Periodic functions

A function which repeats itself at regular intervals of time is known as a periodic function.
OR
A function is said to be periodic if there exists a positive integer T such that f ( x +T )=f ( x). Here
T is called the period of function f ( x ) .

Ex: 1.

Graph of y=sin x

Period of sin x is 3600 or 2 π radians as sin ( x+ 2 π )=sin x.

Note: sin ( x+ 4 π ) =sin x , sin ( x+6 π ) =sin x … .But we consider the least positive integer T to be
the time period.
2.

Graph of y=5 sin 2 x

The amplitude is 5 and the period is 1800 or π as there are 2 complete cycles in 3600 .

3600 2 π
Note: Graphs of y= A sin nx has amplitude A, period (T)= = and n cycles in 3600 .
n n
Graphs of y= A cos nx have the same characteristics.
3.
 Graph of y=tan x
The period of the above function is 1800 or π .

Some examples on periodic functions which are non-sinusoidal:

1.

Period= 8 ms

2.

Period= 6 ms
3.

Period= 5 ms

Analytic description of a periodic function:

A periodic function can be defined analytically in many cases:
1.
 a) Between x=0 and x=4 , y=3 , i. e . f ( x )=3 0< x< 4
b) Between x=4 and x=6 , y=0 ,i . e . f ( x )=0 4 < x <6
So we could define the function by
3 0  x  4
f ( x )=¿ 
0 4  x  6
f ( x +6 )=f ( x)
The last line indicating that the function is periodic with period 6 units.

2.

a) Between x=0 and x=2 , y=x i . e . f ( x )=x 0< x< 2

x x
b) Between x=2 and x=6 , y=3− i. e . f ( x )=3− 2< x <6
2 2
c) The period is 6 units i.e. f ( x +6 ) =f ( x)
So, we have
 x 0 x2

f ( x)   x
3  2 2  x  6
f ( x  6)  f ( x) .

y 2− y 1
Note: Slope of the line joining 2 points is given by m=
x 2−x 1
Equation of the line joining 2 points is given by y− y1 =m(x−x 1)
x
In the previous example in b) we get y=3− by making use of the above formulas. Between x=2
2
and x=6 the end points of the line correspond to (2, 2) and (6, 0). So the slope,
0−2 −2 −1
m= = = .
6−2 4 2

−1
The equation of line joining (2, 2) and (6, 0) with m= is
2
 −1 −x
y−2= ( x−2 )= +1
2 2
x
⇒ y =3−
2

Exercise:
Define analytically the following periodic functions shown:

1.

2.

3.

4.
Even and odd functions:
A function f (x) is said to be even if f (−x )=f ( x ) . The graph of an even function is therefore
symmetrical about the y axis.
Ex:

A function is said to be odd if f (−x )=−f ( x ) . The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about
the origin i.e. the function is unchanged when rotated 1800 about the origin.

Ex:
Few more examples:
1.

f (x) shown by the waveform is an odd function as it is symmetrical about the origin.

2.

f (x) shown by the waveform is an even function as it is symmetrical about the y axis.

3.

f (x) shown by the waveform is neither even nor odd as it is not symmetrical about
either the y axis or the origin.

Exercise:
State whether the following functions is odd, even, or neither.

1.
 2.

3.

4.

Answers for analytic description:

1.

2.
3.

4.

Answers for even and odd function:

1. Odd
2. Even
3. Even
4. Neither
Fourier series
• Joseph Fourier was a French Mathematician who developed Fourier series and
transform to model heat-flow problems
• Many of the phenomena studied in engineering and science are periodic in nature
eg. The current and voltage in an alternating current circuit
• Fourier series enable us to approximate  various periodic function(square, saw tooth,
etc waveforms) using trigonometric functions for that occur in electronics.
• This is done by adding more and more trigonometric functions in sine and cosine terms
• The sum of these special trigonometric functions is called the Fourier Series
• Idea of Fourier series is to represent complicated functions in terms of simple periodic
functions namely sine and cosine
• Big advantage that Fourier series have over Taylor series: the function f(x) can have
discontinuities!

