SOCIOLOGY – II

THE INDIAN HINDU SOCIETY

 
 An approach towards understanding ancient Indian society, inherently delves into a
discussion on understanding Hindu society.
 The basic characteristics of a Hindu society are:
a. There is a hierarchy in society. Social structure has a hierarchical nature.
Earlier it was open ended but when caste system emerged, it became a closed concept
as it emphasised on birth in a particular caste to achieve that status.;
b. Ascribed statuses are given increased importance rather than achieved status.
c. Social mobility is very low in such a society, as it is based on essentially a
closed concept [Law also recognizes this, as reservation cannot be acquired by
marrying into an SC family];
 There are certain concepts or dimensions in Hinduism or Hindu Ethics:
a. Varna System: Sociological system.
Occupational mobility was present in this context, if the attributes of a different
occupation were present. Every personality constitutes Satva, Raj [Activity] and Tam
[Lethargic]. One of these attributes dominates, and according to which attribute this
is, one engages in occupation.
Swabhav: Your personality traits.
Swadharam: Your duties according to your personality traits.
When the Varna system shifted to the caste system, this became more rigid. There
were two theories as to this rigidity.
Occupational Theory: This is one of the most important theories. One community
which had one occupation, carried on the same for generations. The system therefore,
became very rigid.
Geographical Theory: The names were given to community according to their
geographical location. Accordingly, the Varna system became the more rigid caste
system.
b. The Ashram System: Psychological system.
Considering that human life is 100 years it is divided into stages. It is like where do
you put your effort during that stage, a- shram, shram means effort.
1. Bhrahamcharya- maintain your celibacy; get intellectual knowledge.
2. Ghrahasthashram- the most difficult ashram, you have to manage all the affairs
and have to do most of the work.
3. Vanprastha- van- forest. You have done your family duty like procreation and
now you have to serve the society living in a forest doing social work.
4. Sanyasashram- self-realization. You are not different you are the parmatma
himself. 2 kinds of ashram- “jeevan mukta”- you get realization while you are
alive and “videha mukta”- you die and meet the god.
c. The Purushartha: This delves into what the ultimate aim of life is, and how to attain
it. There are 2 schools of thought, one Trivark, which says that moksha is the
ultimate aim of life and other 3 are the means to achieve moksha
a. Gyaankand;
b. Karamkand;
a. Bhaktikand;
The another school divided materialistic and spiritualistic in first artha is the
means to achieve kama and in the other karma is the means to achieve moksha.
 Indian approach concentrates more on a spiritual life, and looks at how the
future lives have to be enriched. Fulfilment of one's duty puts one in a better
position and gives a person better karma.
These duties are a function of one's social position and status, and one's duty
changes according to circumstance. Roles are prescribed according to status.
b. Karma: The actions that have been performed. The Gita tells us that the actions have
to be focused on, rather than the consequences of the actions so done. This states that
the action has to be looked at with equal importance, as compared to the
consequences. These kinds of actions result in karmic accumulation. There is an
ultimate reality, who passes righteous judgment and gives his verdict based on one's
actions. This is opposed to the materialistic approach which suggests a focus on the
present life.
1. Dharma- the things you are supposed to do- the right way of living, and
human behaviour considered necessary for maintaining the order of things in
the world.
2. Artha – the money and the resources you have- material support to live life
with ease.
3. Kama- it relates to pleasure which includes sensuality, art, music, beauty,
love, music, intimacy, affection, etc.
4. Moksha – your ultimate goal- freedom from the cycle of death and birth
c. Charvak: It is a representation of materialism. It shows a focus on the acquisition of
wealth in the present life. There was a further classification of these charvaks into
two: Crude Charvaks and Refined Charvaks.
The Crude Charvak philosophy focuses on materials that you have acquired wealth,
you need wealth for enjoyment and you have the right to enjoy the same.
d. Dharma:
 The Rina: There are three kinds of rina (payback):
a. Pitrarina: This is the debt that has to be paid back to family, by procreation.
The ethos was that once a son was born, this rina was paid.
a. Devarina: The realization has to be that we are a part of ultimate reality. God is
a personified form of this ultimate reality, which is an abstract concept. This is
an interpretation given in the Vedic philosophy.
i. Rishirina: When knowledge is attained from society, this knowledge has to be
offered back by performing a service in society. The knowledge attained in the
Bhramacharyashram has to be paid back to the society, by giving back to
society in the form of teachings.
 
