Dedu501 Development of Education System English

Development of Education System
DEDU501
DEVELOPMENT
OF
EDUCATION SYSTEM
Copyright © 2012
All rights reserved with publishers
Produced & Printed by

USI PUBLICATIONS
2/31, Nehru Enclave, Kalkaji Ext.,
New Delhi-110019
for
Lovely Professional University
Phagwara
SYLLABUS
Objectives:
To enable the learners to
(1) acquire knowledge of characteristics features of ancient, medieval and British system of education in India and of their
strengths and limitations
(2) appreciate the developments in Indian education during the post-independence era
(3) understand the constitutional obligation in relation to education in India
Sr. No. Content
1 Education in India during ancient period: Vedic and Buddhist Education, Education in
India during medieval period: Islamic Education, Education in India during British
period: Macaulay’s minutes, Wood’s dispatch and Hunter commission
2 Education in India after independence: Secondary Education Commission (1952-53),
Indian Education Commission (1964-66), National Policy of Education (1986)
3 Programme of Action (1992), Quality of education: concept, parameters, status and
prospects with focus on objectives outlined in Delor’s Commision Report, National
Knowledge Commission(2009), National curriculum Framework (2005)
4 Functions of apex bodies of Education: NCERT, SCERT, Functions of CBSE and
State Boards of Education, Functions of UGC, NAAC, NCTE, Constitutional
provisions with special reference to Education in India
5 Universalization of elementary Education: concept and problems, Programs of UEE,
District Primary Education Programme, Sarav Shiksha Abhiyan, Right to Education
(2009)
6 Secondary Education: concept and need, Problems of Secondary Education: Aims,
Curriculum, Methods, Examination, Vocationalisation of secondary education
7 Teacher Education: concept and importance, Types of Teacher education (pre-service
and in-service), Teacher education at various levels, emerging trends in teacher
Education
8 Distance Education: concept, need and modes of distance education, Privatization of
higher education, Globalization of education
9 Human Rights Education: concept and importance of human rights education and role
of education in promoting human rights, Brief historical background of human rights
with special reference to Universal Declaration of Human rights ,Human Rights Act in
Indian Legislation,
10 Environmental Education: Concept and need, Role of Education in generating
environmental awareness
CONTENTS
Unit 1: Education in India During Ancient Period : Vedic and Buddhist Education 1
Unit 2: Education in India During Medieval Period: Islamic Education 12
Unit 3: Education in India During British Period Macaulay’s Minutes, Wood’s Despatch and
Hunter Commission 22
Unit 4: Education in India after Independence: Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) 36
Unit 5: Indian Education Commission (1964-66) 42
Unit 6: National Policy of Education, (1986) 51
Unit 7: Programme of Action, (1992) 61

Unit 8: Quality of Education: Concept, Parameters, Status and Prospects with Focus on Objectives
Outlined in Delor’s Commission Report 71
Unit 9: National Knowledge Commission (2009) 84
Unit 10: National Curriculum Framework (2005) 90
Unit 11: Functions of Apex Bodies of Education : NCERT and SCERT 100
Unit 12: Functions of CBSE and State Boards of Education 108
Unit 13: Functions of UGC, NAAC and NCTE 119
Unit 14: Constitutional Provisions with special Reference to Education in India 130
Unit 15: Universalization of Elementary Education : Concept and Problems 135
Unit 16: Programes of UEE 142
Unit 17: District Primary Education Programme 154
Unit 18: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 162
Unit 19: Right to Education Act (2009) 168
Unit 20: Secondary Education: Concept and Need 174
Unit 21: Problems of Secondary Education (Aims, Curriculum, Methods and Examination) 182
Unit 22: Vocationalisation of Secondary Education 197
Unit 23: Teacher Education: Concept and Importance 205
Unit 24: Types of Teacher Education (Pre-Service and In-Service) 213
Unit 25: Teacher Education at Various Levels (Emerging Trends in Teacher Education) 225
Unit 26: Distance Education (Concept, Need and Modes) 244
Unit 27: Privatization of Higher Education in India: Rationable and Perspectives 254
Unit 28: Globalization of Education 264
Unit 29: Human Rights Education (Concept, importance and role of Education in Promoting Human Rights) 272
Unit 30: Universal Declaration of Human Rights 280
Unit 31: Environmental Education : Concept and Need 292
Unit 32: Role of Education in Generating Environmental Awareness 298
Unit 1: Education in India During Ancient Period : Vedic and Buddhist Education
Unit 1: Education in India During Ancient Period: Notes
Vedic and Buddhist Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
1.1 About Vedic Education
1.2 Education In India During Buddhist Period
1.3 Basic Principles of the Philosophy of Education As Based on the Philosophy of Buddhism
1.4 Main Features of Buddhist Education
1.5 Educational Implications of Buddhist Philosophy
1.6 Methods of Teaching
1.7 Summary
1.8 Keywords
1.9 Review Questions
1.10 Further Readings
Objectives
The objectives of this unit can be summarized as below:
• to discuss about vedic education.
• to explain about Education in India during Buddhist Period.
• to describe about basic principles of the philosophy of Education as based on the philosophy
of Buddhism.
• to learn about main features of Buddhist Education.
• to explain about educational implications of Buddhist philosophy.
• to discuss about methods of teaching.
Introduction
The most important contribution of ancient India not only for India but also for the world is in
the field of education. It may also be remembered that education is not an abstract term. It is
manifested in the cultural economic, individual, philosophical, scientific, social and spiritual
advancement. In other words, education is the means for developing the mind for the betterment
of the individual and society.
Ancient education emerged form the Vedas. They are supposed to be the source of Indian
philosophy of life, Vedas means ‘to know.’ They are four in number, namely (1) Rig Veda, (2)
Sama veda, (3) Yajur Veda, and (4) Atharva Veda. Among vedas Rig Veda is treated to be the
origin. In interprets the knowledge aspect and deals with the four stage of life, viz, celibacy,
family life, forest life, and renunciation. Buddhism came into being when several ills had crept
into Vedic/Brahmanical thought or Hinduism. Mahatma Buddha’s was a great charismatic
personality, Perhaps in the world, there are only two instances of Mahatma Buddha and Swami
Mahavira—the two princes who renounced their princely and worldly life and devoted themselves
to ;preach Buddhism and Jainism respectively.
Mahatma Buddha’s philosophy of Buddhism is very simple. He laid greater emphasis on leading
a pure life. He avoided reference to meta physics which he considered to be superfluous.
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1

Notes Buddhism is either silent or does not give importance to philosophical thinking on matters like
God and Transmigration of Soul, etc. Buddhism does not accept the ‘Divinity’ of the Vedas.
Mahatma Budha practised several types of penances for finding out the truth.
1.1 About Vedic Education

The vedas contain 20,358 verses. The Rig veda has the largest number of verses (10,522) followed
by Atharva Veda (5,977), Yajur Veda (1,985) and Sama Veda (1,875). The Rig Veda is the oldest
among all the four vedas.
The language of the vedas is the ancient Sanskrit. The language is of different styles: somewhere
very complex and some where simple and easily understood.
The vedas have come down to us through an elaborate system of oral tradition. They were
passed on from one generation to another through memorisation. The seers held that “living by
the teachings of the vedas” was far more important than their memorisation and recitation.
The vedas have always been held in high esteem and have specially influenced Indian way of
life: its culture, history, literature, philosophy, religion and science, etc. the contents of the vedas
may be categorised under the following three heads:
(i) The “nama” or knowledge and wisdom
(ii) The “karma” or actions or code of conduct
(iii) The “upasana” or dedication and devotion to God.
1.1.1 Sources of the Vedic Age Education: Vedic Literature

No study of the source of Indian culture, education, philosophy and thought is complete without
an adequate acquaintance and understanding of the 'Vedic Literature'.
The Atharva veda mentions all the vedas. It is also known as the “science of medicine.”
A fundamental principle of Vedic education.
The Vedic literature consists of the following

1. Four Vedas 2. Six Vedangas
3. Four Upvedas 4. Four Brahmanas
5. One hundred and eighty Upanishads 6. Six systems of philosophy
7. Bhagwad Gita 8. Three Smritis
1.1.2 Main Features of the Vedic Education
Main features of the vedic Education are as follows:
(i) Free education in Ancient India: In ancient India teaching was considered to be holy duty
which a Brahman was bound to discharge irrespective of consideration of the fee teacher
were expected to devote their lives to the cause of teaching in the missionary spirit of
self-sacrifice, and the society laid down the principal that both the public and state should
help the learned teachers and educational institutions very liberally. Society realized that
"Vidyadana" or the gift in the cause of education was to be the best of gifts, possessing a
higher religious merit than even the gift of land. On the occasion of religious feats,
students and teachers were invited and donations were given liberally.
(ii) No state control on education: Rulers of the country had very little directly to do with
education. It was a private affairs of the people managed entirely by Brahmans.
2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

(iii) High status of Teachers: Teachers were a highly honoured class-honoured by even by Notes
kings. Kings rose from thrones to receive great teachers such as Narada, Vashishtha and
Vishwamitra.
(iv) Teachers as Parents: Teachers behaved as parent to their pupils and pupils behaved as
members of the teachers' family. The attitude of the pupil was to be one of complete
submission.
(v) Residential Schools: Teachers and pupils lived together and so identified themselves with
one another.
1.1.3 Aims, Ideals and Objectives of Vedic Education