Definition: If a function f ( x ) is defined on the interval (c , c+ T ) where f ( x +nT )=f (x)

then
a0 ∞ 2 nπx
∞
2 nπx
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 ( T ) + ∑ bn sin
n=1
( T )
This is the Fourier series expansion of f (x), where a 0 , a n and b n are called the Fourier
coefficients of f (x) given by Euler formulae:
 c +T
2
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx
T c

c +T
2
a n=
T
∫ f ( x ) cos ( 2 nπx
T )
dx n=1 ,2 , …
c

c +T
2
b n=
T
∫ f ( x ) sin ( 2 nπx
T )
dx n=1, 2 , …
c

Dirichlet conditions: If a function f (x) is such that

a) f (x) is defined and periodic
b) f (x) and f ' ( x) have at most a finite number of discontinuities over a single period-
that is they are piecewise continuous
then the Fourier series converges to f (x).
The Dirichlet conditions are sufficient for the Fourier series to represent f (x) not only at
a point of continuity but, also at a point of discontinuity. Also the periodicity of the
function need not be restricted to 2 π .

These conditions are sufficient but not necessary because there are functions that do not
satisfy these conditions which still possess a convergent Fourier series.

Note: The knowledge of odd and even functions can save a lot of unnecessary calculations
Product of odd and even functions:
Odd × Odd=Even, Even × Even=Even, Odd × Even =Odd

c
 0 if f ( x) is odd
 c
 f ( x) dx  
c 2  f ( x) dx if f ( x) is even
Also,  0

Fourier series of odd and even functions:

If the function f ( x ) defined on the interval (−c , c ) is even, then the Fourier series of f (x)
contains only cosine terms i.e., b n=0 .

If the function f ( x ) defined on the interval (−c , c ) , is odd then the Fourier series of f (x)
contains only sine terms i.e., a 0=0 and a n=0 .

Problems:
x
1. Determine the Fourier series for the function f ( x )= , 0< x <2 π and f ( x +2 π )=f ( x ) .
2
Sol.
 c +T
2
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx
T c
2π
2 x
a 0= ∫ dx
2π 0 2
2
2
1 x
a0  .
2 2
0
2
1 4π
a 0=
2π 2 [
−0 ]
∴ a0=π

c +T
2
a n=
T
∫ f ( x ) cos( 2 nπx
T )
dx
c

2π
2 x
a n= ∫ cos nx dx
2π 0 2
2π
1
a n= ∫ x cos nx dx
2π 0

2π 2π
a n=
1
2π {[ x sin nx
n ] 0
1
− ∫ sin nx dx
n0 }
1 1
a n=
2π {
( 0−0 )− ( 0 ) =0
n }
∴ an=0.

c +T
2
b n=
T
∫ f ( x ) sin ( 2 nπx
T )
dx
c

2π
2 x
b n= ∫ sin nx dx
2π 0 2
2π
1
b n= ∫ x sin nx dx
2π 0
2π 2π
b n=
1
2π {[ −x cos nx
n ]0
−
1
∫−cos nx dx
n 0 }
 1
b n=
2π ({ −2n π cos 2 nπ −0)+ 1n ( 0) }= −1n ∵ cos 2 nπ=1
−1
∴ bn=
n
The Fourier series is given by,

a0 ∞ 2 nπx
∞
2 nπx
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T( ) (
+ ∑ bn sin
n=1 T )
∞
π
f ( x )= + ∑ bn sin ( nx )
2 n=1

π 1 1 1
f ( x )= +{− sin x− sin 2 x− sin 3 x−… }
2 1 2 3

π 1 1
∴ f ( x )= −{sin x+ sin 2 x+ sin3 x +… }
2 2 3

2. Obtain the Fourier series expansion for the function f ( x )=x 2 ,−π < x < π .

Sol. We have f ( x )=x 2 . f ( x ) is an even function. Therefore f ( x ) contains only cosine terms. Hence b n=0.

The Fourier series is given by,

a0 ∞
2
f ( x )=x = + ∑ a n cos ( nx )−−(1)
2 n=1

c +T π
2 2
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx= ∫ x 2 dx
T c 2 π −π

π
1 x3 1 3 2 π3
a 0= [ ]
2
=
π 3 −π 3 π
[ π −(−π 3 ) ]=
3π
2π
∴ a0 =
3
c +T
2
a n=
T
∫ f ( x ) cos( 2 nπx
T )
dx
c

π π
2 2
a n= ∫ x2 cos nx dx= ∫ x2 cos nx dx
2 π −π π 0
 π
2 sin nx −cos nx −sin nx
a n= x 2
π { n (
−2 x
n 2 ) (
+2
n3 ) ( )}
0

2
a n= ¿
π

4
∴ an = 2
(−1 )n
n

The Fourier series is given by,

∞ n
π2 2 (−1 )
( 1 )−−→ f ( x )=x = + 4 ∑ 2 cos ( nx )
3 n=1 n
3. Obtain the Fourier series for f ( x )=| x| in – π < x < π
Sol. We have f ( x )=| x|, since f (−x )=|−x|=|x|=f ( x). f (x) is an even function.