HINDUISM: A RELIGION OR A WAY OF LIFE?
 A very popular theory is that Hindus are those who lived near the river Sindh.
 Vedic dharam, Sanathan dharam are some other names for the Hindu religion.
 Hinduism has no single origin, no single religious text, thereby leading to the conclusion that
Hinduism is not just a religion, but a way of life.
 
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HINDUISM AS A RELIGION
 
 Hinduism: is it an ancient religion?
 
HINDUISM AS A WAY OF LIFE
 
 Hinduism is considered a way of life because of two important points of distinction, as
compared to other religions:
 a. The lack of a singular founder [Hinduism delves into different sects, and there is no
singular source of origin];
b. The lack of a single scripture [Unlike Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Jainism, there is
no single scripture text];
 In Sastri Yagnapurushadji and Ors. vs. Muldas Brudardas Vaishya (1966)(Supreme
Court decision):
In this decision, it was discussed as to whether Hindu, Hinduism and Hindutva is a religion or
not. The context was that Hinduism was to be used in the context of election. This described
Hinduism as a way of life because:
a. They do not have one single authority;
b. They do not support any dogma;
c. They do not believe in one philosophical concept or teaching;
d. There are multiple sets of rituals that can be followed in Hinduism [This is because
small cults of Hindus were united when the Muslims invaded India, and when the
Buddhists sought the creation of a new religion of Buddhism. The Buddhists and
Muslims had a formalization which was absent in the Hindu religion, and the unification
of these cults shaped Hinduism as its distinct identity]
e. There are three important divisions in Hinduism: Vaishnavism, Shivism, Shakti-ism
who are each distinct in the Gods they worship and the manner in which this worship is
done;
 
Further points in favour of Hinduism being a way of life, which are independent of comparison
to other religions:

a. The Concept of 'Ishta-Devta': Hinduism is divided in such a way that each Gotra and
community have their own God whom they choose to worship. It allows for the freedom
to worship, and every family chooses to worship their own God.
b. The Concept of Nature Worship: Nature worship is a distinctive feature of Hinduism,
which chooses to worship all the gifts of nature.
c. The Concept of Concrete and Abstract God: This comes from the Vedic philosophy.
This means that there is one single reality in the universe, and there is no applicable
attribute for the same. Human nature cannot understand the attributes of this ultimate
reality. We in turn, attempt to define this reality in the form of our manifestations of God.
In order to understand abstract realities, they are given concrete forms in the form of
manifestations of God. Concepts of sahgun and nirgun. The concept is explained using
the example of the moon, and its reflection. The moon in itself is the abstract God, and its
manifestation in the form of reflections, is the concrete God.
d. The Karma, Dharma Philosophy: This is unique to Hinduism. These are basic schools of
thought talking about the ultimate aim of life.
e. Aastik: Those who have faith in the beliefs of the Vedas. There are six schools of thought
under Aastik school.
Naastik: Those who do not have faith in the teaching of the Vedas. Charvaks, Jains and
Buddhists are described as naastik. They do not have faith in God as a creator, destroyer.
They believe in the sahgun form of God.
 Concept of Purity and Polluted: One of the major distinctive elements of Hinduism is the
caste system. Hierarchy was presented in every system, however the concept of caste as
an ascribed system of purity which imposes its own restrictions, is unique to Hinduism.
 Hindu ethics: The Varna, Ashram, Karma, Purushartha and Rina system are Hindu
ethics. These are Hindu ethics, and they prescribe methods on how one's life is to be led.
Understanding of the different aspects of life are prescribed by these ethics.
 
  These points are used to justify the claim that Hinduism is a way of life.
 