Aims, ideals and objectives of education are always with relation to the ideals of society. While
discussing this aspect, we may keep in mind that modern terms like democracy, secular, social
communism, socialism, autocracy etc. were not in use during the vedic age. Therefore, aims and
objectives of education should not be discussed in the context of these terms. Following were the
main objectives of education:
1. Ultimate objective as moksha or self-realisation
2. Infusion of Piety & Religiousness
3. Education for worldliness
4. Character formation
5. Development of all round personality
(a) Self-restraint (b) Self-confidence
(c) Self-respect (d) Discrimination and judgement
6. Stress on Social duties
7. Promotion of Social Efficiency and Welfare
8. Preservation and promotion of culture
Gurukul System of Education
(1) Education System. (2) Teacher-taught Relationship,
(3) Curriculum. (4) Method of Teaching
(5) Discipline. (6) Women’s Education
(7) Social System.
1.1.4 Teachings in Vedic Period
In Vedic education, meaningless outwardly knowledge has been condemned. A person having
meaningless outwardly knowledge has been compared to a donkey loaded with ‘Chanada wood’.
The mere crammer of Vedic texts has been condemned as Arvak by Rigveda. To maintain the
meditation system well the meritorious students were taught its techniques.
The preceptors, during the age of the Upanishads, used to impart the instructions orally to the
disciples. The pupils are trained in hearing the preceptors’ words attentively. With the training of
their ears. the speech organs were also trained to produce the sounds correctly and at the same
time their memory was also sharpened.
1.1.5 Student in Vedic Education

The student had to get up early in the morning and had to touch the feet of teacher before sunrise
in the last watch of the night. Penances are prescribed for the sin of sleeping when the sun rises,
or sets, or when the teacher is awake.
Then he is to bathe and purify himself. He is not to sport in the water whilst bathing, but must
swim motionless or plunge into the water like a stick. He must not wash his body with hot water
for pleasure, but if it is soiled by unclean things. He might clean it with earth or water in a place
where is not seen by a guru. He is not to use any bathing powder or the like for cleaning himself.

Notes
The subjects of study during that time included the four Vedas, Grammar,
Mathematics, mineralogy, logic, Ethics, Brahma-Vedya, Biology, Military science,
Astronomy and Medicine. Dhanurvidya or war tactics was also a part of education.
1.1.6 Process of Instruction

There were three steps in instruction:
1. Sravana 2. Manana 3. Nididhyasana.
• Sravana is listening to words texts as they uttered by the teacher.
• Manana is the process of deliberation or reflection of the topic taught.
• Nididhyasana represents the highest stage.
1.1.7 Admission and Evaluation System

There seems to be no direct reference available to spell out the methodology followed by the
Acharya to judge the adequacy of knowledge of his pupils. Yaskas and Sayana, famous
commentators on the Vedas, have inferred from the Rig Veda hymn that the students were given
three grades as under:
1. Maha Prazanan grade:- Students of very high ability.
2. Madhyama Prazanan grade:- Students of high ability.
3. Alpa Prazanan grade:- Students of low ability.
1.1.8 Autonomy of Educational Institutions

Teachers in the Vedic period were autonomous in their work and they followed various methods
of admission and assessment. A teacher was the sole pedagogic authority to decide whether the
student was fit for admission & also to decide whether he had completed his studies.
1.1.9 Curriculum
According to recent researches, following disciplines were included in the curriculum in the
graded forms in accordance with the stages of education.
1. Anthropology 2. Astronomy
3. Economics 4. Epistemology
5. Eschatology 6. Ethnology
7. Geology 8. Human eugenics
9. Mathematics 10. Military Science
Self Assessment
1. Multiple choice questions:
Choose the correct option
(i) The language of Vedas is ............................. .
(a) ancient Sanskrit (b) Poli (c) Prakrat (d) Magadhi
(ii) The ............................ is the oldest among all the four vedas.
(a) Atharva Vedas (b) Rig Vedas (c) Yajur Vedas (d) Sam Vedas
(iii) The Vedas contains ............................. verses.
(a) 10,000 (b) 20,500 (c) 20,358 (d) 10,550

1.2 Education In India During Buddhist Period Notes
The monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period. Besides monasteries,
there were no other organization for imparting education. Only the Buddhist could receive
religious and other types of education. Other persons were deprived of this facility. There was no
place for Yajna in the Buddhist system. Buddhist period in Indian education roughly starts from
600 B.C and last for about 1200 years till 600A.D. during Vedic period education was mostly
individualistic effort whereas during Buddhist period institutional organization is one of the
chief characteristics of education.
Buddhist education was based on the teaching of Gautam Buddha. These teachings were so
important that they remained a source of inspiration for individual as well as social development
in India. The influence of Buddhist teachings can not be undermined even during later period.
1.2.1 Aims of Education

The chief aims of Buddhist education had been the following:
(1) Development of education: The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development
of child's personality. This included his physical, mental, moral and intellectual development.
(2) Formation of character: During this period, in the organization of education, special
emphasis was laid on the formation of character of the students. Student life was hard and
rigorous. They observed celibacy.
(3) Religious education: In the Buddhist era, religion was given top priority and education was
imparted through it. The chief aim of education was propagation of religion and inculcation
of religious feelings and education served as a mean to achieve salvation or nirvana.
(4) Preparation for life: In this system of education, there was a provision for imparting wordily
and practical knowledge along with religious education so that when the students entered
normal life they may be able to earn their livelihood.
1.2.2 Sources of Information about Buddhist Education
The following Buddhist literature provides information on Buddhist education:
1. Pitakas,
The ‘Pitakas’’ have the following three divisions:
(i) ‘Sutta* or Tales.
(ii) Vinnay’ or Discipline.
(iii) Abhidammd’ or Doctrine.
2. The ‘Milinda Panha’ (Question of King Malinda)
3. The ‘Jatakas’
1.2.3. Philosophy of Buddhism and Teaching of Buddha

The teachings of Buddha is the Buddhist philosophy. Its main tenets are:
1. Four Noble Truths.
2. Eight-fold Path for Attainment of ‘Nirvana’ (Salvation).
3. Moral Code: Importance of Good Deeds in Life.
4. Middle Path: Avoidance of Extreme Form of Austerity and Luxury.
5. Equality—No Caste System.
(i) Four-Noble Truths
Buddha renounced the pleasures of princely life and practised severe penances for finding out the
truth of life. He saw the following four noble truths:
(i) All existence involves suffering.
(ii) Suffering is caused by desire, especially the desire for the continuance of existence.

Notes (iii) The suppression of desire leads to the extinction of suffering.

(iv) The deliverance can be effected by the eight-fold path which consists of:
(ii) Eight-Fold Path
1. Right View or Belief 2. The Right Resolve
3. Right Speech 4. Right Behaviour
5. Right Occupation 6. Right Effort
7. Right Contemplation 8. Right Concentration
The Buddhists in the world first made education open to all. Students irrespective of
costs, creed, and religion got opportunity to have education which was denied by the
superior class in the society.
Self Assessment
2. Fill in the blank:
(i) The .............................. were the centres of education during the Buddhist period.
(ii) Buddhist education was based on the teaching of ......................... .
(iii) The ......................... was primarily religious and philosophical.
(iv) After the admission the student was taught Pali and Sanskrit for ten years and then study
of ........................... under taken.
1.3. Basic Principles of the Philosophy of Education as Based on the

Philosophy of Buddhism
1. Primacy of Mind in all Man’s Thought and Action: Throughout his life Mahatma Buddha
demonstrated by his conduct and the clarity of his thought that path to self-realisation, i.e.,
Nirvana—the objective of life, lay through the purity of mind.
2. Application of Reason and Logic: Buddha exhorted the people to apply the standards of reason
and logic to all philosophies, ideas, and practice,including his own.
Do not accept any teaching merely because you have heard it from someone, or because it is
sanctioned by tradition, or because you believe it to be your duty, or because it is stated in the
scriptures, or by force of arguments, or because someone tells you that this is the path, or because
of form or the beauty of form, or because you feel that the 'Sramana’ is your ‘guru’. When you
yourselves from your own experience find that certain conduct is sinful and produces suffering
and harm, then discard this conduct.
1.4. Main Features of Buddhist Education

I. Aims of Education: Following were the main aims of education:
1. Development of moral character.
2. Religious and spiritual development.
3. Promotion of social efficiency.
4. Promotion of Culture.
II. Ceremonies: Associated with Education. Among the important ceremonies, following deserve
special mention.
1. Phahajja Ceremony or Ordination or Initiation Ceremony
2. ‘Upasampada’ Ceremony

III. Primary Education: There is sufficient evidence to show that popular reducation was Notes
widespread when Buddhist monasteries flourished. Even those who did not intend joining the
Buddhist Sangha, attended the school up to the age of twelve and received instruction in 4 R’s
(reading, writing, arithmetic and religion). It is evident that Buddhist monastery played an
important part in supplying popular elementary education.
IV. The Curriculum: The curriculum was primarily religious and philosophical as it was chiefly
meant for monks and nuns. They were not taught secular sciences like poetics, literature and
astrology. After his admission the novice was taught Pali and Sanskrit for ten years and then the
study of Tripataken was undertaken. After this, works on Buddhist religion and philosophy were
mastered. They also studied Hindu system of religion, logic and philosophy in order to carry on
disputations and discussions with Hindu theologians.
V. Educational Institutions: Buddhist education was centred round a monastery. There were some
private teachers who took ten to fifteen children and taught them in their houses. The rise of the
organised educational institutions may be attributed to the influence of Buddhism.
VI. High Code of the Teaching Profession: According to Millanda-panha, the teacher was required to
teach everything he knew to his disciple; he could withhold nothing under the apprehension that
the disciple may one day outshine him in his profession. How generous and large-hearted teachers
usually were in this connection can be judged from the conduct and exclamation of Alara Kalama,
when the father Bhikshu had finished his education under him: “Happy friend are we in that we
look upon such a venerable one, such a fellow ascetic as you. The doctrine which I know, you too
know, and the doctrine which you know, I too know. As I am, so you are. As you are, so am I.
Pray, let us be joint wardens of this company.”
What are the basic principles of the phiosophy of education as based on the philosophy
of Buddism?
1.5 Educational Implications of Buddhist Philosophy

