Mechanical Unit Operations

Notes-2
Mechanical Micro Processes in Fluid:
- In many problems, the effect of fluid on the solid is of interest
 The fluid may be rest and solid moving through it.
 The solid may be rest and the fluid flowing past it.
 Or both may be moving.
- It is generally immaterial which phase, solid or fluid is assumed to be rest, and it is
the relative velocity between the two that is important.
- ‘Drag’ The force in the direction of flow exerted by the fluid on the solid is called’
drag’
- By Newton’s third law of motion, an equal and opposite net force is exerted by the
body on the fluid.
- When the wall of the body is parallel with the direction of flow the only drag is the
wall shear Tw.
- More generally, the wall of an immersed body makes an angle with the direction of
flow. Then the component of wall shear in the direction of flow contributes drag.
- Also, the fluid pressure, which act in a direction normal flow, and this component
also contributes to the drag.
- The total drag on an element of area is the sum of the two components as illustrated
below.

-
- The pressure and shear forces acting on an element of area dA inclined to an angle is
shown.
- The drag from wall shear is Tw .sin 𝛼 .dA, and that from pressure is pressure is p.cos 𝛼
dA.
- The total drag on the body is the sum of the integrals of these quantities. Each evaluated
over the entire surface of the body in contact with the fluid.
- The total integrated drag from wall shear is called ‘ wall drag’ and the total integrated
drag from pressure is called ‘ form drag’
- The phenomena causing both wall and form drag in actual fluids are complicated and in
general the drag cannot be predicted and they are most easily determined by experiment.

DRAG COEFICIENTS

- In treating fluid through conduits, a friction factor f, determined as the ratio of the shear
stress to the product of velocity head and density was useful.
- An analogous factor, called a ‘drag coefficient’ is used for immersed solids.
- Consider a smooth sphere immersed in a flowing fluid as depicted below.

-
- For a sphere projected area = (π/4)Dp2 . If ‘FD’ is the total drag,the average drag per unit
projected area = FD/AP .
- Just as ‘f ‘= τw/( ρ.uo2/2g ) , the drag coefficient ‘CD ‘ is defined

CD = (FD/AP) /( ρ.uo2/2g ) --------- 1

- For particles having shapes other than spherical, it is necessary to specify the size and
geometrical form of the body and its orientation with respect to the direction of flow.
- One major dimension is chosen as the characteristic length and other important
dimensions are given as ratios to the chosen one. Such ratios are called shape factors.
- Example: For short cylinders the diameter is usually chosen as the defining dimension
and the ratio of length to diameter is a shape factor.
- The orientation between the particle and stream also is specified. For a cylinder the angle
formed by the axis of the cylinder and direction of flow is sufficient. Then the projected
area is determinate and can be calculated.
- Example: For a cylinder so oriented that its axis is perpendicular to the flow ( )
Ap = LDp where L is length of cylinder. For a cylinder with its axis parallel to the

direction of flow ( ) the same as for a sphere

of the same diameter.

Drag coefficients of Typical shapes

- The following figure curves of CD, vs NRe,p are shown for sphere, long cylinders and disks.
The axis of cylinder and face of disk are perpendicular to flow direction.
- From the complex nature of drag, the variation CD with NRc, p is more complicated than
that of ‘f’ with NRe .
- The variation in slope of the curves of CD vs NRc,p at different Reynolds numbers are
because of the various factors that control form and wall drag. Their effect can be
followed by discussing the case of the sphere.
- For low Reynolds numbers, the FD for a sphere conforms to a theoretical equation called
stokes law which may be written.
- In theory, Stokes law is valid only when NRe,p is < 1.0.
- This law is especially valuable for calculating resistance of small particles such as dust,
fogs, moving through gases or liquids of low viscosity or for the motion of larger
particles through highly viscous fluids.

- As the Reynolds number is increased to 10 or above well beyond the range of stokes law
separation occurs at a point as shown and a wake is formed. It amounts to large frictional
loss also develop a large form drag( Kinetic energy)

FRICTION IN FLOW THROUGH BEDS OF SOLIDS

- In many technical processes liquid or gases flow through beds of solid particles.
- Important example are ‘ filtration’ two phase counter current flow of liquid and gas
through packed towers, ion-exchange beds, catalytic reactors where single fluid flow
through a bed of granular solids.
- The resistance to flow of fluid through the voids in a bed of solids is the resultant of the
total drag of all particles in the bed.
- Depending on Reynolds numbers DpGo/µ, laminar flow, turbulent flow, form drag
separation and wake formation occur.
- The most common methods (relating total pressure drop through a bed of solids to the
total drag) of correlation are based on estimates of the total drag of the fluid on the solid
boundaries of the tortuous channels through the bed particles.
- The actual channels are irregular in shape, have a variable cross section and orientation
and are highly interconnected.
 - However, to calculate an equivalent channel diameter, it is assumed that the bed has a set
of uniform circular channels whose total surface area and void volume match that of the
bed.
- The total surface area is surface area per particle times the number of particles but it is
more convenient to base the calculation on the volume fraction particles in the bed and
the surface volume ratio for the particles.
- For spherical particles this ratio is 6/Dp and for irregular particles it is 6/ ∅sDp where ∅s
is spericity.
- The volume fraction particles in the bed, is 1-∈, where ∈ is the porosity or void fraction.
If the particles are porous ∈ is taken to be the external void fraction of the bed and not
the total porosity.