Therefore f (x) contain only cosine terms and we have b n=0.

Let,

a0 ∞
f ( x )=| x|= + ∑ a cos nx
2 n=1 n
We have,
π π
1 2
a 0= ∫ f ( x)dx= ∫ f ( x ) dx
π −π π 0
π π π
2 2 2 x2 2 π 2−0
a 0= ∫ |x| dx= ∫ x dx=
π 0 π 0
=
π 2 0 π 2
=π [ ] [ ]
and
π π
1 2
a n= ∫ |x|cos nx dx= ∫ x cos nx dx
π −π π 0
π
2 sin nx −cos nx
a n=
π
x
[ n (
−1
n2 ) ( )] = 2π [ 0+ n1 ( cos nx ) ]= 2π n1 ( cos nπ−cos 0)
0
2
π
0 2

2
⟹ an = 2
[ (−1 )n−1 ]
n π
−4
Clearly a n=0, when n is even and a n= , when n is odd
πn2
∴ The required Fourier series expansion is,
 ∞
π 4 cos nx
|x|= − ∑ ( n is odd )
2 π n=1 n2

π 4 cos 3 x cos 5 x
i. e .|x|= − cos x +
2 π 32
+
[
52
+… …
]
Note: Determining if the function is even or odd.

f ( x )= ϕ 1 ( x ) ,−a< x <0
 {
ϕ2 ( x ) , 0< x <a
If ϕ 1 (−x )=ϕ 2 ( x ) → even function and ϕ 1 (−x )=−ϕ2 ( x ) →odd function

f ( x )= ϕ 1 ( x ) ,0< x< a
 {
ϕ 2 ( x ) ,a< x< b
If ϕ 1 ( b−x )=ϕ2 ( x ) → even function and ϕ 1 ( b−x )=−ϕ 2 ( x ) → odd function

−1 ,−π < x <0

4. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x )= {
+1 , 0< x< π

Sol.

Here ϕ 1 ( x )=−1 , ϕ2 ( x ) =1

Let ϕ 1 ( x )=−1 ⇒ ϕ 1 (−x )=−1=−ϕ2 (x )

∴ f (x ) is an odd function and hence a 0=an =0.

Here, T =2 π ,
π π
2 2 −2 cos nx π −2
b n= ∫
2 π −π
f ( x ) sin nx dx= ∫
π 0
1 ( sin nx ) dx=
π (
n 0 nπ
= )
( cos nπ−1 )

b n=
−2
( (−1 )n−1) = 2 ( 1−(−1 )n )
nπ nπ
∞ n
2
f ( x )= ∑
[ 1−(−1 ) ] sin nx= 2 [2sin x + 2 sin 3 x+ 2 sin5 x +… …]
π n=1 n π 3 5
 −x ,−π < x <0
5. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x )=
+ x ,0< x< π {
Sol. Here ϕ 1 ( x )=−x , ϕ2 ( x )=x

ϕ 1 (−x )=x=ϕ2 ( x)

∴ f (x ) is an even function and hence b n=0.

Here, T =2 π ,
π π π π
2 2 2 2 x2 2 π2
a 0=
2π ∫
−π
f ( x ) dx=
π∫0
f ( x )dx=
π∫0
x dx= . = . =π
π 2 0 π 2 [ ]
π π π
2 2 2 sin nx cos nx 2 cos nπ 1
a n= ∫
2 π −π
f ( x ) cos nx dx= ∫ x ( cos nx ) dx = x
π 0 π n
+1
n2 [( ) ( )] [
0
=
π n2
− 2
n ]
2
a n= 2
[ cos nπ−1 ] = 2 2 [ (−1 )n−1 ]
πn πn
∞ n
π 2 [ 1−(−1 ) ] π 4 1 1
f ( x )= −∑ cos nx= − [cos x + cos 3 x + cos 5 x +… …]
2 n=1 πn 2
2 π 9 25

6. Determine the Fourier series for a periodic function defined by

f ( x )= 2(1+ x ),−1< x< 0
{
0 , 0< x <1
f ( x +2 )=f ( x ) .
a0 ∞ 2 nπx
∞
2 nπx
Sol. f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T (
+ ∑ bn sin
n=1 T ) ( )
Here T =2, so
a0 ∞ ∞
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos ( nπx )+ ∑ bn sin ( nπx )
2 n=1 n=1

1 1 0 1
2 2
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx= ∫ f ( x ) dx =∫ f ( x ) dx+∫ f ( x ) dx
T −1 2 −1 −1 0