The entire teachings of Buddhism provide directions to develop good conduct which is also the
essence of a sound system of education. To be a moral being, one must follow the noble path.
Eight-fold path as preached by Buddha provides guidance for moral education and peace.
Observance of purity is more important than the observance of rituals.
The curriculum was primarily religious and philosophical. The Vedas were not the basis of
Buddhist education. Buddhist literature replaced them as the source of wisdom and morality. The
teacher and the student were united together by mutual affection and confidence. Buddha did not
want that his teachings and the teachings of others should be followed blindly. He greatly
emphasised that all aspects of a phenomena should be reflected upon and pros and cons taken
into account. He was in fact a fore-runner of scientific tendencies in education. Reason should be
the basis of our belief.
1.5.1 Admission in a Monastery

As we have said above, monasteries were the centres for imparting education during the Budhist
period. So one had to be admitted into a monastery, if he wanted to receive the Vedic period. For
admission the student had to present himself before the teacher and request him for giving
education. The teacher was fully responsive to the instructions received form the teacher. The
student was not at all accountable to any other Bhikshuk in the and the Taught as during the
Vedic period.
1.5.2 Pabbajja Ceremony (First Ordination)

Pabbajja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbajja means ‘going out.

Notes According to this ceremony the student after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce all
his worldly and family relationship. An individual belonging to any caste could be admitted to
a monastery and after being admitted be did not belong to any caste. After admission he had to
change his old clothes and all old ways and manners of living. For the Pabbajja ceremony the
minimum age was eight years. After the pabbajja ceremony education continued for twelve
years.
For the Pabbajja ceremony the individual had to get his head full’ shaved and put on yellow
clothes. In this shape he was presented before the presiding Bhikshu. On presentation this
individual would pray for admission to the monastery. On his prayer the head Bhikshu would
administer three basic advices which were as below :
1. I take refuge with Buddha. 2. I take refuge with religion.
3. I take refuge with the order.
The aspirant for admission used to pronounce these advices very distinctly. Then his admission
was permitted. On being admitted the individual was called a Sharman. That Sharman was given
ten advices to follow. They were as below :
1. Shun violence and practise non-violence. 2. Speak truth.
3. Do not steal. 4. Do not collect.
5. Observe celibacy. 6. Give up luxury.
7. Renounce wealth and do not touch women. 8. Do not use fragrant things.
9. Do not eat anything untimely. 10. Do not use soft and very comfortable bed.
1.5.3 Responsibilities of the Teacher
Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Budhist order. But
regarding education, clothes, food and residence of the student monk, the teacher was wholly
responsible. The teacher was also responsible for any treatment of the student whenever he fell
ill. The teacher used to bestow all affection to his student and used to educate his through lectures
and question answer method.
When the student attained 20 years of age. i.e., when he received education for
twelve years he had to undergo the Upasampada ceremony. The Upasampada
ceremony entitled a student for full-fledged membership of the monastery.
1.6 Methods of Teaching

Budhist education aimed at purity of character. Like Vedic education it was training for moral
character rather than psychological development of the students. One has to attain the stage of
Bodhisattva. Mental and moral development was emphasized. Following were the methods:-
1. Verbal education: Through the art of writing had been well developed up to Budhist period
yet, due to shortage and no availability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent
as it was in Vedic age. The teacher used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by
heart. The teacher used to put questions on the learning the lesson by heart.
2. Discussion: In order to win discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public, it was
necessary to improve the power of discussion. This was also needed to satisfy the critics and
opposing groups and establish ones own cult. Thus, rules were framed for discussion.
3. Prominence of logic: The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Budhist
period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical argument. Logic was
also useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge.
4. Tours: The main of the Budhist monks was to propagate Buddhism. Hence some Acharyas
like Sariputta, Mahayaggalva, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc gave the importance to tours for
educating people.

5. Conference: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1st day of month in the Notes
Budhist sanghs. The monks of different sanghs assembled and put forward their doubts
freely. The attendance of every monk was compulsory in such conference.
6. Meditation in solitude: Some Budhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual
meditation in lonely forests and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely
meditation who had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in
the sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary medications.
Lord Buddha had advised during his life time not to admit women in monasteries,
but after some time due to the insistence of his dear pupil Ananda.
1.6.1 Role of Teacher in Budhist system

Budhist philosophy admit the possible of attaining peace here and now, though, it start with a
pessimistic note. Teacher, therefore, need not have any cry of despair in the Buddhist system.
Bhikshus were the teacher. Budhist vihar as or monasteries have their methods of Imitation and
training for the apprentices. The preceptor must give his disciple, all possible intellectual and
spiritual help and guidance. There was mutual esteem between the teacher and the pupil. There
relations were like father and son. The teacher was regarded as spiritual father or intellectual
father of the student.
During Budhist period the place of teacher in the scheme of education was very important. There
were the categories of teachers - Acharyas and Upadhayas. According to Sutras Literature Acharya
may admit according to his unfettered discretion, a number of pupils, who would have to live
with him at this house, for a minimum period of twelve years. He would not accept any fees
from the pupils under this instruction. The progress shown by pupil was the only factor that
determined the continence of his apprenticeship.
Self Assessment:
3. State whether the following statements are 'True' or 'False':
(i) Eight fold path as preached by Buddha provides guidance for moral education and peace.
(ii) The Vedas were the basis of Buddhist education.
(iii) Buddhist literature replaced them as the source of wisdom and morality.
(iv) Pabbajja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries.
(v) Pabbajja means coming out.
1.7 Summary
• The Vedic literature consists of the following: 1. Four Vedas; 2. Six Vedangas; 3. Four
Upvedas; 4. Four Brahmanas; 5. One hundred and eighty Upanishads; 6. Six systems of
philosophy; 7. Bhagwad Gita; 8. Three Smritis.
• Main features of the vedic Education are as follows:
(i) In ancient India teaching was considered to be holy duty which a Brahman was bound to
discharge irrespective of consideration of the fee teacher were expected to devote their
lives to the cause of teaching
(ii) Rulers of the country had very little directly to do with education. It was a private affairs
of the people managed entirely by Brahmans.
(iii) Teachers behaved as parent to their pupils and pupils behaved as members of the teachers'
family.

Notes • Aims, ideals and objectives of education are always with relation to the ideals of society.
• Following were the main objectives of education: 1. Ultimate objective as moksha or self-
realisation; 2. Infusion of Piety & Religiousness; 3. Education for worldliness; 4. Character
formation; 5. Stress on Social duties.
• Gurukul System of Education: (1) Education System; (2) Teacher-taught Relationship;
(3) Curriculum; (4) Method of Teaching; (5) Discipline; (6) Women’s Education and (7) Social
System.
• In Vedic education, meaningless outwardly knowledge has been condemned.
• The student had to get up early in the morning and had to touch the feet of teacher before
sunrise in the last watch of the night.
• There were three steps in instruction: 1. Sravana; 2. Manana; 3. Nididhyasana.
• The monasteries were the centers of education during the Buddhist period.
• Only the Buddhist could receive religious and other types of education.
• Buddhist period in Indian education roughly starts from 600 B.C and last for about 1200
years till 600A.D.
• The chief aims of Buddhist education had been the following:
(i) Development of education: The chief aim of Buddhist education was all round development
of child's personality. This included his physical, mental, moral and intellectual
development.
• The following Buddhist literature provides information on Buddhist education:
1. Pitakas,
The ‘Pitakas’’ have the following three divisions:
(i) ‘Sutta* or Tales.
(ii) Vinnay’ or Discipline.
(iii) Abhidammd’ or Doctrine.
2. The ‘Milinda Panha’ (Question of King Malinda)
3. The ‘Jatakas’
• The teachings of Buddha is the Buddhist philosophy. Its main tenets are:
1. Four Noble Truths.
2. Eight-fold Path for Attainment of ‘Nirvana’ (Salvation).
3. Moral Code: Importance of Good Deeds in Life.
4. Middle Path: Avoidance of Extreme Form of Austerity and Luxury.
5. Equality—No Caste System.
• Following were the main aims of education: 1. Development of moral character; 2.
Religious and spiritual development; 3. Promotion of social efficiency; 4. Promotion of
Culture.
• Associated with Education. Among the important ceremonies, following deserve special
mention. 1. Phahajja Ceremony or Ordination or Initiation Ceremony; 2. 'Upasampada’
Ceremony.
• There is sufficient evidence to show that popular reducation was widespread when Buddhist
monasteries flourished.
• The curriculum was primarily religious and philosophical as it was chiefly meant for monks
and nuns. They were not taught secular sciences like poetics, literature and astrology. After
his admission the novice was taught Pali and Sanskrit for ten years and then the study of
Tripataken was undertaken.

• Buddhist education was centred round a monastery. There were some private teachers who Notes
took ten to fifteen children and taught them in their houses.
• For admission the student had to present himself before the teacher and request him for
giving education. The teacher was fully responsive to the instructions received form the
teacher. The student was not at all accountable to any other Bhikshuk in the and the Taught
as during the Vedic period.
• Pabbajja was an accepted ceremony of the Buddhist monasteries. Pabbajja means ‘going out.
According to this ceremony the student after being admitted to a monastery had to renounce
all his worldly and family relationship.
• Both the teacher and the student were responsible to the monastery or the Budhist order.
1.8 Keywords
• Anthropology : The study of the human race, especially of its origin, development,
customs and beliefs.
• Curriculum : The subjects that is included in a course.
• Ceremony : A public or religious occasion that includes a series of formal or
traditional actions

1. What are the objectives of Vedic education?
2. How was the education in India during Buddhist period? Explain.
3. Write the main features of Buddhist education.
4. What is Upasampada Ceremony?
5. What are the main feature of Vedic education?
Answer: Self Assessment

1. (i) 20, 358 (ii) Psychological (iii) Six (iv) monasteries
(v) Ajna
2. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)
3. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True
(v) False
1. Development of Education Systems : J.C. Aggarwal, Dash Bn, Shipra Publications.