- with the average velocity and channel size now expressible in terms the measurable parameters

, the channel model can be need to predict the form of the correlation for
pressure drop.
For flow at very low Reynolds number Hagen-Poiseuille equation can be used with addition of a
correction factor λ1, added to account for the fact that the channels are actually tortuous and not
straight and parallel.

Note: gc = 1 if we are using SI system of units; gc = 32.14 lb.ft/lbf.s2 , if we use FPS systems of
units.

- This equation is called Kozeny- Carmon equation and is applicable for flow through beds
at particles Reynolds number up to about 1.0. The main contribution to this ∆p is viscous
forces in the tortuous channels.
- For a given system, this equation indicates that the flow is proportional to the pressure
drop and inversely proportional to the fluid viscosity. This statement is also known as
‘Darcy’s law which is often used to describe flow of liquids through porous media.
 - The main contribution of this pressure drop must be kinetic energy losses caused by the
changes in channel cross section and flow direction.
- An equation covering entire range of flow rates can be obtained by assuming that the
viscous and kinetic energy losses are additive.
- This result is called the ‘Ergun’ equation

- Ergun showed that equation fitted data for spheres, cylinders and crushed solids over a
wide range of flow rates.
- He also varied the packing density to verify the effect of ∈ on pressure drop. A small
change in ∈ has a very large effect on ∆𝑝
- The ∈ value for sphere, cylinders and granular packings generally range 0.3 to 0.6 depending
on the ratio of particle size to tube size and the method of packing. For Rashig rings and Berl
saddles ∈ =0.6 to 0.75.
Example: A partial oxidation is carried out by passing air with 1.2 mole% hydrocarbon
through 40 mm tubes packed with 2m of 3/3 mm cylindrical catalyst pellets.The air enter at
350oC and 2 atm with a superfecial velocity of 1 m/s.What is the pressure drop through the
packed tubes ? How much would the pressure drop be reduced by using 4/4 mm pellets?
Data: ∈ =0.4 , µ at 350oC = 3×10-5 kg/m.s , фs = 1.0
Solution:
Assume that presence of hydrocarbons rises air molecular weight to 30.
The density of air +Hydrocarbon at 2atm, Temperature= 273+350=623oK,
ρ air+Hydrcorbon = (30/22.4)×(273/623)×(2/1) = 1.174 kg/m3 .
Use the Ergun’s equation, Vo =1.0 m/s , Dp =0.003m , L =2m
∆P/L = (150×1×3×10-5×0.62 )/ ( 1×12×0.0032×0.43 ) +
( 1.75×1.174×12×0.6) / ( 1×1×0.003×0.43 )
= 2812 + 6420 = 9232 kg/m2.s2 (N/m2) = 0.185 bar.
When Dp =0.004m ,then ∆P/L = 12798 N/m2 =0.128 bar.
This is 31% reduction in pressure drop.
 Motion of particles through Fluids.
- Many processing steps, especially mechanical separations involve the movement of solid
particles or liquid drops through a fluid.
- The fluid may be a gas or liquid and it may be flowing or at rest.
- Examples: i) Elimination of dust and fumes from air and flue gases ( Bag filters,
- Cyclone separators )
ii) Removal of solids from liquid wastes to allow discharge into public
drainage systems ( Thickeners or Settling Tanks) and
iii) Recovery of acid mists from waste gas of an acid plant ( Mist elimination)

Mecahnics:

- Movement of particle in a fluid requires an external force viz. a density difference or

by electric or magnetic fields.

- In this section only gravitational or centrifugal forces which arise from density difference
in considered.
- Three forces act on a particle moving through a fluid.
1) The external force: gravitational /centrifugal
2) The buoyant force, which act parallel with external force but in the opposite
direction,and
3) The drag force, which appears whenever there is a relative motion between particle
and fluid . This force act to oppose the motion and acts parallel with the direction of
movement but in opposite direction

Equations for One-Dimensional motion of particle through fluid:

Let, m=mass of particle.

- Fe= external forec.

- u= velocity of particle relative to fluid.
- Fb – buoyant force on the particle
- Fd – the drag force.
Terminal Velocity

- In gravitational settling, g is constant . also the drag always increases with velocity .
Equation shows that acceleration decreases with time and approaches zero
- Particle quickly reaches a constant velocity, which is the maximum attainable under the
circumstances and is called the ‘ terminal velocty’ ut
- Can be found equating equation to zero du/dt=0

-
- In a motion from a centrifugal force, the velocity depends on the radius and acceleration
is not constant. In many practical uses of centrifugal force, however du/dt is small
comparison with other two terms in equation then neglecting du/dt a terminal velocity at
any given radius.

-
- numerical value for CD are available graphically as under.
-
- Restriction: solid spheres, it must be far from other particles and from vessel walls so
that flow pattern around the particles is not distorted and it must be moving at its terminal
velocity. Such a fall of particle is called “Free settling’.
- If the motion of particle is impeded by other particles, which will happen when the
particles are near each other even though they may not actually be colliding. The process
is called” hindered settling”. The drag coefficient in hindered settling is greater than free
settling.

- In general, ut can be found by trial and error after guessing NRc, p to get the initial
estimate of CD.
- For limiting cases of very low or very high Reynolds number equation can be used to get ut
directly.

