Cell structure

Robert Hooke (1665) – observed a thin slice of cork under the microscope and discovered and described the cell as the
fundamental unit of all living things.

Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839) - put forward the cell theory; - Cell is the basic unit of structure and function of all
living organisms.

Virchow (1855): Put forward the theory that all cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division.

Cell biology: The study of cells. This area of study developed parallel to the advancement of microscopy.

Microscopes:

Light microscope- source of radiation is light. Electron microscope- source of radiation is electrons

Cytology: science f preparing material for examination with microscopes (using of fixatives stains and sectioning)

Light microscopy:

Photomicrographs are obtained using light microscopes.

Major parts of a light microscope (ref. labelled diagram)

General magnification: i 10x4.5

i. 10x10
ii. 10x40
iii. X1000 (found only in very high quality light microscopes)

Fig 1.4- structure of a generalized animal cell (diameter 40ppm) as seen with a very high quality light microscope.

Name the structures that animal & plant cells have in common, those found only plant cells, and those found only in
animal cells.

Structure as seen with a very high quality Animal Plant

light microscope cells(20 mm) cells(40mm)
(5mm 40mm)
Cell surface membrane (plasma membrane)
Nucleus
Chromatin
Nucleolus
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria (single mitochondrian)
Golgi apparatus (Golgi body/Golgi complex)
Centriole
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata(sin. Plasmodesma)
Vacuole
tonoplast
chloroplast
Granum(grana)

Units of measurement:

SI units
Basic of length – m

Additional units of length: mm = ii. µm = iii. nm

The smallest structure visible with the human eye= 50- 100

Human body cell- 5µm Mitochondrion- 1µm Ribosome- 25nm

When we observe things using microscopes we look for 3 qualities, magnification, resolution, contrast

Magnification:

Magnification is the number of times large an image is than the real size of the object

Magnification = observed size of image/ actual size

M= I/A

Eyepiece graticule this is a transparent scale fitted to the eyepiece of the microscope and is used to measure the objects.

To calibrate the eyepiece graticule the stage micrometer scale is used. This is a miniature transparent ruler attached on
to a glass slide. It usually has subdivisions of 0.1 and 0.01.

Resolution:
This is the ability to distinguish between two separate points. (The amount of details that can be seen).

The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200nm. (if two points or objects are closer together than 200nm they
cannot be distinguished as separate). Anything smaller than 200nm cannot be seen using a light microscope.

In an electron microscope-0.5nm.

The limit of resolution is about one half the wavelength of the radiation use to view the specimen.

Contrast:

Contrast will be improved by staining. (If all objects are transparent contrast is less).
Electron Microscopy:

Image produced is known as the electron micrograph. Instrument; Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

A beam of free electrons that behave like electromagnetic radiation which is sent through a vacuum, is used as the
source of radiation.

The advantages of using electrons as radiation:

1. They have a very short wave length. Shorter wavelengths can interfere more with

smaller objects. That means the resolution is more (0.5nm).

2. An electromagnet can be used to bend the electron beam in order to focus to an object.

This nature is similar to a glass lens bending light in a light microscope.

As an electron beam cannot be seen, in order to make the image possible, the image is projected onto a florescent
screen.

In order to improve the contrast heavy metal atoms that block the passage of electrons are used. This will produce black
and white images similar to X-ray photographs. Based on the false colour images are produced using computers.

Comparison of light and electron microscope:

Feature TEM Light Microscope

Radiation source & Wave length Electrons (about 0.005nm) Light (400-700nm)
Maximum resolution in practice 0.5nm 200nm
Maximum useful magnification X 250,000 X1000-1500
Lenses Electromagnets glass
Specimen Nonliving, dehydrated, relatively Living or non-living usually
small or thin, supported on a supported on a glass slide
copper grid in a vacuum
Common stains Contain heavy metals to reflect Coloured dyes
electrons and use computers to
colour
Image Black and white Usually coloured

Comparison of Transmission and Scanning EM:

TEM SEM
Electron beam is passed Electron beam scans the surface
through the specimen and only of the specimen and only
electrons that are transmitted electrons reflected are seen.
through the specimen are seen
Image is 2D Image is 2D
Resolution is higher Resolution is less (3-20nm )

The fine structure of the cell as seen with the electron microscope is known as the ultrastructure.
Ultrastructure of Cells:

Refer animal and plant cells as seen with electron microscope pg. 14 and 20)

Animal and Plant cell structures that can be seen only under an electron microscope:

1. Nuclear envelope 2. Ribosomes 3. Lysosomes 4 Microtubules 5 Endoplasmic reticulum

The cell has achieved two special features by having organelles

1 Compartmentalization

2 Division of labour

Nucleus

This is the largest cell organelle. It is surrounded by the nuclear envelope. The outer membrane is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum. The envelope contains many pores which allow and control exchange between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. E.g. mRNA and ribosomes leave the nucleus for protein synthesis and proteins enter the nucleus to make
ribosomes, nucleotides, ATP and T3 hormone etc.