0 1 0
a 0=∫ 2(1+ x )dx +∫ 0 dx=∫ (2+2 x)dx
−1 0 −1

0
x2
[
a 0= 2 x+ 2.
2
1
]−1
=[ 2 ( 0+1 ) + ( 0−1 ) ] =2−1=1
0
2 2nπx 2
a n= ∫ f ( x ) cos
T −1 T ( )
dx= ∫ 2(1+ x)cos ( nπx ) dx
2 −1
 0
sin ( nπx ) −cos ( nπx )
[
a n=2 ( 1+ x )
nπ
−1.
n2 π 2 ( )]−1

1
[
a n=2 ( 0−0 ) + 2 2
( 1−(−1 )n ) = 22 2 [ 1− (−1 )n ]
]
n π n π

4
a n=0 when n is even and a n= when n is odd.
n π2
2

1 0
2
b n= ∫ f ( x ) sin 2 nπx
T −1 T
2
( )
dx= ∫ 2(1+ x )sin ( nπx ) dx
2 −1
0
−cos ( nπx ) −sin ( nπx )
[
b n=2 ( 1+ x ) .
nπ ( −1.
n2 π 2 ) ( )] −1

−1 −2
b n=2 [ nπ
( 1−0 ) +0 =
nπ ]
The Fourier series of the given periodic function is,
∞ ∞
1 2 n −2
f ( x )= + ∑ 2 2 [ 1− (−1 ) ] cos ( nπx ) + ∑ sin ( nπx )
2 n=1 n π n =1 nπ

1 4
f ( x )= + 2 ¿
2 π

7. Obtain the Fourier series expansion of

f ( x )= kx , 0< x< l/2
{
k (l−x), l/2< x<l

Sol. The given function is even as ϕ 1 ( x )=kx ∧ϕ1 (l−x )=k ( l−x )=ϕ2 ( x ) . Hence b n=0.

Fourier series is,

∞
a 2 nπx
f ( x )= 0 + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T ( )
c +T l
2
a 0=
T
∫ f ( x ) dx= 2l ∫ f ( x ) dx
c 0

[ ]
l
2 l 2 l
( l−x )2
a 0=
2
l 0 l
2
2k
∫ kx dx +∫ k ( l−x ) dx = l {[ ] [ ] }
x
2
2

0
−
2 l
2
 2k 1 l2 l2 k 2l 2 kl
a 0= .
l 2 4 { ( )}
− 0−
4
= .
l 4
=
2

2
l
a n= ∫ f ( x ) cos
T 0

2k
2 nπx
l (
dx=
2
l ) [
0
2
2 nπx
l
( )
l
2 nπx
∫ kx . cos l dx+∫ k ( l−x ) . cos l dx
2
( ) ]
a n= {x ¿
l
l2 l2 l2 l2
a n=
2k
l [ (
0+ cos nπ . 2 2 − 2 2 +
4n π 4n π
2k
l )] [ (
0− cos 2 nπ . 2 2 −cos nπ . 2 2
4n π 4n π )]
2k l2 kl(2 (−1 )n−2) kl
a n= 2 2
l 4n π [ n n
( (−1 ) −1−1+ (−1 ) ) = ]
2 2
2n π n π
n
= 2 2 [ (−1 ) −1 ]

Hence the Fourier series is,

∞
kl kl 2 nπx
n
f ( x )= + ∑ 2 2 [ (−1 ) −1 ] cos
4 n=1 n π l ( )
kl 2 kl 2 πx 1 6 πx 1 10 πx
f ( x )= −
4 π2
cos
[ ( )
l
+ 2 . cos
3 l ( )
+ 2 .cos
5 l
+… ( ) ]

Half range Fourier series

If a function is defined over half the range, say 0 to T instead of the full range −T to T , it may
be expanded in a series of sine terms only or of cosine terms only. The series produced is then
called a half range Fourier series.
Sine series:
∞
f ( x )=∑ bn sin
n=1
( nπxT )
where
 T
2
b n= ∫ f ( x ) sin nπx
T 0 ( ) T
dx

Cosine series:
∞
a nπx
f ( x )= 0 + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T ( )
where
T
2
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx
T 0

T
2 nπx
a n= ∫
T 0 ( )
f ( x ) cos
T
dx

1. Express f ( x )=x as a half-range sine series in 0< x <2.

Sol.
Half range sine series is given by,
∞
nπx
f ( x )=∑ bn sin
n=1
( )
T

∞
f ( x )=∑ bn sin
n=1
( nπx2 )
where
T
2 nπx
b n= ∫ f ( x ) sin
T 0 T ( )
dx

2
2 nπx
b n= ∫ x sin
20 2
dx ( )
2
−2 x nπx 4 nπx
b n=
[
nπ
cos
2
− 2 2 −sin
n π 2( )]
0
−4
∴ bn = (−1 )n
nπ