This equation for ut is known as Stokes law and it applies for NRe,p<1.0

Criterion for settling regime; For spherical particles, find

If k<2.6 then it is Stokes law range (NRe, p<1)

If k>68.9 then it is Newtons law range (NRe,p>1000, NRe.p <200000)

For 2.6<k <68.9, ut is calculated from equation using a value of CD found by trial from figure CD
vs NRe,,p .
Hindered settling

- In hindered settling, the velocity gradients around each particle are affected by the
presence of nearby particles.
- For a uniform suspension, the settling velocity ‘us’ can be estimated from the terminal
velocity for an isolated particle (ut) using the empirical equation of Mande and Whitmore

-
- Exponent n changes from about 4.6 in Stokes law range to about 2.5 in Newton’s law
range as shown below figure.

- For very small particles:

- With large particles for 0.9and 0.6 porosity, the ratios become respectively as

-
- The hindered settling effect is not as pronounced because the boundary layer thickness is
a small fraction of the particle size.
- If particles of a given size are falling through a suspension of much finer solids, the
terminal velocity of the larger particles should be calculated using the density and
 viscosity of the fine suspension. The equation may then used to estimate the settling
velocity with ε taken as the volume fraction of the fine suspension not the total void
fraction.
- Suspensions of very fine sand in water are used in separating coal from heavy mineral,
and the density of suspension is adjusted to a value slightly greater than that of coal to
make the coal particles rise to the surface , while the mineral particles sink to the bottom.

Fluidization
- When a liquid or gas is passed at very low velocity up through a bed of solid particles,
the particles do not move, and the pressure drop is given by Ergun’s equation.
- If the fluid velocity is steadily increased, the pressure drop and the drag on particles
increase and eventually the particles start to move and become suspended in the fluid.
- The term’ fluidization’ and ‘fluidized bed’ are used to describe the condition of fully
suspended particles since the suspension behave like a dense fluid.
- Fluidized solids can be drained from the bed, through pipes and valves just like a liquid,
and this fluidity is one of the main advantages in the use of fluidization for handling
solids.
Conditions for fluidization
- Consider a vertical tube partly filled with a fine granular material such as catalytic
cracking catalytic as shown below.

- The pipe is open at the top and has a porous plate at the bottom to support the bed of the
catalyst and to distribute the flow uniformly over entire cross section.
- If the particles are quite small, flow in the channels between the particles will be laminar
and ∆𝑝 across bed will be proportional to the 𝑣̅0 (konzey –casman equation)
- As 𝑣̅0 gradually increased the ∆𝑝 increases, but the particles do not move and the bed
height remains the same.
- At a certain velocity of 𝑣̅0 ,the ∆𝑝 counter balances the force of gravity on the particle or
the weight of fthe bed, any further increases in 𝑣̅0 causes the particles to move. This is
point ‘A’ on the graph.
- Sometimes the bed expands slightly with particles still in contact since a slight increase in
ε can offset an increase of several percent in 𝑣̅0 and keep ∆𝑝 constant.
- With further increase in velocity the particles become separated enough to move about in
the bed and the fluidization begins( point B).
- Once the bed is fluidized ∆𝑝 stays constant, but the bed height continues to increases
with increasing flow. The bed can be operated at quite high velocities with very little or
no loss of solids since 𝑣̅0𝑚 is much less than ‘ut’ terminal velocity of individual particle.
- If the flow rate is gradually reduced ∆𝑝 remians constant and the bed height decreases,
following the line BC. However the final bed height may be grater than the intial velue
for the fixed bed, since solids dumped in a pipe tend to pack more tightly than solids
slowly settling from fluidized state. The ∆𝑝 at low velocities is less than in the original
fixed bed.
- On starting up again ∆𝑝 offsets the weight of the bed at point B, and the point rather than
point A, should be considered to give the ‘minimum fluidization velocity’ 𝑣̅0𝑚
- To measure 𝑣̅0𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 bed should be fluidized vigorously, allowed to settle with gas turned
off, and the flow rate increased gradually until the bed starts to expand . 𝑣̅0𝑚 can be
obtained at the intersection of the graphs of ∆𝑝 in the fixed bed and the fluidized bed.
- With a wide distribution of particle sizes there would be more carryover or entrainment
of the fines than of average size particles, but must be of the fines can be recovered by
filters or cyclone separators and returned to the bed.
- Some fluidized bed are operated at velocities of 100 time, 𝑣̅0𝑚 with high entertainment
but nearly complete recovery of the entrained solids.

For large particles,(NRe,p > 1000) ,for spheres

ut/VoM = 1.75( g.Dp.(ρp –ρ)/ρ )1/2 ×( 1.75.ρ/ (g.Dp. .(ρp –ρ).ε3 )1/2 = 2.32/ εM3/2 .
.

- This may be slight disadvantage to the use of coarse particles in a fluidized bed, but the
optimum particle size generally depends on other factors such as grinding cost, heat and
mass transfer rates and desired gas velocity.

Types of Fluidizatio:

Particulate Fluidization : Uniform bed expansion, ex: expansion of sand particles

with water.

Aggregate Fluidization : Bed expansion erratic, bubbling fluidization ,ex;

expansion of sand bed with air .