2. Educational Regimes in Contemporary India : Radhika Chopra , Patricia M Jeffery,
Dash Bn.
3. Development of Education System : Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson , Susan Goldrick.

Notes
Unit 2 : Education in India During Medieval Period:
Islamic Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
2.1 Aims of Education
2.2 Main Features of Medieval Education
2.3 Educational System
2.4 Education of Mughal Period
2.5 Contact between Hindus and Muslims
2.6 Teacher and Students in Medieval Period
2.7 Limitations of Medieval System of Education
2.8 Relevance of Muslim Ideals in India
2.9 A Critique of Muslim Education
2.10 Summary
2.11 Keywords
Objectives
The objectives of this unit can be Summarized as below:
• to discuss about the aim of education.
• to describe about the main features of medieval education.
• to explain about the education System.
• to discuss about education of Mughal Period.
• to explain about Contact between Hindus and Muslims.
• to discuss about Teacher and Students in Medieval Period.
• to explain Limitations of Medieval System of Education
Introduction
The period under review covers the system of education in India from about the 10th century
A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British rule.
Approximately, for six hundred and fifty years Muslims ruled over India. During this period,
apart from the spread of religious education and development of art and music, organisation of
land, dispensation of justice and administration made great strides. Several magnificent historical
buildings were erected during this period. The Taj, and Red fort of Agra and Qutab Minar of
Delhi, etc., are some of the living monuments of this age. In matters of architecture, handicrafts
and cottage industries, etc. Muslim period is popularly called the golden period.
During medieval period Muslim rulers started a new education system which is popularly
known as Maktab-Madarsah system. Side by side the old pathashala system also continued for
Hindu students. We shall discuss first of all the Maktab-Madarsah system of education.

Unit 2 : Education in India during medieval period: Islamic Education
Like the ancient system of education, there was a good organisation of education in the medieval Notes
times also and both systems had great similarities in many respects. The relationship between
the teachers and the taught was close and cordial. Students respected their teachers and teachers
also constantly starved for their improvement. There was emphasis on religion. People were
generally God fearing and propagation and spread of religion was the chief aim of education.
Education was imparted at religious places. They were, generally, attached to mosques. Education
was free and discipline a rigorous one. Both rewards and punishments were in vogue. Kings
held teaches in high esteem and donated liberally to educational institutions. Teaching was
imparted orally. Students crammed verses of Quran without grammar and laws were taught.
The medium of instruction were Arabic and Persian.
2.1 Aims of Education

The aims of education in the medieval period are as follows :
(i) Imparting of Knowledge.
(ii) Propagation and Spread of Muslim Religion.
(iii) Formation of Character.
(iv) Preparation for Future Life.
(v) Organisation of Political and Social System.
(vi) Moral Development, and
(vii) Preservation and Spread of Muslim Culture.
Education aimed at making the individual capable of earning for himself. The prophet
Muhammad has himself said : ‘To seek knowledge is a duty for every Muslim (male) and
every Musalimah (female).” Islamic faith aims at the revealing of the internal nature of
truth, and is noted for its emphasis on the unity of all aspects of life. It emphasises on the
reality to individual, by raising his dignity and status, by removing any barrier between
him and God. The sanctity of knowledge was so high that its pursuit was considered as
pursuit on the path of reaching the Almighty.
It is observed that the two factors which control the behaviour of a Musalman are his
religion-moral conscience and the reward or punishment gentleman and who follows
principles of liberality, equality and fraternity in matters of this world and who lives
and dies for faith, piety and justice in order to achieve the blessings of his creator in the
life after death. Hanafi school advocated progressive trends and entertained a policy of
tolerance and assimilation in the circumstances and shunned much of conservatism which
resulted ultimately in its popularity. The contemporary scholars opined that the aim of
education in Marifat-i-Ilahi, refers of Dinvi Mushkilat, Khat-i-Nafas. Muhabat-i-Mula,
Tehsil-i-Duniya or Talb-i-Uqba. The aim of education was not to read some texts and
memorize them to each letter, but that it included Mutabeh, Bahas Wa Takrar and Kitabat.
The purpose of education, according to the muslims is the attainment of

knowledge which is considered to be a duty.
2.2 Main Features of Medieval Education

In view of the above discussion, the chief features of this period can be summarised as the
following:
(i) The chief aim of medieval education was to bring the lift of knowledge in the followers
of Islam.

Notes (ii) Education was the chief media for the propagation and spread of muslim culture and
heritage.
(iii) Education also helped in strengthening and stabilising the prevailing political system.
(iv) Preparation for life was one of the essential purposes of muslim education.
(v) Due emphasis was laid on the formation of character and moral uplift.
2.3 Educational System

In the Muslim period education was divided into two stages, namely, the primary and higher.
The primary centres of education were called Maktabs and that of higher education Madarsha.
(i) Maktabs : Maktabs were primary school meant for small children. They were situated
adjacent to homes in the mosques organised on the pattern of the indigenous system of
education. Children attended these schools in the beginning of their life and crammed the
verses of Quran.
(ii) Madarsha: Higher education was imparted through the institution of Madarsha. They
worked as the international centres of learning. Students form other muslim countries of
the west were attracted at these centres.
(iii) Pathsahala : Gurukul or Pathashala system continued to exist in India during medieval
period also. During this period the elementary school was mostly of a very generally type
It aimed for instruction in three R’s. This school also had two types, viz., (1) A Pathshala-
the preliminary stage in Sanskritic studies, the initiation of a formal type was necessary
for this institution. (2) the general school, called municipal type of Hindu school by Adams
in his report, which arranged instruction in different vocational arts like accountancy,
carpentry, pottery, washermanship barber’s job. medicine and alike jobs.
(iv) Education Institutions :The school was a natural formation, not artificially constructed. It
was teachers hermitage, amid sylvan surroundings bcyon. distractions of urban life
functioning in solitude and silence. Its physical surroundings away form centre of
population gave to its students opportunities for constant with nature for solitude.
Several Madarsahs were set up by Sultans, nobles and there, influential. The main
objective of these Madarsahs was to troin and educate scholar who would become
eligible for the civil service as well as performing duties as judge.
2.3.1 Teacher-Taught Relationship

The teacher-taught relationship at these centres of education was healthy and cordial. Students had
great respect fot the teacher and teachers also reciprocated in the same coin, and loved them. They
took pride in the knowledge and competence of their wards. Monitor system was in vogue. Higher
classes were taught by the teacher himself. Srif S. M. Zaffar in his book entitled Education in Muslim
India had remarded the “Teacher integrity was unshakeable and absolute. They occupied a high
position in society and though their emoluments were small, they commanded universal respect
and confidence.”
Self Assessment
1. Fill in the Blanks :
(i) The purpose of education, according to the muslims is the ............................. which is
considered to be a duty.
(ii) ............................... aims at the revealing of the internal nature of truth, and is noted for its
emphasis on the unity of all aspects of eye.

(iii) ........................ were primary school meant for small children. Notes
(iv) Gurukul or Pathshala system continued to exist in India during ........................ also.
(v) The school was a ..................., not artificially constructed.
2.3.2 Centres of Learning of Muslim Education

Agra: Agra became a radiant centre of Islamic culture and philosophy. Many Madrasahs were
established here by Sikandar Lodhi, Babar and Humayun. But it was Akbar who made Agra not
only a centre of learning and education but also a centre of culture and fine arts.
Bidar: It was a very important seat of Islamic education in South India. There was a big Madrasah
which contained about 3000 books on Islamic theology, culture, philosophy, medical science,
astronomy, history etc. Bahmani rules were very particular about spreading education.
Delhi: The tradition of learning and education was firmly established in Delhi when the Sultanate
made Delhi its headquarters.
Jaunpur: It was once a great seat of Muslim learning. In the time of Sultan Ibrahim Sharqui
(1401-1440) it was the capital of the kingdom of Jaunpur where hundreds of Madrasas and
Masjids lay scattered and where teachers and scholars were granted lands and endowments so
that they might completely devote to learning.
Malwa: It was a great centre of Muslim learning under the patronage of Sultan Mahmud Khilji
about the middle of the 15th century.
2.4 Education of Mughal Period

Babur had not the privilege of receiving a systematic education, as it is not mentioned that
some particular teacher or who soever was even given and independent charge for this work.
He could benefit himself only what naturally came to him through the intercourse with the
personalities of the father’s associates or even his own well-read parents. Babur added to his
qualities by contributing literary works of scholarly value in Persian and Turki and Arabic and
is considered as a fastidious critic. Humayun was instructed in reading, writing and arithmetic,
history, religion, literature and poetry and geography and astronomy. Farid Dhan who ruled as
Shier Shah (1539 A. D. - 1545 A.D.) over Hindustan lied away in childhood form his home to
Jaunpur and entered the service of Jamal Khan, the Governor of Jaunpur. He stayed there for
long and studied a lot and came to the stage of reading Kafiya. with commentaries and other
compendiums. He also read the Gulistan, the Bostan and Sikandar Namah. He studied with
thoroughness the commentary of Qazi Shahbudin on the Kafiyah.
2.5 Contact between Hindus and Muslims