The nucleus contains chromatin (loosely coiled state of chromosomes in a cell which is not dividing) and a nucleolus (or
nucleoli) which is membraneless. The nucleolus makes ribosomes using its own DNA.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This is an extensive system of membranes running through the cytoplasm. The membrane of this forms flattened
compartments known as sacs or cisternae. Cisternae are interconnected.

There are two types of ER: rough ER and smooth ER.

RER:

RER are covered with ribosomes.

This transports protein made by the ribosomes, through the cisternae. During transport proteins are processed (the
protein gains the 3D shape). Vesicles (small spherical sacs break off from edges of cisternae containing the processed
protein. These vesicles join to form the Golgi apparatus.

SER:

This lacks ribosomes. They are more tubular. It makes lipids and steroids. E.g. cholesterol, oestrogen and testosterone.
Ribosome

This is the smallest organelle (about 25nm in diameter). This consists of two sub units: a large and a small subunit and
membrane less. They are the sites of protein synthesis. They can be found free in the cytoplasm as well as on the RER.
They are made of Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. They are made in the nucleolus and transported to the
cytoplasm. Ribosomes found in eukaryotes are 80S and those found in prokaryotes are 70S. However ribosomes found
within mitochondria and chloroplasts are also 70S.

Golgi body(Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex)

The Golgi body is a stack of flattened sacs (cisternae). More than one Golgi body may be present in a cell. The stack is
constantly made at one end from vesicles which bud off from RER, and broken down again at the other end to form
Golgi vesicles. The stack of sacs together with the associated vesicles is referred to as the Golgi apparatus/complex.

Processes occur in the Golgi body:

(a) Further processing of proteins by adding various molecules.

E.g Proteins + sugars Glycoproteins

Proteins + Lipids Lipoproteins

Globin + iron Haemoglobin

(b) Removal of first amino acids, methionine from proteins

( c) Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus convert sugars into cell wall compounds. E.g. Cellulose and pctin

(d) Some Golgi vesicles contain lysosymes. They are known as lysosomes.

Finally the Golgi vesicles that contain the processed protein are transported either to the other parts of the cell or out of
the cell (secretion by exocytosis).
Mitochondria (sing.mitochondrion)

Structure: Surrounded by an envelope of two membranes, the inner being folded to form cristae. Contains
a matrix with a few ribosomes (70s) and a circular DNA molecule.
Function: The site of aerobic respiration and make ATP which is the universal energy carrier in cells. They
also involve in synthesis of lipids.

Endosymbiont theory: This says mitochondria and chloroplasts are ancient bacteria which now live
inside the animal and plant cells, in a mutually beneficial relationship. Now these
are permanently established in eukaryotic cells.
Evidence for endosymbiont theory:
i. Presence of 70S ribosomes. (Ribosomes in prokaryotes are 70S)
ii. Presence of circular DNA (circular DNAs found in prokaryotes)
iii Can divide to increase their number
Both mitochondria and chloroplast have above features.

Cell surface membrane

7nm thick. Under very high magnification a tri laminar appearance ca be seen.

Microvilli (sing. Microvillus) can be seen.

Finger like extension of cell surface membrane.
Function: increase the surface area of absorption. E.g. Gut cells, cells in the proximal convoluted tubule

Microtubules:
 Microtubules are long, rigid hollow tubes with a diameter of about 25nm. A microtubule consists of
proteins called tubulin.

Centrioles:
 Two centrioles are located just outside the nucleus.
 A centrioles is a hollow cylinder about 0.4µm long.
  Each centriole consists of microtubules.
 Centrioles are not found in plant cells.
 09 triplets of microtubules form a cylindrical structure.

Functions: This initiates the spindle formation during cell division .

Ultra structure of a plant cell;

Cell wall, middle lamella and plasmodesmata

Cell wall
Structure: Cell wall is rigid as it contains fibres of cellulose. Certain cells are more strengthened with extra
cellulose or lignin. e.g.: xylem vessels
Function: Cell wall is freely permeable for movement of molecules and ions.
The cell wall gives the cell a definite shape.
Middle lamella
Structure: A thin layer of pectic substances. Exists as calcium and magnesium pectate.
Function: This cements neighbouring cells together.