Expansion of Fluidized Beds

- With both types of fluidization the bed expands as the 𝑣̅0 increases, and since the Δp
remains constant, Δp/L decreases as ε increases , rearranging equation (1a)

The expanded height may be obtained from εM ,LM ,the values of L

- For particulate fluidization of large particles in water , expansion of bed is expected to be
greater than that corresponding to equation since Δp depends partly on the kinetic energy
of the fluid. The expansion data as correlated by Lewis, Gilliland,
- Vo = εm where the value varies from3-4.5 depending on NRe,p
- As shown in Leva’s graph

-
Applications of Fluidization:

- Extensive use of fluidization began in petroleum industry with the development of ‘fluid
bed’ catalytic cracking; FCC. Although the industry now generally uses ‘riser’ or ‘
transport-line’ reactors for catalytic cracking, rather than fluid beds, the catalytic
regeneration is still carried out in fluid bed reactors which are as large as 30 ft. in
diameter.
- Fluidization is used in another catalytic processes, such as the synthesis of a acrylonitrile,
and carrying out solid gas reactions.
- There is a much interest in the fluidized bed combustion of coal as a means of reducing
boiler cost and decreasing the emission of pollutants.
- Fluidized beds are also used for roasting of ores, drying of fine solids, adsorption of
gases.
- The chief advantage of fluidization is that there is no temperature gradients in the bed
even with quite exothermic or endothermic reactions. The violent motion of solids also
gives rise to high heat transfer rates to wall or to cooling tubes immersed in the bed.

Continuous Fluidization; slurry and Pneumatic Transport.

- When the fluid velocity though a bed of solids becomes large enough all the particles are
entrained in the fluid and are carried along with it, to give ‘ continuous fluidization’
- Its principle application is in transporting solids from point to point in a processing plant,
although some gas- solid reactors operate in this fashion.

Hydraulic or slurry transport

- Particles smaller than about 50 μm. in diameter settle very slowly and are readily
suspended in a moving liquid.
- Large particles are harder to suspended and when >0.25mm , a fairly large liquid velocity
is needed to keep the particles from moving at all, especially in horizontal pipes.
- The critical velocity 𝑣̅𝑐 below which particels will settle out, is typically between 1 and 5
m/s depending on
 Density difference between solids and liquid.
 The particle concentration and
 The size of the pipe.

Pneumatic Conveying

- The suspending fluid in a pneumatic conveyor is a gas, usually air, flowing at velocities
between 15 and 30m/s in pipes ranging from 50 to 400 mm in diameter
- There are two principal types of system.
 Negative – pressure(vaccum) system, useful for transferring solids from multiple
intake points ( railroad cars) to a single delivering.
 And a positive systems , which are best with a single input station and one or
more points of delivering.
- For vaccum systems mass ratio of soilds to gas is usually <5 for such suspension,
estimate of

Positive pressure Systems:

Filtration

- Filtration is the removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a
filtering medium or septum on which solids are deposited.
- The fluid may be liquid or gas.
- The variable stream from the filter may be fluid or the solids or both.
- Fluid flows through a filter medium by virtue of a pressure differential across the
medium.
- Pressure filters operate above atmosphere pressure on the upstream side of filter medium
by pump/ blower.
- Vacuum filters operate atmosphere pressure on upstream and vacuum on downstream
side.
- They are either continuous or discontinuous.
-
Filters are divided into three main groups.
 Cake Filters Calrifying filters Crossflow filters

- Removes small amounts - Suspension flows under pressure

- Separate large amount of solids to produces across medium
of solids as a cake. clean gas or sparkling - Pores small enough to exclude most
- Used for liquid solid clear liquids such as of solids.
separations. beverages. - Some liquid passes through
- Solid particles trapped membrane as clean liquid , leaving
inside filter medium more concentrated suspension
- Pores in medium are behind.
much larger than - Ex: Ultrafiltration
diameter of particle
- Ex: Bag filters

Cake Filtration

- At the start of filtration in a cake filter some solid particle enter the pores of the medium
and are immobilized.
- After this brief initial period the cake of solids does the filtration not the filter medium.
- A visible cake of appreciable thickness builds upon the surface and must be periodically
removed.
- Operated above atmosphere on upstream side of medium or vacuum applied on
downstream.
- Most pressure filters are discontinuous type, vacuum filters are usually continuous type.

Discontinuous - Pressure Filters

Filter Presses ( construction and operation )

- Contain a set of plates designed to provide a series of chambers or compartments in

which solids collect.
 - Plates are covered with a filter medium such as canvas cloth.
- Slurry is admitted to each compartment under pressure.
- Liquid passes through canvas and out a discharge pipe leaving wet cake of solid behind.
- Plates may be square or circular and horizontal or vertical .
- In plate and frame filter presses square plates 6 to 78 in. on a side alternate with open
frames. Plates are 1./4 to 2’’ thick and frames ¼ to 8’’ thick. Plates and frames sit
vertically in a metal rack with cloth covering of each plate and are squeezed tightly
together by a screw.
- Auxiliary channels carry slurry from the main inlet channel into each frame, solids are
deposited on the cloth. Liquid passes through the cloth down grooves or corrugations in
the plate faces, and out of the press.
- After assembly of the press, slurry is admitted at a pressure 3 to 10 atm .
- Filtration continued until liquid no longer flows out the discharge or filtration pressure
suddenly rises.
- These occur when the frames are full of solids and no more slurry can enter. The press is
said to be jammed.
- Wash liquor then may be admitted to remove soluble impurities from the solids after
which the cake may be blown with steam or air to displace as much residual liquid as
possible.
- The press is then opened and the cake of solids removal from the filter medium and
dropped to a conveyor/bin.

Continuous- vacuum filters

Rotary-drum filter ( construction and operation )

- Most common type of continuous vacuum filter.