4 −4 4 −4
Thus b 1= ,b 2= , b3 = , b 4= …
π 2π 3π 4π

Hence the Fourier sine series for f(x) over the half range (0 , 2) is

4
f ( x )= ¿
π

2. Express f ( x )=x as a half-range cosine series in 0< x <2.

Sol. Half range cosine series is given by,
 a0 ∞ nπx
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T ( )
a0 ∞ nπx
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 2 ( )
where
T 2 2
2 2 x2
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx= ∫ x dx=
T 0 20 2 0
=2 [ ]
T 2
2 nπx 2 nπx
a n= ∫ f ( x ) cos
T 0 T 20 ( )
dx= ∫ x cos
2
dx ( )
.
2
2x nπx 4 nπx 4
a n=
[
nπ
sin
2
− 2 2 −cos
n π 2 0 n π (
= 2 2 [ (−1 )n−1 ] )]
Hence the desired Fourier series for f (x) over the half-range (0 , 2) is
4
∞
[ (−1 )n−1 ] nπx
f ( x )=1+ 2 ∑
π n=1 n 2
cos
2 ( )
3. Find the half range sine series of f ( x )=πx−x 2 in 0< x < π .

∞
Sol. f ( x )=∑ bn sin
n=1
( nπxT )
∞ ∞
nπx
f ( x )=∑ bn sin
n=1
( )
π
=∑ bn sin ( nx )
n =1
where
T π
2 nπx 2
b n= ∫ f ( x ) sin
T 0 T ( )
dx= ∫ (πx−x 2) sin ( nx ) dx
π 0

π
2 −cos nx −sin nx cos nx
π [
b n= ( πx−x 2)
n (
−( π −2 x )
n 2) + (−2 )
n3 ( ) ( )] 0
−4 4
b n= 3 [ (−1 )n−1 ]= 3 [1− (−1 )n]
n π n π

Hence the half range sine series of f (x) is given by,

∞ n
4
f ( x )=πx−x = ∑ 2 [ 1−(−1 ) ] sin ( nx )
π n=1 n3
 π
4. Obtain the Fourier cosine series of f ( x )=
{ x , 0< x <
π
π−x , < x< π
2
2

Sol. Half range cosine series is given by,

a0 ∞ nπx
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T( )
a0 ∞ nπ x
f ( x )= + ∑ a cos
2 n=1 n ( )
π
where
π

2
T
2
π
a 0= ∫ f ( x ) dx= ∫ f ( x ) dx =
T 0

π
T 0
2
π [ 2 π

∫ f ( x ) dx +∫ f ( x ) dx
0 π
2
]
a 0=
2
π [ 2 π
2
∫ x dx +∫(π −x) dx = π
0 π
2
] ([ ] [
2 π
x
2
2

0
+ πx−
x
2
2 π

])
π
2

a 0=
π 2 4[ ( ) {(
2 1 π2 2
+ π−
π2
2
−
π2 π2
−
2 8 )( )}] [ =
2 π2 π2 π2 π2
+ − +
π 8 2 2 8 ]
2 2 π2 π
a 0= . =
π 8 2
T
2
a n= ∫ f ( x ) cos n ππ x dx
T 0 ( )
π
2
a n= ∫ f ( x ) cos (nx )dx
π 0
π
2 π
2 2
a n= ∫ x cos (nx) dx + ∫ ( π −x ) cos (nx) dx
π 0 π π
2
π π
2 sin nx −cos nx 2 sin nx −cos nx
a n=
π
x
n[ −1.
n2 ( )]
0
2
+
π [
( π−x ) .
n
−(−1 ) .
n2 ( )] π
2

2
a n= ¿
π

2
a n= ¿
π
 2
a n= ¿
n2 π

Put n=1 ,2 , 3 …
2
a 1=0 , a2= ¿
4π

2
a 3= ¿
9π

2
a 4= ¿
16 π

−8 −2
a 5=0 , a6 == ….
36 π 9 π
The half-range Fourier cosine series is,

a0 ∞ n π x a0
∞
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 π( )
= + ∑ an cos ( nx )
2 n=1

π 2 1 1
f ( x )= −
4 π 12 [
. cos 2 x + 2 .cos 6 x+ …
3 ]

1 1
5. Obtain the half range sine series of f ( x )=
4
{
−x , 0< x <
3 1
x− , < x <1
4 2
2