The contacts of these two religions profoundly affected the evolution of both. The pure
monotheism of Islam, which became the state religion of Northern India, could not fail to
exercise influence on Hindusism. At this time, again. Christian and Jewish teaching began to
affect Hindusism. The Saiva and Viasnava influences (the Vaishnava one being in ascendancy in
this period) were very prominent. The missionaries of the two sects came form the southern
and western part of the country, where Arab, Jewish and Christian communities first settled.
Islam in South India has adopted many Hindu practices-worship of local deities, the black art
and divination, rites of birth and marriage. Hinduism, for its own part, standards indebted to
various other religious influences, particularly Muslim and Christian ones, for the effort to
suppress the cults of the mythological and sectarian duties, and socializing, rather humanizing
the dictates.
2.6 Teacher and Students in Medieval Period

The pupil was to find the teacher. He must live with him as a member or his family and is
treated by him as his own son. The pupil was to imbibe the inward method of the teacher, the

Notes secrets of his efficiency, the spirit of his life and work. These things could not be taught. India
believed in the domestic system of education and not in the mechanical methods of large
productions in institutions. The making of man depends on the human factor. It depends on
individual attention and treatment to be given by the teachers, the pupil belongs to a teacher
and not to the school. A modern school teachers pupils by classes and not as individuals with
their differences.
An acquaintance through begging with worldly life and its traits made him realise more vividly
the security of his own life. Lastly, begging made the pupil moral and virtuous course of life.
A single feature of our ancient civilisation is that it has been moulded and shaped in the course
of its history more by religious than by political and economic influences. Religion, practically
dominated every sphere of their national life, in education its influence was more profound and
pervasive. Learning in India through the ages, has been prized and pursued not for its own sake
but for the sake and as a part of religion. It was sought as means of salvation.
Education was individual and individual was the chief concern and centre of it. It was an
intimate relationship between the teacher and taught. The relationship was inaugurated by
Upanayan Samskar. It was not like the present admission and the payment of prescribed fee. It
was a religious ceremony by which the pupil was born as fresh. The education period was
called by the term Brahamacharya which had sacredness in the concept.
A person without education in the life was groping in the dark like a blind man who
could not find out what was to be done to make life meaningful, purposeful and
worthy of living in the world.
Self Assessment
(i) Which was a very important seat of Islamic education in South India?
(a) Bidar (b) Agra (c) Tamilnadu (d) Kerala
(ii) Where was a big Madrasah which contained about 3000 books on Islamic theology, culture
etc.?
(a) Tamilnadu (b) Calicut (c) Bidar (d) None of these.
(iii) Who did write Quran?
(a) Prophet Muhammad (b) Aurangazeb
(c) Shahjahanb (d) Babur
(iv) Who was to find the teacher?
(a) The pupil (b) The principal (c) The parents (d) None of these.
2.7 Limitations of Medieval System of Education

Besides the above cited characteristics, the medieval system of education suffered from certain
defects also. The chief among them were :
(1) Strict adherence to religion resulted in the rigid and narrow attitude of the people with
the result that other religions were not tolerated.
(2) Instead of mother tongue, Arabic and Persian languages dominated as the medium of
instruction during this period.
(3) Too much emphasis on worldly aspect of education resulted in the lack of intellectualism.

(4) As the educational institutions were attached to the mosques, they mainly remained at Notes
the mercy of the priests and hence failed to stabilise their position properly.
(5) The educational system miserable failed in developing an independent philosophy of
life among the people.
(6) Because of single teacher schools and monitor system education could not be pursued on
healthy lines.
(7) Corporal punishment developed among students hatred for the teacher and education
became burdensome and uninteresting for the students.
(8) Cramming without understanding resulted in artificiality in the system. It lacked free
thinking and originality.
(9) Women education was generally neglected and most of them remained in pardah.
(10) Lack of high ideals of education left people in the indulgence of luxuries.
(11) In this period, education had no separate entity. It solely rested on the sweet will of the
rulers.
What are the herits and demerits of Medieval system of education?
2.8 Relevance of Muslim Ideals in India

Despite the above stated defects, education in medieval times had some high ideals and there is
need to revive them in the modern times in view of the conditions prevailing in the country.
These days, people generally talk of low moral character of the nation. Disobedience and
indiscipline have become the order of the day. It is rampant in almost all walks of life. The
situation can be improved through the revival of the ideals of medieval times. Apart form this,
in the preparation of future life of the students, vocational and technical education is of great
importance. The revival of the education of craft, work-experience and dignity of labour will
go a long way in eradicating the massive problem of educated unemployment from the country.’
At the same time, there is need to establish proper coordination between physical; intellectual
and religious education. This would help to pave the way for the inculcation of moral and
spiritual values among the people and develop them into ideal citizens. In the context of
Muslim system of education, the existing teacher-taught relationship needs special attention. It
should be cordial and intimate. A sense of respect and service should be instilled among the
students towards the teacher.
The above programmes would help to make education much more practical and functional and
thus succeed in the preparation of ideal citizens for leading a happy and properous future life.
2.9 A Critique of Muslim Education

2.9.1 Chief Characteristics of Muslim Education
(i) Patronage of the rulers: The rulers helped in the spread of education. They built
educational institutions and universities. They endowed them with the funds. Big landlord
also provided financial help for the spread of education. The rulers patronized the men
of learning.
(ii) No state control: The rules neither claim any authority over the educational institutions
nor interfered with their management.
(iii) Religion dominated education: In the words of S.N. MUKERJI, "The whole educational
system was saturated with the religious ideals which influenced the aim, the contents of

Notes study, and even the daily life of the pupils." The pupils acquired knowledge as a religious
obligation.
(iv) Countryside as the centre of education: By and large, educational institutions flourished
in the countryside.
(v) Provision of various discipline: Through education was primarily religion- oriented, it
included the study of many intellectual activities like mathematics, astronomy, grammer,
polity and politics. Art and literature were also encouraged.
(vi) Norms of conduct: Adequate stress was laid on well- defined norms of behaviour, pattern
of thought, building up personality and character of the pupils.
(vii) Teacher-pupil relationship: In the Muslim period also the teacher was respected as during
the Brahmanic or Budhist period. There was intimate relationship between the teacher
and the pupil, although the practice of living with the teacher was not as common with
the Muslim as it was in the case of Brahmanic and Budhist period.
(viii) Learned teachers: Teachers took to teaching for love of learning. They were held in high
esteem. Prof. S.N. Mukerji has observed, "Learning was prized for its own sake and as a
mark of the highest human development and teaching was never handicapped by
examination requirements.
At the age of four years, four months and four days, 'Maktab' ceremony or
'Bismillah' was performed to indicate the beginning of the child. This was
considered as an auspicious moment for initiation or starting education.
2.9.2 Chief features of Primary and Elementary Muslim Education

(i) Institution of primary education: Primary education was imparted through the 'Maktab'
which were attached with mosque or were independent of the mosque 'Khanquahs' of
the saints also at some places served as centres of education. Several learned men also
taught students at their residences.
(ii) Financing of the Maktabs: Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by rulers or had
endowment. They dependent on the charity of the philanthropists.
(iii) Management of the 'Maktabs': The 'Maktabs' were run under the guidance of the learned
'Maulavis'. They were supposed to be very pious.
(iv) Curriculum: Curriculum varied from place to place but the teaching of Alphabets and
the recitation of Quran was almost compulsory. The students learnt some portions of
Quran by heart as this was considered essential to perform religious functions.
(v) Language: Arabic and Persian languages were mostly compulsory. For getting high
government posts, one had to learn these languages.
(vi) Fees: There were several village schools where the students were required to pay their
instructions, not in cash but in kind.
(vii) Orphanages: The state set up some Orphanages where the children received education
free of charge. Vast endowments were made for these orphanages.
(viii) Good wishes were offered to the child. 'Surah-i-Iqra' a chapter from the holy Quran was
recited on this occasion.
(ix) Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers: The Muslims nobles as well as rulers engaged
tutors to teach their children at home.
(x) 'Wide- spread Maktabs': Almost every village had at least, one 'Maktab'. There were
several 'Maktabs' in town and cities.
(xi) Curriculum and Mode of Instruction:

(i) During those days there were no printed books for the beginners. Wooden books Notes
(taktis) were used.
(ii) The Quran : After alphabets, words were taught to students
(iii) Stress on Calligraphy: beautiful and fine handwriting was an important element of
instruction.
(iv) Teaching of Grammar: Grammar was taught as it was considered very valuable in
teaching the languages.
(v) Religious Instruction: Instruction imparted in the 'Maktabs' was religious through
and through.
(vi) 'Paharas': Students also learned 'Pahars' (multiple of numbers). Students memorized
these while uttering collective in a loud voice.
(xii) Buildings: In general, the students sat on the ground in the rows under the shade of a
tree and the teacher used mat or dear-skin to sit at. He also attended to the students
while standing.
After the Quran, the 'Gulistan' and the 'Bostan' poems of poet Firdausi were
taken up.
2.9.3 Merits of Muslim Education

(i) Emphasis on Education: Education was considered as an instrument of procuring happiness
in this world and obtaining knowledge of god. Knowledge was considered as a source
of solutions of all the religious problems. The prophet Muhammad has said, “To seek
knowledge is a duty for every Muslim”. Education was considered as a remover of
barrier between an individual and God.
(ii) Personal Contact between the Teacher and the Taught: The teacher showed immense
love and affection to the students and the students immense respect and reverence to the
teacher.
(iii) Individual Attention: Since the number of students under the charge of a teacher was
quite reasonable, it was easy to pay individual attention to their optimum development
and progress.
(iv) Vocational Aspect: Notwithstanding stress on religious education, the system of education
was planned in a manner that students were prepared for vocational pursuits also.
(v) Inclusion of Secular Education: A large number of secular subjects like astronomy,
agriculture, commerce, handicrafts and medicine etc. were included in the curriculum.
(vi) Development of Historical Literature: The Muslim rulers patronised scholars” who wrote
valuable books {Memoirs) etc. like biographies which throw a lot of light on everyday
life including education. The rulers themselves wrote their ‘Memoirs’.
(vii) Free Education: Students were not required to pay any fee. These was also free boarding
and lodging.
2.9.4 Limitations and Shortcomings of Muslim Education

(i) Mother-Tongue not the Medium of Instruction: Persian and Arabic were the medium of
instruction. The foreign medium put heavy strain on the learners.
(ii) Very Little Check on Standards: In the absence of any external evaluation, it was not
possible to compare the quality of education imparted in one institution with the others.
(iii) Much Emphasis on Religious Scriptures: Secular subjects were neglected at the cost of
religious scriptures.