- A horizontal drum with a slotted face turns at 0.1 to 2 r/min in an agitated slurry trough.
- A filter medium such as a canvas cover the face of drum which is partly submerged in
liquid.
- Under the slotted cylindrical face of main drum is a second smaller drum with a solid
surface. Between the two drums are radial partitions dividing the annular space into
separate compartments each connected by an internal pipe to one hole in the rotating
plate of the rotary valve.
- Vacuum and air alternatively applied to each compartment as the drum rotates.
- Consider point A as shown in above figure. It just about to enter the slurry in the trough.
- As it dips under the surface of liquid, vacuum is applied through the rotary value. A layer
of solid builds up on the face of the panel as liquid is drawn through the cloth into the
compartment, through the internal pipe, through the valve and into collection tank.
- As the panel leaves the slurry and enters the washing and drying zone, vacuum applied to
the panel from a separate system, sucking wash liquid and air through the cake of solids.
- Wash liquor is drawn through the filter into a separate collection tank.
- After the cake of solids on the face of panel has been sucked as dry as possible the panel
leaves the drying zone, vacuum is cutoff, and cake is removed by scrapping it off with a
horizontal knife known as ‘ doctor blade’. Little air is blown in under the cake to belly
out the cloth.
- Once the cake is dislodged the panel enters the slurry and the cycle is repeated.
- The amount of submergence is about 30% of total drum area.
- The capacity of any rotary filter depends strongly one the characteristics of feed slurry
and particularly on the thickness of cake that may be deposited in practical operation.
- The cake formed on industrial RVF are 3 to 40mm thick.
- Standard drum sizes range 0.3m dia x0.3m face to 3.0 dia x 4.3 m face.

Filter Media

- The septum in any filter must meet the following requirements.

 It must retain solids to be filtered giving a reasonable filtrate .
 It must not plug or blind.
 It must be resistant chemically and strong enough physically to withstand operating
conditions.
 It must permit the cake formed to discharge cleanly/ completely.
 It must not prohibitively expensive.
- In industrial filtration the common filter medium is canvas cloth, either duck or twill
weave.
- Corrosive liquids requires use of woolen cloth, metal cloth made of stainless steel(S.S )
or Monel , glass cloth.
- Synthetic fabrics like nylon, polypropylene are highly resistant chemically.
- Smooth synthetic / metal fabrics are less effective than the more rugged natural fibers in
removing very fine particles.
- Ordinarily, however this is disadvantage only at the start of filtration because except with
hard, coarse particle containing no fines the actual filtering medium is not the septum but
the first layer of deposited solids. Filtrate may first come cloudy, then grow clear. Cloudy
filtrate is returned to slurry tank.

Filter Aids

- Slimy or very fine solids that form a dense, impermeable cake, quickly plug any filter
medium.
- To filter such materials requires that the porosity of the cake be increased to permit
passage of liquor at reasonable rate.
- This is done by adding filter aid, such as diatomaceous silica, perlite, purified wood
cellulose to the slurry before filtration.
- Another way of using a filter aid is by pre coating i.e, depositing a layer of it on the filter
medium before filtration.

Principles of cake filtration

- Filtration is a special example of flow through porous media

- In filtration flow resistance increase with time as the filter medium becomes clogged or a
filter cake builds up.
- The chief quantities of interest are the flow rate through the filter and pressure drop
across unit.
- As time passes during filtration either flow rate diminishes or the pressure drop rises.
- In “ Constant - pressure filtration’ the ∆p is held constant and flow rate is allowed to fall
with time or less commonly, the ∆p is progressively increased to give what is called ‘
constant rate filtration’
- Liquid passes through two resistances in series: that of cake and that of filter medium.
- Filter medium resistance is normally important during early stages of filtration.
- Cake resistance is zero at the start and increases with time as filtration proceeds.
- If cake is washed after filtration, both resistances are constant during washing period and
that of filter medium is usually negligible.
- The overall ∆P at any time is sum of ∆P over medium and over cake. If ‘Pa’ inlet pressure
‘Pb’ outlet pressure and ‘P’ the pressure at the boundary between cake and medium,thn
 ∆P = ( Pa-Pb) = (Pa-P/ ) + (P/-Pb) = ∆Pc + ∆Pm where ∆P is overall pressure drop,
∆Pc is pressure drop over cake, ∆Pm is pressure drop over medium.

Pressure Drop through Filter cake.

- Figure shows a section through a filter cake and filter medium at a definite time’t’ from
the start of the flow of filtrate
- Let at this time ’t’ , Lc –thickness of cake , A= filter area.

- Consider a thin layer of cake ‘dL’ lying in cake at a distance L form medium.
- Let pressure at this point be ‘P’
- This layer consists of a thin bed of solid particles through which filtrate is flowing.
- In a filter bed the velocity is sufficiently low to ensure laminar flow. First part of Ergun’s
equation with is used

-
From equation (30.15) œ is the resistance that gives a unit pressure drop when μ,u, mc/A

all equal 1.0.

From equation (30.16b) α is influenced by solely by the physical properties of the cake
especially Dp and ε.

- Most cakes encountered industrially are not made up of individual rigid particles. The
usual slurry is a mixture of agglomerates or flow consist of assemblies of very small
particles and α value vary with location and with time in the cake.
- Such filter cake is called compressible . in practice variation of α is ignored and an
average value is obtained experimentally for the material to be filtered using
equation(30.15)
Continuous Filtration

- In continuous filter, say, of rotary drum type feed, filtrate and cake move at steady
constant rates.
- For any particular element of the filter surface, however are not steady but transient.
- Follow for example, an element of filter cloth from the moment it enters the pond of
slurry until it is scrapped clean once more.
- It is evident that the process consists of several steps in series- cake formation, washing
drying and discharging and that each step involves progressive and continual change in
conditions.
- The pressure drop across the filter during cake formation is, however held constant.
- Thus equation for discontinuous constant pressure filtration may, with some modification
be applied to continuous filters.
 .