∞
Sol. f ( x )=∑ bn sin
n=1
( nπxT )
∞
f ( x )=∑ bn sin ( nπx )
n=1
where
T
2
b n= ∫ f ( x ) sin nπx
T 0 T( )
dx
 1
b n=2∫ f ( x ) sin ( nπx ) dx
0
1

b n=2
[(
∫
2

0
1
4 ) 3
1

( )
−x sin ( nπx ) dx+∫ x− sin ( nπx ) dx
1
4
2
]
1 1

b n=2
{[( 1
4
−x
−cos nπx
)(nπ
−(−1 )
−sin nπx
) 2 2
n π ( )] [( )(
2

0
+ x−
3 −cos nπx
4 nπ ) (
−( 1 ) .
−sin nπx
2 2
n π )] }
1
2

b n=2
{[ 1
4 nπ
nπ 1 nπ
cos − 2 2 sin −
2 n π 2
−1
4 nπ
+
−1
4 nπ
cos nπ −0 −
1
( )] [(
4 nπ
nπ 1
cos + 2 2 sin
2 n π
nπ
)(
2 ) ]}
1 nπ 1 nπ 1 1 1 nπ 1 nπ
b n=2
{ 4 nπ
cos − 2 2 sin +
2 n π
−
2 4 nπ 4 nπ
cos nπ−
4 nπ
cos − 2 2 sin
2 n π 2 }
2 4 nπ
b n= [ 1−(−1 )n ] − 2 2 sin
4 nπ n π 2
Hence Fourier sine series is,
∞ ∞
2 4 nπ
f ( x )=∑ bn sin ( nπx )=∑
n=1 n=1 4 nπ
([ n
1−(−1 ) ]− 2 2 sin
n π 2 )
sin ( nπx )

∴ f ( x )=
( 1π − π4 )sin πx+( 31π + 94π )sin 3 πx+ …
2

Practice Problems

1) Expand for f ( x )=k for 0< x <2 in a half range

a. sine series
b. cosine series
2k πx 3 πx 5 πx
Ans :f ( x )=k =
π 2 [
2 sin +2 sin
2
+2 sin
2
+… ; f ( x ) =k ]
l
2) Find the half range cosine series expansion of the function f ( x )=

l 2l
∞
nπx nπx
{ 0 , 0≤ x ≤
l
l−x , ≤ x ≤ l
2
2
.

Ans :f ( x )= + ∑
4 n=1 ( nπ ) 2
2 cos
2 { n
−1−(−1 ) cos
l }
3) Obtain cosine and sine series for f ( x )=x in the interval 0< x < π.
π 4 1 1
2 π 3 [
Ans :f ( x )= − cos x+ 2 cos 3 x + 2 cos 5 x+ … … ,
5 ]
 f ( x )=2 ¿

4) Find the half-range cosine series for the function f ( x )=x 2 in the range 0< x < π.
π2 1 1 1
3 [
Ans :f ( x )= −4 cos x − 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x− 2 cos 4 x+ …
2 3 4 ]
2k L
5) Find the half range cosine series expansion of the function f ( x )=

k 16 k
{
2k
L
L
x , 0< x <
L
(L−x) , < x< L
2
2
.

Ans : f ( x )= − 2 ¿
2 π

Complex Fourier series

 An alternative to the trigonometric form of the Fourier series considered so far in the
complex or exponential form

 What we have studied so far are called real Fourier series: where we decompose a given
periodic function into terms of the form sin( nωx) ⁡and cos (nωx ).

 As an alternative, where a function is instead decomposed into terms of the form e inx

 Recall Euler’s formula, which is the basic bridge that connects exponential and
trigonometric functions, by way of complex numbers, given by e ix =cos x+ isin x

 Formulas to convert a complex exponential to trigonometric functions

e ix =cos x+ isin x and e−ix =cos x−i sin x
  Formulas to convert a trigonometric function to complex exponential
1 1
cos x= (e ¿ ¿ix + e−ix )¿ and s∈ x= (e ¿ ¿ ix −e−ix ) ¿
2 2i

 The complex form of a Fourier series is especially useful in problems on electrical

circuits having impressed periodic voltage.