Notes (iv) Less Facilities for Higher Education: ‘Madrasah’ were usually located in big towns and
cities. It was, therefore, very difficult for the rural people and people residing at small places
to avail of the opportunity of higher education.
(v) Defective Method of Teaching, Writing and Reading: The student was first required to
practise the reading of words and after acquainting with this, he was taught to write. This
involved wastage of time.
(vi) Neglect of Women Education: It is true that royal ladies were able to receive education but
in general women education was neglected.
(vii) Cramming: There was over-emphasis on cramming and less on comprehension and
understanding.
Self Assessment :
3. State whether the following statements are True or False:
(i) There was a big Madrasah which contained about 2000 books on Islamic theology, culture,
philosophy, medical science, astronomy, history etc.
(ii) In the time of Sultan Ibrahim Sharqui. Jaunpur was the capital of the kingdom of Jaunpur.
(iii) The rulers themselves wrote their ‘memories’.
(iv) Women education was at higher peak.
2.10 Summary
• The period under review covers the system of education in India from about the 10th century
A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British rule.
• During medieval period Muslim rulers started a new system education which is popularly
known as Maktab-Madarsah system. Side by side the old pathashala system also continued for
Hindu students.
• Education of a Muslim child would start on a particular day. It was customary on the part of the
Muslims to enrol their children at the age of four years, four months and four days in a maktab,
while the teacher would receive the child and start instruction with the first alphabet.
• The emperors were interested in encouraging educational attempts of the Muslim teachers of
this period.
• The chief aim of education in the Muslim period was acquistion of knowledge.
• In medieval times the rulers took keen interest in the administration of education and helped
them financially.
• Their life was vry rigorous, hard and the discipline a strict one.
• The contemporary scholars opined that the aim of education in Marifat-i-llahi, refers of Dinvi
Mushkilat. Khat-i-Nafas. Muhabat-i-Mula, Tehsil-i-Duniya or Talb-i-Uqba.
• In the Muslim period education was divided into two stages, namely, the primary and higher.
The primary centres of education were caled Muktabs and that of higher education Madarsha.
• Education in the Maktab was mostly oral. Children learnt everything by rote. Writing and
mathematics were taught at the later stage.
2.11 Keywords
• Emphasis : The extra force given to a word or phrase when spoken.
• Customary : Typical of a particular person.
• Contemporary : Belonging to the same time.
• Vogue : A fashion for something.

2.12 Review Questions Notes
1. What do you mean by maktab-madarsha system?

2. What were the aims of education of the medieval times? Explain briefly.
3. Write the main features of medieval education.
4. Describe the educational system of medieval period.
5. The teacher-taught relationship at these centres of education was healthy and cordial.”
Explain.
6. Describe the centres of learning of muslim education.
7. Write the merits and demerits (limitations) of muslim education.
8. Describe the chief characteristics of muslim education.

1. (i) Maktab-madarsah (ii) Hindu
(iii) Knowledge (iv) two
(v) Maktab, madarsha
2. (i) (a) (ii) (c) (iii) (a) (iv) (a)
3. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True
1. Development of Education Systems : S.C. Shaoo, Briykithore Dayal, J.C. Aggarwal.

2. Developing Quality Systems in Education (Paperback) : Geoff Doherty(Editor),
Geoffrey D Doherty (Other)
3. Development Of Educational System In India (Hardbound) : Dash Bn, A K
Agrawal, Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson , Susan Goldrick

Notes
Unit 3 : Education in India during British Period:
Macaulay’s Minutes, Wood’s Despatch and Hunter
Commission
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
3.1 Macaulay Minute
3.2 Downward Filtration Theory of Education
3.3 Wood's Despatch on Education
3.4 Hunter Commission (1882)
3.5 Summary
3.6 Keywords
Objectives
• to explain about the Macaulay’s Minutes.
• to describe about the Loard Macaulay’s contributions to indian education.
• to discusss about the advantage of Macaulay’s minutes.
• to discuss about the disadvantage of Macaulay’s minutes.
Introduction
After the downfall of the Muslim rule, Britishers came to India and established the East India
Company but soon the reign of the government reached the hands of the British parliament.
Britishers ruled over India for about 150 years. During this period western science and literature
made good progress through English medium. The whole educational system of British India
can be divided into four major periods. We can easily assert that education during the rule of
East India company was first neglected and the company was busy in establishing its rule in
India.
Thomas Babington Macaulay write his famous Minute on Feb. 2, 1833 in which he advocated the
nation system of education for India which could best serve the interest of the British empire.
A commission was set up in 1882 under W.W. Hunter to review the progress made in the field
of education following Wood’s Dispatch. It was confined mostly to secondary and primary
education. The Hunter Commission made a large number of recommendations. It laid special
emphasis on primary education whose control ought to be transferred to district and municipal
boards.
3.1 Macaulay Minute

Lord Macaulay was appointed Law Member in the Governor General’s Executive Council. He
was a concurrently President of Committee of Public Instruction. He was given the task of
interpreting clause 43 of Charter Act of (1813) He submitted long minute to William Bentinck
the then Governor General of India. The minute shaped the destiny of education in India.

Unit 3 : Education in India during British Period: Macaulay’s Minutes, Wood’s Despatch and Hunter Commission
3.1.1 Macaulay Comments Notes

Macaulay advanced the following arguments in favour of the education of English literature
and science :
1. English is the key to modern knowledge and therefore, it is much more useful than the
classical language like Sanskrit and Arabic, etc.
2. English language will go a long way in revitalising and rejuvenating the field of knowledge
in the same way as Latin and Greek did for English in the past.
3. English is the main language of the west. In India also it is the language of the rulers and,
therefore, there is a possibility of its being the language of the Far East.
4. Indians themselves are eager to study English literature and science.
5. The study of English language in the best interests of Indian.
3.1.2 Lord Macaulay’s Contributions to Indian Education

Lord Macaulay had no knowledge of oriental culture and literature and his view about the
same had been unjust and uncharitable. He loved everything European and despised everything
Indian. Hence he had based outlook. He was more interested in farthering the British interests
in India than in any thing else. However, it will have to be admitted that he contributed
immensely to the formulation of an educational policy for India which in a way still continue,
i.e., even after 150 years of its initiation. Bentinck’s declaration was actually a declaration of the
acceptance of Macaulay’s views. Macaulay’s view received a mixed reception form the people in
the country. A section of the englightened group criticised him as a person who wanted to tie
the people in the shackles of slavery. On the other, another group regarded his as the guide
and father of modern education in India. According to them Macaulays’ efforts ultimately
brought a regeneration in the educated people and they become aware of the happenings in
literature and sciences in the other parts of the world. This group welcomed English as the
medium of instruction.
3.1.3 Advantage of Macaulay’s Minutes

The advantage of Macaulay’s Minutes can be summarized as under:
1. A clear cut policy of education.
2. Definite purpose of education.
3. Establishment of English schools.
4. English as medium of instruction.
5. Proposition of filtration theory.
3.1.4 Disadvantage of Macaulay’s Minutes

The disadvantage of Macaulay’s Minutes can be summarized as under:
1. Closure of Sanskrit Pathashalas and Arabic Madrasahs.
2. Setback to oriental learning
3. Neglect of Vernaculars.
4. Neglect of Mass education.
5. Opposition of Sanskrit and Arabic languages.
6. Opposition of Indian religions.
3.1.5 Acceptance of Macaulay’s Minutes and Lord William Bentinck’s

Resolution of March 7, 1835
The Minute of Lord Macaulay 1835 was accepted by Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835). He
endorsed it by writing one line beneath it, “I give my entire concurrence to the sentiments
expressed in the minute.” The Resolution of March 1835 eventually determined the aim, content
and medium of instruction in India. Promotion of western sciences and arts was acknowledged
as the avowed object of the British Government in India.

