Probability Distributions for Reliability 1

Module PE.PAS.U10.3
Probability Distributions for Reliability

U10.2 The Binomial Distribution

Consider a random trial having only two possible outcomes. Such
a trial is referred to as a Bernoulli trial. We refer to one of the
outcomes as “success” and the other as “failure.” The probability
of success is denoted as p, and the probability of failure is denoted
as q, so that p+q=1.0.
An experiment is a series of n Bernoulli trials, with the outcome of
each trial independent from the outcomes of all other trials before
it.

Denote the random variable X as the total number of successes out

of the n trials, where r is used to denote the values that the random
variable may take, and therefore the number of failures is n-r.
Since r must be nonnegative, the sample space is
S={0, 1, 2, …, n}.

The probability distribution function for the random variable X is

n!
P X=r =Pr[ X =r ,n , p ]= pr (1− p )( n−r )
r !(n−r )! (U10.1)

The number of ways r

successes can occur (the
number of combinations of
n distinguishable elements The probability that we will
taken r at a time). observe r consecutive
successes followed by n-r
consecutive failures
Probability Distributions for Reliability 2

Example U10.1
An electric power system is supplied from a total of 150 generating
units. Calculate the probability of having (a) 2, (b) 5, and (c) 10
units being out of service during the same time interval, given that
the outage rate (probability of outage) of each unit for the time
interval is 6%, 3%, and 1%.
(a)The probabilities of having r=2 units out of service, for the
various outage rates, are:
150 !
Pr[ X=2,150 ,0.06 ]= 0.062 (0.94)(148 )=0.00424
2!(148)!
150!
Pr[ X=2,150 ,0.03 ]= 0.032(0.97)(148)=0.11084
2!(148)!
150!
Pr[ X=2,150 ,0.01 ]= 0.012(0.99)(148)=0.25250
2!(148)!
Probability of having 2 units out is highest for the lowest outage
rate of 1%.
(b) The probabilities of having r=5 units out of service, for the
various outage rates, is:
150 !
Pr[ X=5,150 ,0.06 ]= 0.06 5 (0.94 )( 145)=0.05839
5!(145 )!
150 !
Pr[ X=5,150 ,0.03 ]= 0.035 (0.97 )(145)=0 .17359
5!(145 )!
150!
Pr[ X=5,150 ,0.01 ]= 0.015(0.99 )(145)=0.01378
5!(145)!
Note that the probability of having 5 units out is highest for the
intermediate outage rate of 3%.
Probability Distributions for Reliability 3

(c)The probabilities of having r=10 units out of service, for the

various outage rates, is:
150 !
Pr[ X=10,150 ,0.06 ]= 0.0610 (0.94 )(140)=0 .12230
10 !(140)!
150 !
Pr[ X=10,150 ,0.03 ]= 0 .0310 (0.97)( 140)=0.00971
10 !(140)!
150!
Pr[ X=10,150 ,0.01 ]= 0 .0110 (0.99 )( 140)=0.00000
10!(140)!
Note that the probability of having 10 units out is highest for the
highest outage rate of 6%.
Comparing the illustrations (a), (b), and (c), we observe the
intuitively pleasing feature that
- the probability of having a small number of units out is much
greater when the outage rate is low, and
- the probability of having a large number of units out is much
greater when the outage rate is high.
Probability Distributions for Reliability 4

U10.3 The Poisson Distribution

Consider a random variable X characterized by the binomial
distribution, where, as before, n is the number of trials, and p is the
probability of success. But now let’s consider the special case that
the probability, p, of a success in a single trial approaches zero as
the number of trials, n, approaches infinity during a certain time
period t, such that the product n*p is constant.

In addition, let  be the mean number of successes per unit time.

Then we see that n*p=t.

Noting that p=t/n, we have from (U10.1)

r (n−r)
n! n! λt λt
P X=r =Pr[ X =r , n , p ]=
r !(n−r )!
( n−r )
pr (1− p ) = ( )( )
r !(n−r )! n
1−
n
After some simplifications, we get:
r
nr λt r −λt ( λt ) −λt
P X=r =Pr [ X =r , n , p ]=
r! n
e = ( )
r!
e
(U10.7)

The parameter  is called the intensity of occurrence of Poisson

events.
If the random variable X represents the number of failures, then 
is the failure rate.
Then the units of  are failures per unit time. It provides the mean
number of failures expected per unit of time.

