Paper 7 Notes – Physics

Common techniques

 Check instruments for zero error

 Repeat measurements (at different places if appropriate)
 Difference methods (eg for extension of a spring)
 Eye level to avoid parallax error
 Use of marker at centre of oscillations to aid timing
 Use of set square for checking vertical or horizontal arrangements
 Interpolation of analogue scales
 Trigonometric methods for measuring angles
 Liquids should be stirred before taking a temperature with a thermometer
 Repeat readings should be taken and averaged
 For cooling curves, for example, take readings more frequently
 Thermometer readings should be recorded to 0.05 ºC or less
 All readings should be recorded to the same precision

Criticism of results

 There should be at least 6 results

 Repeat readings should be taken and averaged
o Helps identify anomalies
o Allows and average to be taken
o Reduces random errors
 There shouldn’t be a large gap between values of independent variables  Could have
more values in between
 Distance should be measured in cm rather than in m  more precise
 There must be a consistency in precision
 Range must not be too small
 Degrees should be given to nearest 0.5º
 Units given for values?

Precision of instruments

 mm scale (e.g: ruler or measuring tape) 0.50 mm

 Vernier 0.10 mm
 Micrometer 0.01 mm
 Stopwatch 0.01s  reaction time in stopping and starting stopwatch
 Angles 0.5º

Improving accuracy

 Repeating readings and calculating average

 Taking reading at eye level to avoid parallax error
  Hold apparatus vertically
 Release from rest (If it involves releasing something)
 Check for zero error
 Exclude anomalous values

Calculating uncertainty

 Obvious anomalies should be ignored in both mean and uncerrtainty

 Range/2
 Highest value-mean

Prefixes

Giga x 109 Nano x 10-9

Mega x 106 Micro x 10-6
Kilo x 103 Milli x 10-3
Centi x 10-2
Deci x 10-1

% Loss

% Loss in x = (% loss in x / initial x) * 100

Graphs

 Scales on graphs should be appropriate

 Axes should be labeled with the quantity being plotted and its units
 Line of best fit  Straight line or a smooth curve
 Proportional relationship  Line must go through the origin, if it is expected to go
through the origin but it doesn’t, there could’ve been a systematic error
o E.g: Extension against force should go through origin
 When finding area  Use more than half of graph, large triangle
 Advantages of graphs:
o Enables an average result to be taken via the line of best fit
o Graph shows anomalies
o Allows trend to be identified
o Allows equation to be derived
o Systematic errors can be detected
o Allows extrapolation
o Gradient/intercept/area can be taken
 Straight line
o As y increases, so does x
o Mention any constants
Experiments

Which oil is more viscous?

 Ball bearing dropped through measuring cylinder in each oil

 Time taken for the ball bearing to fall
 Temperature must be kept constant
 Calculating viscosity error
o Might not have reached terminal velocity
o Reaction time
o Temperature not constant
o Measurement of diameter
o Micrometer zero error
o Measure of distance fallen
o Parallax error
 Safety
o Use safety goggles so oil doesn’t go in eye
o Low risk experiment

Determine thickness of a coin

 Use micrometer to measure thickness of x coins

 Divide overall thickness into number of coins
 Check micrometer for zero error
 Measure thickness in more than one place

Thermistor resistance variation with temperature

mA

Thermistor

(Kettle could be used instead of Bunsen burner)

  Application  Temperature sensor
 V and I have to be measured so that R can be calculated, temperature needs to be
measured too
o R could be measured directly with an ohmmeter
o Voltmeter and Ammeter should have correct range
 In diagram, a stirrer has also got to be drawn
 Safety
o Don’t spill the hot water
o Don’t place apparatus near edge of desk
o Take care with Bunsen burner if used
o Use of appropriate thermometer
 Errors
o Simultaneous reading of both meters
o Systematic error on thermometer
o Parallax error
o Zero error on meters

Young Modulus

 Micrometer needed to measure diameter of wire

 Original length, extension, diameter and force has to be
measured
 = Gradient of Stress/Strain graph
 Applies to any sample of the material, whereas stiffness is to
a given sample only
 Main sources of error
o Diameter
o Extension
 Safety
o Goggles  Snapping wires
o Falling masses on floor, feet
 Measuring resistivity

Known length
6V Power of constantan V
supply wire

 (Contacts not required, doesn’t have to be 6V necessarily)

 Measure current and voltage
 R = V/I = Gradient of graph
 Resistivity = RA/l
o To find area, calculate diameter using a micrometer
o
 Sources of uncertainty
o Diameter might have only been measured once
o Zero error
o Resistance of connecting wires
o Accuracy of ohmmeter (or voltmeter + ammeter)

Finding spring constant

 Vertical length of wire with masses hung on its end

 Measure extension
o = Final – initial length
 Safety
o Goggles (Snapping wires)
o Protection of feet/floor from falling masses

Internal resistance

 In addition to the circuit

diagram, there should
be a variable resistor
 Potential difference and
current should be
measured
  PD Could be measured with multimeter on voltage scale, range must be appropriate
 Graph  V against I
o Emf = Y-intercept
o R= -gradient
 Error
o Systematic/zero error on meter
o Parallax error if analogue meter used
o Accuracy of meters
o Fluctuating reading on digital scale
 Safety
o Voltage must be kept low

Datalogging vs stopwatch and thermometer

Datalogging + lightgates vs stopwatch

Digital vs analogue meters