 4 women are seated in a row.
n(S) = n(arranging 3M and 4W in a row) = 7P7 = 7! = 5040
n(E) = n(men are together and women are together) = 3P3 × 4P4 × 2 = 288
 P(E) = 288/5040
9.
10. the men and the women are seated alternately when 3 men and 4 women are seated in a row.
n(S) = n(arranging 3M and 4W in a row) = 7P7 = 7! = 5040
n(E) = n(men and women alternate) = 3P3 × 4P4 = 144
P(E) = 144/5040

11. getting an odd 3 digit number when a three digit number is formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.
n(S) = n(get a 3 digit number from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (w/o restriction)) 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
n(E) = n(get an odd 3 digit number) = 5 × 5 × 3 = 75
H T O
P(E) = 75/125