Plasmodesmata
Structure: These are fine strands of cytoplasm running through a pore between cells.
These link cytoplasm of two cells.
Function: This enables a continuous system of cytoplasm known as the symplast which
Important for transport of substances between neighbouring cells.

Vacuole
Structure: Mature plant cells possess a large permanent central vacuole.
This is surrounded by the tonaplast
The fluid inside the vacuole is called the cell sap.
The cell sap contains mineral salts, oxygen, sugars, CO 2, pigments, enzymes and other organic
compounds.
Function: Storage of waste products
To regulate the osmotic properties
 Keep pigments important for certain colours of plants. E.g.:beet root, some
petals of flowers.
Chloroplast

This is relatively a large organelle. Double membranous. Membrane bound sacs called thylakoids run through
the stroma.
Stacks of thylakoids are called grana. Chlorophyll (photosynthetic pigments) are found on thylakoid and grana.
They absorb light.
Chloroplast is also known as an endosymbiont as it contains 70s ribosomes and circular DNA.
Function: Photosynthesis

Organelle Surrounde by
02 membranes Single membrane No membrane
Nucleus

Nucleolus

Mitochondrion

RER

SER

Ribosomes

Centriole

Chloroplast

Vacuole

Golgi body
 Prokaryotic cells
All organisms

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Bacteria & blue green algae animals, plant, fungi, protoctists
No organized nucleus organized nucleus present.

 Eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes.

A generalized bacterium
Cell wall: Confers rigidity and shape: prevents cell from swelling and bursting: permeable to substances
dissolved in water (water, ions and small molecules) and not permeable to proteins and amino acids.
Cell surface (plasma) membrane: Partially permeable membrane forming a selective barrier between cell
contents and external environment: controls passage of substances into and out of cell: regulate the internal
environment.
Thylakoid(in photosynthetic bacteria): invaginations where chlorophylls and enzymes for photosynthesis are
located.
Mesosome: location of enzymes and proteins associated with aerobic respiration.
Looped (Circular DNA/bacterial chromosome) : Contain genetic information
Plasmids: Carry genes which help bacteria to survive in adverse conditions; able to replicate independently of
the main chromosome
Glycogen granules and lipid droplets: Food reserves

prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Unicellular Unicellular or multi cellular
Average diameter ranges from 0.5 -5µm About 40µm

Circular DNA lies free in the cytoplasm. DNA DNA coils around histone proteins & form the
has no associated proteins. (DNA is naked chromosome. Chromosomes are inside the
nucleus
Ribosomes 70s. Diameter 20nm Ribosomes 80s. Diameter 25nm
No membrane bound organelles More organelles are membrane bound
Cell wall always present. The cell wall Cell wall sometimes present eg: plants, fungi,
substance is peptidoglycan (murine). This is a algae.
polymer containing polysaccharides and Plants
amino acids Algae cellulose

Fungi } chitin (N – containing polysaccharide

Photosynthesis, aerobic respiration and N These processes occur in cell organelles.
fixation happen on foldings of the cell surface Eg: photosynthesis – chloroplast
membrane Respiration - mitochondria

Flagella present. But they do not contain If flagella are found, they contain microtubules
microtubules

Tissues and organs

Organization
Cells  tissues  organs  system
Tissues
A collection of some or mixed type of cells specialized to perform one or more particular functions.
 Show this by using a cross section of a leaf.

Eg: xylem bone

Phloem cartilage
Epidermis blood

Organ
Several tissues organized to perform one or more particular functions.

Eg: Leaf Brain

Stem Heart
Root Kidney
Liver

System
A collection of organs with a particular function.

Viruses
1. 1852 a Russian scientist discovered the existence of viruses.
2. They are much smaller than bacteria.(range from 20 – 300nm)
3. They are on the boundary between living and non- living
4. They do not have cellular structures, and they have a simple structure, consists of DNA or RNA molecule
and a protein coat. Based on the nucleic acid type present there are 02 types of viruses.
i. DNA viruses
ii. RNA viruses

5. DNA/RNA  This is the genetic code and important for replication.

Protein coad  Protecti
6. All viruses are parasites. (Obligate parasites). As they exploit the host cell nucleus to reproduce. Proteins
are made by using the protein synthesis mechanism of host cell and then nucleic acid and proteins are
assembled to make new virus particals.
 ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)
This is the energy – carrying molecule found in all living cells. It is known as the universal energy carrier.
ATP breaks down to release energy

ATP ATP synthase

ADP  PO4-3 E

ATP s are made a 2 organelles.

1. Mitochondria - during aerobic respiration. (cristal)
respiration
Glucose E
2. in chloroplast
Light photosynthesis E ATP Glucose
Thylakoid membrane