 While the Representation of Peoples Act, S. 123(3) did not allow for religion to be used as
propaganda in elections, here Hinduism was described as a way of life and they were allowed
to use this.
 In 1995, the discussion as to Hinduism as a way of life came up before the Supreme Court
again, in the same context of the RP Act, 1951.
 Commissioner, Wealth Tax, Madras v. Late R. Shridharan (1976):
Hinduism has so many diverse forms and practices. It is difficult to classify it as a religion.
 Dr. Ramesh Yeshwant Prabhoo vs Shri Prabhakar Kashinath Kunte (1996):
Justice J.S. Verma further reiterated how Hinduism is a way of life rather than merely a
religion.

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN INDIAN THEOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES
BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
How did it emerge and how is it diff from Hinduism? Hindu as a religion was presented as very
complicated in front of common people as it was in Sanskrit language thus it was restricted only to
one section of the society i.e. the brahamins. Thus, brahamins’ supremacy was also one of the major
reason for the development of Buddhism This led to a lot of changes in the hindu society also. The
other two believed in equality by birth whereas Hinduism did not believe in such equality  caste
was determined by birth.
Buddhism has made a twofold impact one on the hindu religion and other on the hindu society.
1. Organizational impact: the organizational structure like the sanghs’ organization influenced
the functioning of maths
2. the caste rigidity was reduced- hindu society had closed caste system. Thus a lot of people
started converting to Buddhism as there was no question of exploitation by the upper class.
Thus the hindus needed to be more flexible else the religion itself will be endangered.
3. Developed as a simple and popular religion- they connected and taught in a simple form.
Like anyone can be god- tirthankar syatem in Jainism
4. Development of a regional language- like pali which was the language of the common
people unlike Sanskrit.
5. Encouragement of education and development of logic and philosophy- nalanda,
vikramshila and taxila encouraged Buddhist teachings.
6. Art and Architecture- they have both the contribution and the impact. Like jain temples
have a very peculiar style of designing.
7. Contact with the Foreign Country- like various Buddhists went to other countries to spread
Buddhism so it impacted the trade and development of the country. So traders brought with
them the basic essence of their culture.
8. Government policy- some of the scholars believe that it has made an impact on policies
especially the panchsheel agreement. So the teaching of the buddha’s is effecting the policy
making of the government as well.
 
CONTACT WITH AND IMPACT OF ISLAM
 
 History tells us that a lot of social evils prevalent in Indian society at present, were a result of
contact with Islam.
 Around the 10th Century AD, contact with Islam had begun. However, in the 15th Century,
the invasion of the Mughals (Babur) started the Islamic contact on a theological standpoint.
  Majority of the contact can however, be attributed specifically to the Akbar period. This is
because the Muslims before Akbar lived in segregated communities. Akbar started a culture of
assimilation and accommodation. However, with respect to Muslims, it was difficult to
reconcile the two cultures.
 Islam believes in Monotheism, while Hindus believe in Polytheism; Islam presents a more
materialistic outlook, while Hindus believe in a more spiritual life; That is why, even today, an
inherent distinction and difference can be seen between Hindus and Muslims.
 
Positive Impacts of Contact with Islam
 
 Development of Urban Cities; They wanted to live as one community in one place, and
thought urban areas were safer for them. Therefore, their culture focused on urban life [e.g.,
Aurangabad, Hyderabad, Allahabad, Secunderabad];
 Art and architecture – Different styles emerged. Domes and Minarets;
 Gardens [Shalimar Bagh, Mughal Gardens, Lodi Gardens, Charbagh, Dilshad];
 Dressing and lifestyle [Anarkalis, lavish lifestyle, appreciation for art];
 Cuisine [Kebabs, Biryani];
 Music and musical instruments [Akbar, Jehangir][The sitar, tabla and sarangi];
 Translation of Sanskrit and Arabic works into Hindi or Urdu;
 Development of Urdu and other vernacular languages;
 Value System: Values such as honesty, absolutist faith in religion, and faith and unity of
community. Some scholars believe that Islam brought a very unique value system in India,
while a contrary belief holds them responsible for having sown the dark seeds of
communalism;
 Emergence of the Bhakti cult [This is the cult who believed in monotheism, and a nirgun
form of God. [Kabir, Namdeo were some of the more proficient propounders of this cult.];
This led to a movement for the reformation of values within the Hindu system.
 Administration systems [Especially during the Akbar regime] [Harmony between different
religions][Court procedure][Administrative policies were refined and given proper shape, and
tax reforms took place in the period, military organization and consolidation (e.g., Rajput
culture)];
 Upper class lifestyle: they were really materialistic and so had a great impact on the lifestyle
of the upper class people.
 Trade Routes
 Opening of the sea route to the Middle-East, after it had been shut down by the Chola
dynasty;
 