The Fourier series of a periodic function f (x) of period T is

a0 ∞ 2 nπx
∞
2 nπx
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos
2 n=1 T (
+ ∑ bn sin
n=1
)T ( )
2π
Since ω= ,
T
a0 ∞ ∞
f ( x )= + ∑ a n cos ( nωx )+ ∑ bn sin ( nωx )−−−(1)
2 n=1 n=1

1 −inωx 1
Since cos nωx= ( e ¿ ¿ inωx+ e ),sin nωx = (e ¿ ¿ inωx−e−inωx )¿ ¿ , (1) becomes
2 2i
∞ ∞
a a b
f ( x )= 0 + ∑ n (e ¿ ¿ inωx+e−inωx )+ ∑ n (e ¿ ¿ inωx−e−inωx ) ¿ ¿
2 n=1 2 n=1 2 i

a0 ∞ 1 ∞
1
f ( x )= + ∑ ( a n−i bn ) einωx + ∑ ( an +ib n ) e−inωx
2 n=1 2 n =1 2

∞ ∞
f ( x )=c 0+ ∑ c n e inωx + ∑ c−n e−inωx
n=1 n=1

a0 an−i bn an +i bn
where c 0= , c n= , c−n=
2 2 2
∞ −∞
inωx
f ( x )=c 0+ ∑ c n e + ∑ c n e inωx
n=1 n=−1

∞
f ( x )= ∑ c n e inωx , since c0 e 0=c 0
n =−∞
Thus the Fourier series (1) becomes simply
∞
f ( x )= ∑ c n e inωx
n =−∞

which is referred to as the complex or exponential form of the Fourier series expansion of
the function f (x), where c n is called complex coefficient.
In order that we can apply this result directly, it is necessary to obtain a formula for
calculating the complex coefficient c n
 The complex Fourier coefficients c n can be readily obtained as follows using, firstly
a 1 c+T
c 0= 0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
2 T c
c +T c+T
1
c n= (a ¿ ¿ n−ib n)=
2
1
T
c+T
[∫c
]
f ( x ) cos ( nωx ) dx−i ∫ f ( x ) sin ( nωx ) dx ¿
c

1
c n= ∫ f ( x ) [ cos ( nωx )−i sin ( nωx ) ] dx
T c
c+T
1
c n= ∫ f ( x ) e−inωx dx
T c
Thus the complex form of the Fourier series expansion of a periodic function f (t), of period T , is
∞
f ( x )= ∑ c n e inωx
n =−∞
where
c+T
1
c n=
T
∫ f ( x ) e−inωx dx
c

Note: Conversion Formulas:

• To compute complex coefficients from real coefficients, the following formulas can be
used
a0
c 0=
2

a n−i b n
c n=
2

an +ib n
c−n =
2

• To compute real coefficients from complex coefficients, the following formulas can be
used

a 0=2 c 0

a n=c n +c−n

b n=i(c ¿ ¿ n−c−n) ¿

1. Obtain the complex form of the Fourier series of f ( x )=e−x in −1< x <1.
∞ ∞
2π 2 π
f ( x )= ∑ c n e = ∑ c n e inπx
inωx
Sol. We have T =2 , ω= = =π
T 2 n =−∞ n=−∞
where
 c+T 1
1 1
c n= ∫ f ( x ) e−inωx dx= ∫ e−x e−inπx dx
T c 2 −1
1 1
1 e−(1+inπ ) x
1
c n= ∫ e−(1+inπ) x dx=
2 −1 [ =
2 − (1+inπ ) −1 2 ( 1+inπ )
e ]
−1 [ −(1 +inπ ) 1+ inπ ]
−e

1
c n= [ e1 +inπ −e−(1 +inπ ) ]
2(1+inπ)

c n=e ¿ ¿

(−1 )n ( 1−inπ ) sinh 1

c n= ,¿
1+n2 π 2
Hence,
∞
(−1 )n ( 1−inπ ) sinh 1 inπx
e− x = ∑ e
n=−∞ 1+n2 π 2

−1 ,−π < x <0

2. Obtain the complex form of the Fourier series of f ( x )=
+1 , 0< x< π {
∞ ∞
2π 2π
f ( x )= ∑ c n e = ∑ c n e inx
inωx
Sol. We have T =2 π , ω= = =1
T 2π n =−∞ n=−∞
where
c+T 0 π
c n=
1
T
∫ f (x)e
c
−inωx