The Poisson distribution is an approximation to the binomial

distribution under the given conditions of large n and constant np.

It effectively characterizes a process through time in which we

count occurrences of a certain type of random event.
Probability Distributions for Reliability 5

We will now denote the Poisson distribution as a function of time,

Pr(t) is “the probability that the random variable X equals r during
the time interval (0,t).”

A Poisson counting process must satisfy the following

requirements:
 The numbers of events counted in non-overlapping intervals of
time are independent.
 The intensity  is constant.

The probability of having zero occurrences in (0,t), denoted by

P0(t).
−λt
P0 (t )=e
(U10.11)
Equation (U10.11) provides the probability of having zero
occurrences during (0,t), and 1-P0(t) provides the probability of
having more than zero occurrences in (0,t).

But what if we want the probability of having r failures during

(0,t)? This is denoted as Pr(t).
P1 (t )= λ te−λt (U10.14)
r
( λt ) − λt
Pr (t )= e
r!
(U10.15)

It is of interest to recall the power series:

e-x = 1 – x + x2/2! - x3/3! + …
and for x very small, e-x  1 – x. Thus, when t is very small (either
because  is very small or t is very small, or both), then
e-t  1 – t, and (U10.15) becomes
Probability Distributions for Reliability 6

r
( λt )
Pr (t )≈ (1−λt )
r! (U10.16)
Thus, for r=0 we have that
P0 (t )≈1−λt
from which we see that the probability of having 1 or more
occurrences in (0,t) is
Pr>0 (t )=1−P0 (t )≈1−(1− λt )=λt
(U10.17)
From (U10.16), the case of r=1 is
2
P1 (t )≈ λt(1−λt )=λt −( λt) ≈ λt (U10.18)
Comparison of (U10.17) with (U10.18) shows that

Pr>0 (t )=P1 (t )
implying that, when t is small, the probability of having more
than one occurrence in (0,t) is the same as the probability of having
exactly one occurrence in (0,t). The conclusion is that, when t is
small, the probability of having 2 or more occurrences in (0,t) is
zero.

Example U10.2

A power plant has a constant forced outage rate of once every two
years. What is the probability that over a period of 3 years, (a) no
outage will occur (b) at least three outages will occur?

(a) λ=0 .5 occurrences/year

P0 (t )=e−λt  P0 (3 )=e−( 0. 5)( 3)=e−1. 5 =0 .2231
Probability Distributions for Reliability 7

(b)
( λt )2 − λt
Pr r>2 (t )=1−( P 0 (t )+P1 (t )+P2 (t ) )=1− e + λ te +
2
e ( −λt −λt
)
(1 . 5)2 −1. 5
Pr r>2 (3)=1−( P0 (3)+P1 (3 )+P2 (3 ) ) =1− e ( −1. 5
+1 .5 e −1. 5
+
2
e )
=0 . 1913

Example U10.3

Draw the (a) 1 year and (b) 10 year probability distributions (for
r=0,…,20) for a power plant of Example U10.2 having constant
forced outage rate of 0.5/year.

Distribution at 1 year

0.7
0.6
0.5
Probability

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Number of outages

Distribution at 10 years

0.2
0.18
0.16
0.14
Probability

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Number of outages
Probability Distributions for Reliability 8

When we use the Poisson to obtain the probability of two or more

failures, one must be aware of implicitly assuming that the repair
time is zero, i.e., we are able to instantly replace any failed
component. This assumption is quite reasonable if the average
repair time is quite short when compared to the average time to
failure.

U10.4 The Exponential Distribution

Consider again using the Poisson distribution to characterize the
probability distribution of a random variable X(t) representing the
number of failures occurring in the time interval (0,t).
Denote by T1 the time of the first failure, T2, the time between the
first failure and the second failure, …, and T n as the time between
the failure n-1 and failure n. For example, if T 1=3 years and T2=4
years, then the first event would occur at year 3 and the second
event at year 7. What is the distribution of any one of the Ti, i=1,
…,n?
Note first that the event {T1>t} takes place if and only if no events
of the Poisson process occur in the interval (0,t), and therefore:
− λt
Pr(T 1 >t )=P0 (t )=e (U10.21)
The equation (U10.2) is a probability distribution function for the
random variable T1.
It appears to be the same distribution as that of the Poisson
distribution for the case r=0 per (U10.11).
However, in the case of (U10.11), the random variable is X with
values it can take denoted by r; here, the random variable is T 1,
with values it can take denoted by t.
Probability Distributions for Reliability 9