Notes 3.1.6 Evaluation of Bentinck’s Proclamation

Bentinck’ proclamation was the first declaration of the educational policy of the British Government
which it wanted to adopt in this country. Bentinck was greatly influenced by the views of Macaulay.
The Orientalists lost their battle. With Bentinck’s proclamation the following results were clearly
visible.
1. The aims of education in India were defined by the British.
2. Type of education envisaged for Indian people was spelt out.
3. The promotion of Western arts and sciences was acknowledged as the avowed object.
4. The printing of oriental works was to be stopped.
5. New grants or stipends to students of oriental institutions were to be stopped in future.
6. The proclamation promised to supply Government with English educated Indian servants
cheap but capable at the same time.
7. The proclamation accelerated the growth of new learning by leaps and bounds.
3.2 Downward Filtration Theory of Education

The British rulers in India thought that in order to run the administration peacefully and
smoothly it was essential to make the higher classes blind followers of the Britishers. This they
wanted to achieve through educating the classes to be filtered to the common. Drop by drop,
the education would go to the common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast
stream which remained water desert of the society starved for water for a long time and high
class of people would be educated and common people would gain influence from them.”
3.2.1 Evaluation of the Filtration Theory

The immediate aim of getting educated people to run the various jobs in the administration
was fully achieved. It also helped in creating a faithful class of people. It settled the educational
policy of the British rulers and education began to progress rapidly.
The ultimate aim could not be fulfilled as the educated persons were cut off from the common
masses. The common masses began to look upon the educated classes as the favoured children
of the British Government. The higher and richer classes began to copy British food, taste,
behaviour and manners. Their entire daily routine was westernised. They became more and
more self-centred and a great cleavage was created between the rich and the poor.
3.2.2 Oriental —Anglicist Controversy on the System of Education in India

and Macaulay’s Minutes
In 1813, the Company decided to spend a sum of Rs. One lakh on education in India. This led to
Oriental-Anglicist controversy on education.
Oriental Print of View: This school of thought wanted to encourage the indigenous system of
education in India and wanted the Company to spend the amount on the promotion of this
system. Among the important supporters of this policy were. Warren Hastings, H.T. Princep,
Lord Minto, Charles Grant and H.H. William. The anglicists found their supporter in Lord
Macaulay who translated their dream into reality to a considerable extent (For details see 1.1)
Raja Rammohan Roy (1722-1833), a distinguished Indian educationist, religious and social
reformers appreciated the merits of western philosophy and science and was an ardent supporter
of the educational reforms advocated by the Anglicists.
3.2.3 Adam’s Report

Lord William Bentinck ordered William Adam to conduct a special inquiry into indigenous
education in Bengal. Adam was a missionary and he had special interest in Indian education.
William Adam (1789-1868) lived in India for 27 years. Through journalism and educational
situation of Bengal between (1835) and (1838) and submitted important reports.

William Adam was born in Scotland in (1789) and became a priest in (1815) in a Baptist Mission Notes
Society. In (1818) he reached Serampore and studied Bengali and Sanskrit. He came in contact
with Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta. They were influenced by each other. Adam was so
influenced that he broke all of his relations with Church in (1821). Adam studied believing in
one almighty in stead of Trinity.
Of Father, Son and holy soul of Christianity. Adam was appointed on 29th January (1835) by
William Bentinck as Commissioner to Survey the educational conditions of Bengal. Adam
submitted three reports during (1835) and (1938).
When the East India company embarked on its political conquests in India in
1757, there was no education system organised and supported by the State.
Gradually it was realised by the rulers to take interest in education.
Self Assessment
1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) ........................ was appointed law member in the Governor General’s Executive Council.
(ii) ........................ was actually a declaration of the acceptance of Macaulay’s views.
(iii) Macaulay’s Minutes gave a ......................... of educations.
(iv) According to Macaulay is much more useful than the classical languages like Sanskrit
and Arabic etc.
3.3 Wood’s Despatch on Education

Wood’s Despatch on Education in 1854 laid the foundation of Indian educational system and the
establishments of Universities in Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai.
Wood‘s Despatch on Education in 1854 laid the foundation on which the educational system has
since developed. Various problems related to education in India had become one of the key
concerns of the British government by 1853. In order to provide a solution, the secretary of state
of that time, Sir Charles Wood, presented a despatch to the directors of the British East India
Company. The despatch expressed that education in English as well as Indian local languages
should be enhanced and encouraged through out the nation. According to Charles Wood, the
English institutions could serve as the useful model for education. In 1854, Wood prepared his
comprehensive despatch on the scheme of the future education in India. The despatch came to
be considered as the Magna Carta of English education in India.
The Scheme of education, as proposed by Wood‘s Despatch, envisaged a co-ordinated

system of education through out the country.
3.3.1 Recommendations of Wood‘s Despatch

The Wood‘s despatch proposed several recommendations in order to improve the system of
education. According the recommendations, it was declared that the aim of Government‘s policy
was the promotion of the western education. In his despatch he emphasised on the education of
art, science, philosophy and literature of Europe. In short, the propagation of the European
knowledge was the motto of the Wood‘s Despatch. According to the despatch, for the higher
education, the chief medium of instruction would be English. However, the significance of the

Notes vernacular language was no less emphasised as Wood believed that through the mediums of
vernacular language, European knowledge could reach to the masses.
3.3.2 Main Recommendations of Wood’s Despatch

(i) Government’s acceptance of educational responsibility: The Despatch for the first time
clearly accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies on British Government.
(ii) Aims of education: The Despatch defined the aim of education keeping in view the
interests of Indians and British rule. Education is to raise intellectual fitness and moral
character of Indians. At the same time, it was to prepare them to become supporters of
British rule in India.
(iii) Oriental languages: The Despatch emphasized the importance of Oriental languages.
Mr. Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and
recommended them as subjects of study in regular institutions. Like Macaulay, he also
recognized the usefulness of western knowledge for Indians.
(iv) Medium of instruction: The Despatch recommended that owing to the shortage of books
in Indian languages, the medium of instruction should be English. But English should be
needed for those people who have proper knowledge and taste for English and are able
to understand European knowledge through this language. For other Indian languages
should be used.
(v) Establishment of Education Department: The Despatch directed that the Department of
Public Instruction should be established in every province. This department was to
inspect schools and to guide teachers.
Famous educationist Pranjepe vehemently criticised Wood’s Despatch. According to

him, the despatc miserably failed to provide proper leadership and remove red-
tapism in the direction of control of education in India.
3.3.3 Education Policy According Wood’s Despatch

“Among many subject of importance, once can have a stronger claim to our attention than that of
education. It is one of our most sacred duties, to be the means, as far as in us lies, of conferring upon
the natives of India those vast moral and material blessing which flow from the general diffusion of
useful knowledge and which India may, under Providence, derive form her connection with England.
We have, moreover, always looked upon the encouragement of education as peculiarly important,
because calculated “not only to produce a higher degree of intellectual fitness, but to raise the moral
character of those who partake of its advantage, and so to supply you with servants to whose
probity you may with increased confidence commit offices of trust...”.
3.3.4 Aim of Education
The Despatch said that the aim of education should be to impart useful knowledge to the Indian
students in such a way as to rais their intellectual, moral and economic status. They should alsio be
given such an education which might develop in them administrative ability in order that the
Government might get efficient workers.
3.3.5 Objectives of Wood’s Despatch
The despatch had the following objectives of education :
1. To enable the natives of India to have those vast and material blessings which flow form
the general diffusion of Western knowledge.
2. To produce high degree of intellectual fitness and also to raise the moral character of
those who partake of the above advantages;

3. To supply the East India Company with reliable and capable public servants; and Notes
4. To secure for England a large and more certain supply of many articles, necessary for
her manufacturers and extensively consumed by her population, as well as an almost
inexhaustible demand for the produce of British labour.
The rules framed should be accepted for a categories of educational institutions, primary to
higher. The Company thought that the grant-in-aid system would encourage private enterprises
in the field of education and education would expand with a greater speed. This process would
ultimately eliminate need for Government schools and thus enough money would be saved.
3.3.6 Importance of Wood’s Despatch

“Wood’s Despatch is said to be the corner stone of Indian education. It is said to have laid the
foundation of our present system of education.” Says A. N. Basu, The dispatch was a statement
like document wisely worded and wide in outlook and the suggestions contained there in were
quite sound. It did lay out a plan for a comprehensive system of education for this country.” The
similar view has been expressed by Lord Dalhousie. It was a scheme of education for all India;
for wide and more comprehensive than the local or the Supreme Government could have ever
ventured to suggest.
The plan was comprehensive. It decided the structure of education in India. Previous to 1854,
education was conducted on piecemeal basis. Now it had a structure; at the base of which were
indigenous schools and primary schools and at the top were the universities. There was now a
department in each province to look after the state of education. The system of education now
started was well planned. It recommended the foundation of graded schools—Indingenous
Primary schools Middle schools, High schools, College, Universities–all over the country. It
introduced the system of grant-in-aid and thus sought the cooperation of private enterprise in
the field of education. It laid due emphasis on the education of girls. Our Governor General in
council has declared that the Government ought to give to the native women education in India
its frank and cordial support. It laid down foundation for vocational eduction which was been
so far uncared for vocational education was to be encouraged here after because the government
wanted to give employment facilities the educated people and also because it hoped the
vocationally trained persons would be more grateful to the Government. The Dispatch is
important for drawing the attention of the local administration to the improvement and
expansion of mass education. Compulsory religious education will not be encouraged at public
expense though it permitted missionaries to avail of state help if they gave their pupils a
freedom of absenting themselves from religious classes. It is also important because it laid
emphasis on the teaching of Indian languages.
3.3.7 Evaluation of Wood’s Despatch

Before Wood’s Despatch there were many educational documents in India but this is the most
important document. Foundation of the present system of education was laid through this
Despatch. The first period of British education contained early efforts of Missionaries, the
second period is famous for documents like Charter Act of 1813, Macaulay Minute and Wood’s
Despatch. In this sense it marks the end of second period. It influenced the development of
British system of education after wards for about one hundred years.
The Despatch put an end to the then controversies in education which had continued for about
hundred years. It is known as Magna Charta of Indian education.
The Wood’s Education Despatch is of immense historical significance and contained 100
paragraphs and deals with several questions of great educational importance. It set at naught
the controversy between the Auglicists and Classicists by laying down that they wanted
education which had for its object the diffusion of the improved arts, science, philosophy and
literature of Europe; in short of European knowledge. They favoured use of the English and the
Indian languages together. The Despatch opening of education departments in various provinces;
institution of universities at the three presidency towns; establishment of a network of graded