Negative Impacts of Contact with Islam
 
 A dominant school of thought believes that when the Muslim invaders came to India, as
opposed to other cultures, is that Muslims did not easily assimilate into the Indian culture.
 The complete cultural difference, led to communalism, whose seeds were sown in this
period.
 Some historians believe that majority of social evils prevalent in India at present, began in
the Muslim period. Polygamy and ill-treatment of women, a practice prevalent in Muslim
society, impacted the Indian culture in how practices in Hindu society became rigid. There
were child marriages, sati, and other practices which were undertaken in order to "save their
women". The notion of women as property belonging to men, resulted in these practices as the
notion became that these women needed to be saved from Muslims and their "cruelty".
 Sati and jauhar increased and became more widespread. The reasoning for this is that the
system among the Hindus in India, the women had to be saved from the Muslim men. Jauhar
 was to save the women from the will of the enemy, after their husband had died in war. It was
promoted as an act of courage, of purity, for the sake of the community, as the dignity of the
woman was associated with the dignity of the community. Therefore, individual identity
merged into community identity and the norms prescribed by the community had to be forcibly
accepted.
 Slavery as a practice developed in India as a result of the contact with the Muslims.
 The rigidity of the caste system increased. This was done to preserve the values of the Hindu
community, who over time, panicked about the existence of the culture and the values that they
had managed to preserve over thousands of years.
 Materialism in Hindu society increased. Whether or not materialism is negative is debatable,
but the argument is that the spiritual society was better. Therefore, materialism was viewed as
having disrupted the basic ethos of Indian civilization. Matter was considered the ultimate
reality, and satisfaction to oneself was considered the prime value and driving force of life.
Spiritualism, is the contrast, to materialism.

WESTERNIZATION OF INDIAN CULTURE

 Westernization is the integration and adoption of Western culture in the context of Indian
culture. There is a very broad domain to this Westernization, and it affects our clothes,
ideologies and the like.
 According to M.N. Srinivasan, westernization means the 150 years of the contact of the
British and its impact on the Indians. Therefore, when understanding how Western countries
influence non-Western countries. The term is coined in context of the social change taking
place in India.
 As per M.N. Srinivasan, Westernization has 2 connotations:
1. "Changes that a non-Western society undergoes as a result of contact with Western
societies" lot of changes happen in the value system and outlook [M.N. Srinivasan,
1962].
2. The second connotation is specific to India. The British made a huge impact, because of
their involvement in the Indian administrative process. Therefore, their influence
impacted social, technological, institutional and ideological (value system) changes.
"Westernization refers to the changes brought in Indian society and culture as a result
of over 150 years of British rule, and these changes, occurring at different levels:
technology, institution, ideology and values" [M.N. Srinivasan].
 The primary reference is to these 150 years of British contact, however Westernization could
be in reference to any Western country and their influence.
 The court system, the principle of rule of law, education system, legal system, economic
system, are examples of changes brought about by the British.
 Railways, postal services, industrialization and machinery, weaponry are examples of
technological institutions.
 Institutions like education were impacted as English was used as a medium, change in the
style of teaching, the teaching philosophy. The concept of formal classroom replaced the
Gurukul system. Similarly, the legal system was introduced to their common law and court
system. Simultaneously, capitalism was introduced. Reciprocal relationships between Jajmaan
and Kaamin, which was a caste-based system of service, where the Jajmaan were higher castes
and Kaamin were lower castes. The upper castes exploited the lower castes. While it was
widespread in India, capitalism eventually led to the decline of this Jajmaani system. Another
reason for the decline is the lower importance of the Caste Panchayats, who were replaced by
 formal courts. Even the bank, accounting system and share market began during the British
period.
 Social Institutions: The joint family system, which was one of the core values of the Indian
system, and which was based on economy and agricultural requirements, was rooted out. Caste
rigidity decreased, new ways of occupation came about, and slowly and gradually, people from
joint families migrated to cities. This shook the joint family system in India. The family system
unique to India changed due to the different schemes introduced by the British. Now, different
security measures were provided by the British which incentivized them to search for more
freedom, apart from those provided by their family. The value system therefore, was on the
decline and individualism and the idea of freedom, were introduced.
 Values and Ideology: The two pillars of the Indian system, the caste system and the family
system, were changed drastically. They reduced caste rigidity, made untouchability an offence,
in order to improve the older systems. Values like rationality, secularism were some other
values introduced by the British. Values like equality, justice, Human rights. Then we tried to
rebuild our own society based on these values. Monarchy and zamindari system collapsed as a
result. Like the secular ideology emerged.
 A complete process of change in thinking on the basis of a change in values is a change in
ideology. Political values were restructured and re-thought, and the British brought the values
of freedom, equality, justice and conscience, which internally impacted the system
intrinsically. Liberalism as an ideology, developed during the British period. Democracy for
instance, is an ideology and a value. Liberalism was also introduced in the British period.
 