Equation apply to both continuous vacuum filtration and to continuous pressure filtration.

α retained on LHS because it is a function of ∆𝑝 for compressible sludge.

 Principles of Centrifugal Filtration ( Centrifuge)
- The basic theory of constant pressure filtration can be modified to apply for filtration in a
centrifuge.
- The treatment applies after the cake has been deposited and during the flow of clear
filtrate , the following figure shows such a cake.

Assumptions: - Effect of gravity and of changes in kinetic energy of the liquid are neglected

- The pressure drop from centrifugal action equals to the drag of liquid flowing through
cake.
- Cake is completely filled with liquid.
- Flow of liquid is laminar.
- Resistance of filter medium is constant.
- Cake is nearly incompressible.
- Average specific cake resistance ‘ α’ assumed constant.

Assuming that the area A for flow does not change with radius ( for a thin cake in a large
diameter centrifuge) the linear velocity of the liquid is then given by
Washing Filter cakes

- To wash soluble material that may be retained by the filter cake after filtrations, a
solvent miscible with the filtrate may be used as a wash.
- ‘Water’ is the most common wash liquid.
- The rate of flow of wash liquid and the volume of liquid needed to reduce the solute
content of the cake to a desired degree are important in the design and operation of a
filter. Following general principles apply.
- Volume of wash liquid required is related to the concentration- time history of the
wash liquid leaving the filter. A typical relationship shown below.
 - In segment ‘ab’ the effluent consist essentially of the filtrate that was left in the cake,
which is swept by wash liquor. This washing is called’ displacement wash’
- Volume of wash liquor needed= volume of filtrate left in cake= (εAL)
- Second stage washing be characterized by rapid drop in concentration of the effluent.
Volume of wash liquor used in this stage also of the order of magnitude of that used
in 1st stage.
- Third stage ‘cd’, solute slowly leached out from cake.

Separations based on the motion of particles through fluids

- There are many methods of mechanical separation based on the movement of solid
particles or liquid droplets through a fluid.
- The fluid may be a gas or liquid, it may be flowing or at rest.
- In some case cases the objective is to remove particles from a stream in order to
eliminate contaminants from the fluid or to recover the particles, as in elimination of
dust and fumes from air or flue gas or removal of solids from liquid wastes.
- In other cases, particles are deliberately suspended in fluids to obtain separations of
the particles into fractions differing in size and density. The fluid is then recovered
sometime for reuse, from the fractionated particles.
- If a particles starts at rest with respect to fluid, then moved through the fluid by an
external force, its motion can be divided into two stages.
 The first stage is a short period of acceleration during which the velocity
increases from zero to the terminal velocity.
 The second stage is the period during which the particle is at its terminal
velocity.
- Most common methods make use of the terminal velocity period only.

Gravity settling processes

- Particles heavier than the suspending fluid may be removed from a gas or liquid in a
settling tank, in which fluid velocity is low and particles have ample time to settle
out.
- Simple devices of this kind, however have limited usefulness because of the
incompleteness of the separation and the labor required to remove the settled solids
from the floor of the vessel.
- Industrial separators provide for continuous removal of settled solids. The separation
may be partial or very nearly complete.
- A settler that removes virtually all particles from a liquid is known as a ‘classifier’
whereas a device that separates the solids into fractions is called a ‘classifier’.
Gravity Classifiers

- Most classifiers in chemical processing separate particles on the basis of size, in

which ρ of fine particles is the same as that of the larger ones.
- Example: The ‘ Elutriation leg’ of the crystallizer. By adjusting the upward velocity
of the liquid so that it is smaller than the terminal settling velocity of acceptably large
crystals, this device carries unwanted fine crystals back to the crystallization zone for
further growth.
- Mechanical classifiers are used in closed circuit grinding especially in metallurgical
operations. Here relatively coarse particles are called ’sands’ and the surrey of fine
particles is called ’slimes’. Sufficient time is provided to allow the sand to settle to
the bottom of the device; the slimes leave in the effluent liquid.

A Typical mechanical classifier;

- Typical applications are in connection with ball or rod-mill for reduction to particle
sizes between 8 and 20 mech.
- These classifiers have high capacities.
- They lift coarse particles for return to the mill without any auxiliary conveyors and
elevators.
- For close separation with finer particles, however other type of classifiers must be
used. Example: modified settling basins, sedimenting centrifuges.

Sorting Classifiers

- Devices that separate particles of differing densities are known as ‘sorting

classifiers’. they use one or the other of two principle separation methods- sink and
float and differential settling.

Sink and Float method

- Also called ‘ Heavy – fluid separation’.

- Separates into light and heavy material.
- To select a liquid ( sorting medium) whose ρ is in between the separating materials.
- Lighter ones float and heavier one settle.
- Used to treat relatively coarse particles>10mesh in size.
- Problem is in selection of liquid medium.
Sp.gr- range 1.3 to 3.5 or more, should be cheap, nontoxic and noncorrosive
.Example: halogenated hydrocarbons and CaCl2 solutions
A more common choice of medium is a pseudo liquid consisting of a suspension
in water of fine particles of a heavy minerals. Magnetite (s=5.17), ferrosilicon (s=6.5)
and galena (s=7.5) are used.
Ratio of minerals to water can be varied to give a wide range of medium densities.
- Hindered settling is used.
- Cleaning coal as shown in the figure below, concentrating ores are common
applications.