Whereas the Poisson distribution characterizes a discrete random

variable - the number of occurrences in (0,t), (U10.21)
characterizes a continuous random variable - the time interval until
the first occurrence. Equation (U10.21) is called an exponential
distribution.
A fundamental quality associated with exponentially distributed
random variables:
 the process from any time onwards is independent of all that has
previously occurred
 the process is said to have no memory.
If an “occurrence” is a failure, then we would say that the
reliability is constant for equal operating periods throughout the
useful life of the component, i.e., the probability of failure depends
only on the exposure time [1]. Thus, an old component that still
works is just as good as a new one!
Implication: Any component having exponentially distributed
failure time is a non-deteriorating component: failures happen
entirely by chance rather than as a result of a mode of deterioration
that lends some level of predictability to the failures.
Equation (U10.21) gives the probability of the event not occurring
in the time period (0,t). Thus, the probability that the event does
occur in the time period (0,t) is
−λt
Pr (T 1 <t )=1−e (U10.26)
Equation (U10.26) is clearly a cumulative distribution function.
Then the probability density function, denoted by fT(t), is given by
its derivative:
−λt
f T (t )=λe (U10.27)
Probability Distributions for Reliability 10

Equation (U10.27) is the probability density function for an

exponentially distributed random variable; its graph is illustrated in
Figure U10.1.

Exponential density function

0.6

0.5

0.4
density

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
time

Fig. U10.1: Exponential density function for =1

U10.5 The Weibull Distribution

The Weibull distribution is a continuous distribution heavily used
for fatigue and breaking strength of materials and also for failure-
time distributions. A random variable T is characterized by the
Weibull distribution if it obeys the probability density function:

β t B−1 t β

[ ( )]
f T (t )= α
β

: shape parameter
{exp −
α

0, otherwise
, t ,α ,β>0

(U10.30)
Probability Distributions for Reliability 11

: scale parameter

The Weibull probability density function can take on many

different kinds of shapes; it is this fact that makes it so useful in
that it can be used to characterize many kinds of data.
Weibull Distribution for alpha=10

0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1 Beta=0.5
density

0.08 Beta=1
0.06 Beta=4
0.04
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time

U10.6 The Rayleigh distribution

The Rayleigh distribution is a special case of the Weibull where,
=2.

U10.7 The Normal Distribution

The most well known distribution is the normal distribution, also
known as the Gaussian distribution.
(t −μ )2
f T ( t )=
1
σ √2 π
exp −
2σ 2 [( )]
, - ∞<t <∞ ,−∞< μ<∞ , σ > 0

There are two important facts worth mentioning in regards to the

normal distribution.
Probability Distributions for Reliability 12

 If T is normally distributed with parameters  and , then

Y=aT+b is also normally distributed, but its parameters are a+b
and a.
 If X1, …, Xn are identical independently distributed (IID)
random variables, then the distribution of their sum is normal as
n , whatever the original distribution. This is a simple
statement of the central limit theorem and is proved in many
textbooks, among which are [5] and [6].
For purposes of modeling lifetime distributions,
 the normal distribution has the disadvantage that it allows
negative time.
 most lifetime distributions tend to be asymmetric with a long
right-hand tail

U10.8 The Lognormal Distribution

The lognormal distribution probability density function is given
by:
( ln t −μ )2
f T ( t )=
1
tσ √ 2 π
exp −
[(
2 σ2 )]
, 0<t <∞ ,−∞< μ<∞ , σ >0

This distribution is an exponential transformation of the normal

distribution [9].
If lifetimes have a lognormal distribution, then the log of the
lifetime has a normal distribution.
Note that the parameters µ and σ2 of the lognormal distribution are
the mean and variance of the log lifetime distribution.
One important attribute of the lognormal distribution is that it
allows the random variable to assume only positive values, an
important attribute in modeling lifetime distributions.
Probability Distributions for Reliability 13

U10.9 The Gamma distribution

The gamma distribution has a probability density function given by

λ( λt )α −1 e− λt
f (t )= , t≥0
Γ (α )
∞
Γ(α )=∫ x α−1 e−x dx
0
α is the shape parameter: 0<α<1 gives a decreasing hazard rate
and α>1 gives an increasing rate. The case α=1 is the exponential
distribution.