OTHER IMPACTS
 
1. Lifestyle Changes: Club culture, for instance, started with the British. The new English
music, the clothing forms like jeans or shirts, coats. Starting from dressing habits, to food
habits (use of spoons, forks etc.) are also impacted by the British. Social change happened at
three points:
Lower castes now imitated the upper castes. Majority of the upper caste however, also
belonged to the upper class. This lower caste behaviour was done in order to achieve social
approval. Upper caste, and upper middle class, were influenced by the British and Western
culture. Therefore, the Westerners impacted the social structure. The professional upper
middle-class were deeply impacted, and this included the government officials. Due to the
influence of Westernization, food and alcohol, birthday and New Year Celebrations, Christmas
celebrations were introduced in the British period.
2. Society changes and Rise of the professional middle class: Categorization of society took
place in the British society, and the middle-class and lower class division widened. The class
of professionals developed. The middle professional group rose during the British period.
Changes in caste took place, at the value and ideology level. While there was no structural
change in caste structure itself, the standard of living of this middle professional class rose.
The professionals were trained in English, to prepare a force to work for them and to obey their
laws.
3. Change in the status of women: Social legislations, which had attacked women directly,
were done away with. The decline that took place in the status of women were reversed by
progressive legislations prohibiting child marriage, changing the Hindu Marriage Act, Special
Marriage Act. This laid the groundwork for the change in status of women. Education of
women, changed a lot in the status of women. Reformers like Savitribai Phule started schools
for women. The reality is however, that a majority of women are still denied equal status as
compared to men.
 4. A Socialist Model was replaced by Capitalism: The feudal structure long prevalent in
Indian society was replaced by a capitalist model. Similarly, a theocratically divided model
was replaced by secularism.
5. Changes in Political Structure: we started proceeding towards democracy
6. Inspiration to social reformers: Inspirations to the Freedom Movement and social
reformists, according to some, inspired India to wake up and realize values like freedom and
liberty. A consolidated shape was given to our freedom struggle movement. The British
initiated and kick-started the freedom movement according to these thinkers. According to
them, once the British felt that social reforms could not be introduced without changing social
structures and practices, they laid the groundwork and introduced social legislations.
 
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
 
1. Attack on our own culture
2. Attack on identity
3. The 'Divide and Rule' Policy (Marginalization): The Divide and Rule policy marginalized
and divided the unity of the Indians. They particularly marginalized the Muslims, and in
general, they inspired hatred towards Muslims (Islamophobia). They tried to exclude certain
people from society. The Indian society was changed negatively, and certain tribal populations
were criminalized. Several forest policies which were brought in by the British were still
continued. At present, there has been assimilation of these tribes and people in the Hindu
system. However, the negative aspect of this is that they ended up adopting the caste system.
4. Joint Family System: The joint family system, one of the main pillars of the Indian society,
has now diminished. While scholars argue as to the positive/negative aspect of this change,
stating that perhaps it has been replaced by a more functionalization.
5. Materialistic Lifestyle
6. Consumption of meat and alcohol
7. Religious Conversions