Differential settling Method

- Differential settling methods utilize the difference in terminal velocities that can
exists between substances of different density.
- The density of the medium is less than that of either substance
- The disadvantage of this method is that since the mixture of materials to be separated
cover a range of particle size. The larger lighter particles settle at the same rate as the
smaller heavy ones and mixed fraction is obtained.
- Consider particles of materials A and B settling through a medium which has a 𝜌 as
its desity
- Let ‘A’ – heavier, say galena(7.5)
B - lighter, say quartz (2.65)
- The ut of a particle of Dp size density 𝜌p settling under gravity in a medium of
density, 𝜌 is g.Dp2.(ρp-ρ)/18µ for Stokes law range.
- For Galena Particle this equation becomes

- The significance in a separation process of the equal settling ratio of diameter is

shown in the graph in which ut vs Dp are plotted for component A and B for settling
in intermediate regime.
- Assume that the diameter range both substance lies between Dp1 and Dp4 on the size
axis.
- Then all particles of the light component B having diameter between Dp1 and Dp2 will
settle more slowly than any particle of the heavy substances A and can be obtained as
a pure fraction.
- Likewise, any particles of substance A having diameter between Dp3 and Dp4 settle
faster than any particle of substance B and can also be obtained as a pure fraction.
- But any light particle of having a diameter Dp2 and Dp4 settles at the same speed as a
particle of substances A in the size range between Dp1 and Dp3 and all particles in the
these size ranges form a mixed fraction.
- It can be clear from above figure that the mixed fraction can be reduced or eliminated
by closer sizing of feed. Example : if size range is feed is from Dp3 and Dp4 , complete
separation possible.

Clarifiers and Thickeners

- Gravity separation under hindered settling conditions is often used to convert a dilute
slurry of fine particles into a clarified liquid and a concentrate suspension.
- This process is carried out in a large open tanks called thickeners or clarifiers.
- The concentrated suspension or sludge may have to be filtered to produce a drier
product, but the cost of the filtration step is much lower than if the original slurry had
been filtered directly.
- The clarified liquid is free or nearly free of suspended particles, and it may be reused
as process water or discarded as waste.

Flocculation

- If solids in suspension are mainly individual particles only a few micrometers in

diameter, the gravity settling rate would be very low for practical operation.
- Fortunately, in may suspensions, the particles form agglomerates or clusters of
particles that settle at reasonable rates.
- Agglomeration is sometimes promoted by adding flocculating agents including strong
electrolytes, which reduce the repulsive forces between the charged particles, or
polymeric flocculants that may be cationic, anionic or nonionic in character.
- Flocculation is also carried out by adding inexpensive materials such as lime, alumina
or sodium silicate which form loose agglomerates that carry fines down with them.
- Measurement of settling rates obtained from batch tests in laboratory are used in the
design of thickeners.

Batch Sedimentation

- There are several stages in the settling of a flocculated suspension different zones are
formed as sedimentation proceeds.
- Usually concentration of solids is high enough that sedimentation of an individual
particle or floc is hindered by other solids to such an extent that all solids at a given
level settle at a common velocity.
 a) St start, uniform suspension, total depth of suspension ‘Zo’ (= zone B)
b) After short time, solids settle to give clear liquid (zone ‘A’) and a (zone’D’) of settled
solids above zone D, there is a transition layer (zone c) in which solids content varies
from that in original pulp and that in zone D.
- The boundaries between zone D and C and between C and B may not be distinct, but
the boundary between zone A and B is usually sharp.

c) As settling continuous the depths of zone D and A increase, depth of zone C remains
constant, that of zone B decreases.

d) Eventually zone B disappears, all solids are in zones C and D.

- Meanwhile gradual accumulation of solid puts stress on the material at the bottom,
which compresses solids in layer D.
- Compression breaks down the structure of the flocs and liquid is expelled into upper
zones.

e) Finally when the weight of the solids is balanced by the compressive strength of flocs,the
settling process stops.

Rate of sedimentation
- Typical plot of interface height (between zone A and B) vs time is shown below.
- During early stages of settling the velocity is constant as shown above.
- When zone B disappears, the rate of setting starts to decrease and steadily drops until
ultimate height reached.
- The initial rate is a function of feed concentration, but in the late stages, the settling
rate also depends on initial height Zo.

Equipment for sedimentation:

- Industrially the above process is conducted in a large scale in equipment called
‘ Thickeners’.
- For relatively fast settling particles a batch settling tank or continuous settling cone
may be adequate.
- For many duties, however a mechanically agitated thickener like that shown in figure.

Figure : Gravity Thickener.

- Diameter range 10 to 100m, deep = range, 2.5-3.5 m
- Revolves – once in 30 min
- Useful when large volumes of dilute slurry must be thickened. Ex: cement
manufacturing, production of magnesium from sea water.
- Also extensively used in sewage water treatment and water purification.
- Feed pulp is admitted at the centerline of unit at a depth of 1m or so below surface of
liquid.
- Above feed level is a clarification zone in which liquid is almost free of solids.
- Below feed level is a zone of hindered settling and near the bottom a compression
zone in which solids concentration is high.
- Volume of clear liquid produced in a unit time by a continuous thickeners depends
primarily on the cross sectional area available for settling and is independent of the
liquid depth.
- Higher capacities per unit floor are therefore obtained by using multiple tray
thickeners with several settling zones, one above the other in a cylindrical tank.
- Different methods have been proposed for establishing the settling curve and the
subject of thickener analysis and design is quite controversial.