0
dx=
1
2π
π
[∫
−π
−1. e
−inx
dx +∫ e
0
−inx
dx
]
c n=
1
2π {[ ] [ ] }
−e−inx
−¿ −π
e−inx
+ −¿
0
=
i
2 πn
[ − ( 1−e inπ ) +e−inπ −1 ]

inπ
i
[ e inπ + e−inπ −2 ]= i e + e −1
−inπ
c n=
2 πn πn 2 [ ]
i
c n= ¿
πn

−2 i
If n=2 k ,then c 2 k =0. If n=2 k−1 , thenc 2 k−1=
( 2 k−1 ) π

Hence the complex Fourier series of the given function is

∞
−2 i 1
f ( x )= ∑ e i(2 k−1 )x
π k=−∞ 2 k−1

3. Obtain the complex form of the Fourier series of f ( x )=cos ax in −π < x <π
∞ ∞
2π 2π inωx
Sol. We have T =2 π , ω= =
T 2π
=1 f ( x ) = ∑ n c e = ∑ c n e inx
n =−∞ n=−∞
where
 c+T π
1 1
c n= ∫ f ( x ) e−inωx dx= ∫ cos ax . e−inx dx
T c 2 π −π

1
c n= .¿ ¿
2π

1
c n= ¿
2 π (a2−n2)

Since e inπ =cos nπ +isin nπ =(−1 )n , e−inπ =cos (−nπ )+ isin (−nπ ) =(−1 )n,

1
c n= ¿
2 π ( a2−n2 )

1
c n= 2 2
[−¿ cos aπ (−1 )n +a sin aπ (−1 )n +¿ cos aπ (−1 )n+ a sin aπ (−1 )n ]
2 π ( a −n )
1
c n= ¿
2 π ( a2−n2 )

a
c n= 2 2
sin aπ (−1 )n
π ( a −n )

Hence the complex Fourier series of the given function is,

∞
a (−1 )n inx
f ( x )=cos ax= sin aπ ∑ 2 2 e
π n=−∞ a −n
Practice problems:
1. Obtain the complex form of the Fourier series of f ( x )=e x in −π < x <π .
(−1 )n sinh π sinh π
−∞
(−1 )n inx
Ans :c n= , f ( x )= ∑ e
π ( 1−n ) π n=−∞ (1−¿)

2. Obtain the complex form of the Fourier series of f ( x )=sin x in 0< x < π .
2 e 2it + e−2it e 4 it +e−4 it e 6 it +e−6 it
Ans :
π {
1−
1.3
−
3.5
−
5.7
−… }
x
3. Obtain the complex form of the Fourier series of f ( x )=cos in −π < x <π .
2
−2 (−1 )n ∞
2 (−1 )n+1 inx
Ans :c n= , f ( x ) = ∑ 2 e
( 4 n2−1 ) π n=−∞ ( 4 n −1 ) π
 Practice Problems:

1. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x )= ( π −x

2 )
in the interval ( 0 , 2 π ) .
∞
1 π −x 1
Ans :a0=0 , an=0 , b n= ∧f ( x )= =∑ sin nx
n 2 n=1 n

2. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x )=x + x 2 for −π < x <π .

n ∞ n ∞ n
2π2 4 (−1 ) −2 n π2 4 (−1 ) 2 (−1 )
Ans :a0= , an = 2
, b n = (−1 ) ∧f ( x ) = +∑ 2
cos nx−∑ sin nx
3 n n 3 n=1 n n =1 n

π + x ,−π < x< 0

3. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x )=
π −x ,0< x< π{ in the interval (−π , π ).

π 4 cos x cos 3 x
Ans :f ( x )= +
2 π 12
+
(32
+………
)
4. Find the Fourier series of the function f ( x ) in the interval (−π , π ) where
2
f ( x )= −x 2 ,−π < x< 0
{ x , 0< x < π

4 2 4 π
(
Ans :f ( x )=2 π−
π )
sin x−π sin 2 x+ π−
3 9π ( )
sin 3 x− sin 4 x +… … .
2

5. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x ) given by

x ,0< x< π
{
f ( x )=
2 π −x , π < x <2 π

π 4 cos 3 x cos 5 x
Ans :f ( x )= − cos x +
2 π (9
+
25
+… )
6. Obtain the Fourier series of the function f ( x ) given by
f ( x )= 2+ x ,−2< x <0
{ 2−x , 0< x< 2

f (x+ 4)=f (x )
4
Ans :a0=2 , a n= 2 2
[ 1− (−1 )n ] , b n=0 ,
n π

8
f ( x )=1+ ¿
π2

7. Determine the Fourier series for a periodic function defined by

f ( x )= 0 ,−1< x< 0
{ x , 0< x <1
f ( x +2 )=f ( x ) .
1 1 (−1 )n+1
Ans :a0= , a n= 2 2 [ (−1 )n −1 ] ,b n= ,
2 n π nπ

∞
[ (−1 )n−1 ] (−1 )n+ 1
1
f ( x )= + ∑
4 n=1 [ n2 π 2
cos ( nπx )+
nπ ]
sin(nπx )