Thickeners Design.

- Principle quantities to be specified are cross sectional area and the depth.
- Area is usually based on data from batch settling tests.
- In continuous thickener the total download solid flux is made up of two parts
1) Flux of solids carried by down flowing liquid (transport flux), Gt
2) Flux resulting from settling of the solids through liquid (settling flux), Gs
- Gt is product of solids concentration c and downward velocity’u’ = u.c
- Gs is product of ‘c’ and settling rate (dz/dt) = c(dz/dt).
- Total flux = G = Gt+Gs = uc+ (dz/dt)c.

- The settling flux ‘Gs’ verse ‘c’ is obtained from batch data of ‘z’ verse ‘t’ graph.
Select a time‘t’ then its slope at that point dz/dt is settling velocity, ‘u’. And from
intercept abscissa, find zt , calculate ct =c =zoco/zt . Then Gs =c(dz/dt).
- As shown in above figure settling flux Gs goes through a maximum with increasing
concentration, since settling rate is nearly constant at a very low concentration but
decreases rapidly at high concentration.
- The transport flux varies linearly with concentration,Gt =uc is usually much lower
than the settling flux.
- Therefore the total flux give a minimum value at some concentration,let this be the
limiting flux ,GL which can be found from graph.
- Find the required area of thickener from the equation Fco = AGL where
‘F’is volumetric flow rate of slurry, ‘A’ is area of thickener.

Centrifugal settling Processes

- A given particle in a given fluid settles under gravitational force at a fixed maximum
rate.
- To increase the settling rate the force of gravity acting on the particle may be replaced
by a much stronger centrifugal force.
- Centrifugal separators have to be considerable extent replaced gravity separators in
production operations because of their greater effectiveness with fine drops and
particles and their much smaller size for a given capacity.

Separation of solids from gases; Cyclones

- Most centrifugal separators for removing particles from gas streams containing no
moving parts ex: Cyclone separator as shown below.

-
- Cyclone: It consists of a vertical cylinder with a conical bottom, a tangential inlet
near the top, an outlet for dust at the bottom of the cone. The inlet is usually of
rectangle, the outlet pipe is extended into the cylinder to prevent short – circulating of
air from inlet to outlet.
- Incoming dust laden-air travel in a spiral path around and down the cylindrical body
of the cyclone.
- The centrifugal force developed in vortex tends to move the particles radially towards
the wall and particles that reach wall slide down into cone and are collected.
- A cyclone is basically a settling device in which strong centrifugal force ,acting
radially, is used in place of ‘g’, acting vertically.
- The centrifugal force Fc at radius ‘r’ is equal to m.utan2/rg where m=mass of particle.
 utan = tangential velocity, and Fg = mg/gc
Then Fc/Fg called as separation factor becomes= utan2/rg.
Example: For a cyclone 1 ft (0.3m) diameter,with utan of 50 ft/s(15m/s)
Separation factor =502/(0.5×32.2) =155.
A large diameter cyclone has a much lower separation factor,at the
same velocity.
But larger velocities greater than 15 m/s not practicable for high ∆P
and increased abrasive wear.
Small diameter cyclones may have a separation factor as high as 2500.
To handle large volume of gas ,a number of small diameter cyclones
may be grouped in a single enclosure with common header for the
feed and product gases and a single dust hopper. Such device is called
‘multiclone’.
- Dust particles entering a cyclone are accelerated radially ,but the force on a particle
Is not constant because of change in ‘r’ and also because the tangential velocity in the
vortex varies with ‘r’.Thus predicting the efficiency of cyclone is difficult,but found
by empirical correlations.
- Typical data for commercial cyclones are given below,which shows strong effects of
particle size and cyclone diameter on collection efficiency.

- Lower efficiency of the larger cyclones is mainly a result of decrease in centrifugal

force.
- Decrease in efficiency with decrease in paricle size.
- Collection efficiency of a cyclone increases with particle density and decrease as gas
temperature is increased because of increase in gas viscosity.
 - The efficiency is quite dependent on floe rate because of utan2 term. Therefore
Cyclone is one of the few separating devices that work better at full load than at
partial load.
- Sometimes two identical cyclones are used in series to get more complete solids
removal, but the efficiency of the second unit is less than the first, because the feed to
the second unit has a much lower average particle size.

Liquid –Solid Separations : “Hydro clones’

- Cyclones are also used for separating solids from liquids, sometimes as thickeners
but much more commonly as classifiers. In these service they are called ‘Hydro
clones’.
- The action in a Hydro clone is shown in the figure.

- Liquid enters tangentially at high velocity near top follows a spiral path near the
vessel wall, forming a strong downward vortex.
- Large or heavy solid particles separate to the wall and are pushed downwards and out
of the cyclone as a slurry or paste.
- Most of the liquid goes back up ward in a inner vortex and leaves through the central
discharge pipe.
- In a Hydroclone it is not possible to have both solids removal and a high underflow
concentration. Ex. in classifying hydroclones maximum solids concentration in
underflow is 50% .
- Applictions:
- DE gritting operation in Alumina production.

Removing carbon in upgrading Gypsum for Phosphoric acid manufacture.

- Classifying pigments.
- They have largely replaced mechanical classifiers in closed-circuit grinding

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