Notes schools all over India; financing of education through the grant-in-aid system and opening of
Training schools for teachers i.e. normal schools.
What is the aim of education according to wood’s despatch?
3.3.8 Merits of Wood’s Despatch:

Following are the merits of Wood’s Despatch”
1. Educational Policy: Through Wood’s Despatch, British Parliament, for the first time made
an attempt to decide the educational policy of India and made it constitutional. Before
this, there was no policy of education for Indians. Through this Despatch they decided for
the first time their policy about education system in India.
2. Educational Responsibility: This Despatch brought about a revolutionary change in the
educational policy of the British Government. It declared that Indian education was the
duty and responsibility of the British government.
3. Importance of Indian literature and culture: The Despatch recognized the importance and
utility of Indian literature, culture and knowledge. It recommended the inclusion of Sanskrit,
Arabic and Persian language and literature in the curriculum along with the western
knowledge.
4. Indian languages as medium of instruction: Charles Wood also recognized Indian
languages as the medium of instruction along with English.
5. Department of Public Instruction: To run properly the education schemes of India, the
Despatch suggested for setting up Department of Public Instruction in each province with
the Director of Public Instruction, Deputy Directors etc. Thus it prepared an administrative
set up for education.
3.3.9 Demerits of Wood’s Despatch

1. The Despatch set up the defective system of education. Education remained as a means for
earning livelihood and not a means for obtaining knowledge.
2. The pattern of proposed universities was purely foreign. The Despatch took the idea of
London University for Indian universities. Thus the universities established on the basis of
its recommendations became British in nature and spirit. They were not Indian in character.
3. The Despatch gave priority to English. The government was spending the major portion
or almost all the allotted money for the education in the development and extension of
English schools.
4. The main purpose of the Despatch was to spread western knowledge.
5. Due to the recommendations of the Despatch, the Education Department was set up in
each province and the education went under the direct mechanical control of the
government.
Self Assessment
2. Multiple choice questions: Choose the correct option
(i) Bood’s despatch on education in .................... laid the foundation of Indian education
system and the establishments of universities in Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai.
(a) 1890 (b) 1854 (c) 1870 (d) 1860
(ii) According to despatch, for the higher education the chief medium of instruction would
be ......................... .
(a) Russian (b) German (c) English (d) French

(iii) The ..................... period of British education is famous for documents like character Notes
Act of 1813, Macauley Minute and Wood’s despatch.
(a) first (b) second (c) third (d) last
(iv) The Wood’s education despatch is of immense historical significance and contained
............ paragraphs and deals with several questions of great educational importance.
(a) 100 (b) 200 (c) 300 (d) 400
(v) The dispatch took the idea of .............. for INdian universities.
(a) France university (b) Cambridge university
(c) Oxford university (d) London university
3.4 Hunter Commission (1882)

Hunter Education Commission: The Hunter Education Commission was the first commission
set up to look after the education system in India. It was entrusted with the responsibility to
review and recommend measures to improve the system.
Hunter Commission officially known as the Indian Education Commission, 1882, was the first
Education Commission in the history of modern India. The Government of India, prior to the
recommendations of the Woods Dispatch, appointed a Commission under the chairmanship of
W.W. Hunter. The Hunter Commission was named following the name of the chairman, W.W.
Hunter.
The Hunter Commission was entrusted with the charge to review the state of education in India
and to recommend necessary measures for further progress. The other consideration, which
prompted the government to appoint the commission, was to enquire into the propaganda
carried on by the English missionaries that the educational system in India was not following
the recommendations of Woods Dispatch. The chairman, Hunter, was instructed that the motto
of the commission was to reorganize the Indian educational system in such a way that the
different branches of public education could move forward together and with equal importance.
The principal object therefore was to enquire the state of elementary or primary education in
India. Also the means to develop and improve the condition of elementary education was
given a special emphasis by the Hunter Commission appointed by the Government of India.
However the Commission was mostly confined in the enquiry of the primary and the secondary
education. The general working procedure and the educational process of the Indian universities
was excluded from the charge of the Hunter Commission.
The Hunter commission visited all the provinces of the then India and passed a lot of
recommendations in order to extend and improve the state of education. The Commission
emphasized that the special care should be taken by the government for the propagation and
the improvement of the primary education. It was declared by the s Commission that the
primary education was essentially aimed for the masses and hence should be provided in the s
vernacular language. The subjects of educations should fit them for their position in life. While
the private enterprise was to be hailed at all stages of education, primary education was to be
provided without reference to the local co-operation. The commission recommended that the
power of controlling the entire system of primary education should be transfer to the district
and the Municipal Boards. According to the recommendations of the Commission, the local
Boards were only empowered to levy for the educational purpose.
The Hunter Commission apart from the state of primary education also emphasized the
condition of secondary education prevailed in India during the 19th century. For the secondary
education, a principle was laid down by the commission. According to the commission, there
should be two divisions - literary education leading to the Entrance examination of the university
and the other is the practical kind of vocational training. The Vocational training would lead
the students to build up their career in the commercial field.

Notes The commission made that an effort should be made to encourage the private enterprise in the
field of education. The Commission to achieve this objective recommended the extension and
liberalization of the grants in aid system, recognition of the aided school as equal to Government
institutions in matters of status and the privileges. It was also declared by the Commission that
the Government should as early as possible withdrew from the direct management of the
secondary and the collegiate education. Moreover the education Commission drew attention to
the inadequate facilities for the female education outside the Presidency towns and also made
recommendations for its spread
India witnessed a rapid and unprecedented growth in the field of primary and secondary
education in the past twenty years. One of the principal impacts of this expansion was the
massive participation of the Indian Philanthropist in the system of education. A number of
denominational institutions sprang up in all parts of the country. Apart from the study of the
western literatures Indian and the oriental literatures were also given specials emphasis. Another
important development of the period was the development of the teaching cum examining
universities. The Punjabi University and the Allahabad University of superior rank developed
during this time.
In the first half of nineteenth centuries, political unrest grew up owing to the controversies
about the educational policies of the government. Political developments interrupted the
educational system of the country. The official report was that the educational expansions were
not carried on in the proper way and that the private interference had deteriorated the standard
of education. The nationalist opinion stated that the Government was not doing its duty to
reduce the illiteracy and also admitted the lowering standards of education.
Lord Curzon during his term of office tried to reorganize all branches of administration including
the system of education. Curzon justified the increase of official control over the education in
the name of efficiency and quality. However none of the recommendations of the Hunter
Commissions was fulfilled by the educational reforms of Curzon. His reforms actually sought
to restrict education and discipline the educate mind to the loyalty of the government.
The Commission is sometimes called as ‘Hunter Commission’ after the name of its
Chairman.
3.4.1 Aims of the Commission

The following were prescribed as the aims of the commission :
1. To assess the position of primary education and to give suggestions for its reforms.
2. The evaluate the work of the missionaries in the field of education.
3. To find out if the government institutions should be allowed to continue.
4. To assess the utility of the grant-in-aid system. To find out the attitude of the government
towards the private Indian enterprises in the field of education. To find out if they received
encouragement form the Government.
5. The main purpose of the Commission was to study the problem of primary education and
to suggest measures for its reforms. But the Commission also chose to look into the affairs
relating to secondary and higher education.
3.4.2 Recommendations of Commission (1882)

The main recommendations of the Commission were as under :
1. In the field of primary education, the Commission made elaborate recommendations on
the lines of country Council Act of England with regard to its policy, objectives

curriculum, methods of teaching, teachers training, finance and administration etc. The Notes
responsibility of imparting primary education was fixed on local bodies.
2. The curriculum should be framed according to local needs and its practical aspects properly
emphasised.
3. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction at the primary stage. The
Commission was silent about the secondary stage. Hence, indirectly, it supported the
cause of English..
4. The Commission recommended the establishment of a model government high school
in each district.
5. At the secondary stage two types of courses were recommended. ‘A’ Type course was to
be pursued upto university level and ‘B” type course for providing vocational education.
Thus, the Commission laid special emphasis on the diversification of courses.
Thus, the recommendations of the Hunter commission (1882) gave a great set back to the efforts
of Christian missionaries. The individual efforts and local cooperation got due impetus and
encouragement. This led to Indianisation of education. The result was increased number of
schools and colleges. Grant-in-aid system was recognised by the government and emphasis was
laid on imparting useful knowledge.
But most important recommendation of the Commission was with regard to the development
and improvement of primary education. The practice of appointing Indian as school inspectors
in education departments was adopted. The government institutions observed a policy of
religious neutrality.
3.4.3 Subsequent Influence of the Report

Merits of the Report
1. It accepted the importance of primary education and gave detailed recommendations on
the improvement of its various aspects.
2. It evolved a systematic system of grant-in-aid.
3. It provided encouragement to indigenous system of education.
4. It gave encouragements to private initiative.
5. It laid down the policy regarding the role of missionaries.
6. It recommended diversification of courses at the secondary stage.
7. It attached importance to the spread of women education.
Limitations and Shortcomings of the Report

1. It was not a wide policy on the part of the government of withdraw gradually from the
secondary education sector.
2. Primary education was entrusted to organisations and institutions which were not
reasonably financially sound.
3. Recommendations on religious education were not realistic.
4. There was very high expectations from the Education Departments.
5. Grant-in-aid rules on the ‘basis of results’ was not a healthy practice.
6. Expansion of higher education resulted in dilution of standards.
What is Grand-in-aid system?

Notes 3.4.4 Religious Education and Hunter Commission

The Commission was also required to give its opinion regarding the policy that the Government
should adopt for religious education. The Commission recommended as follows :
1. The Government should have no hand in schools regarding religious education.
2. The Managers of the Non-Government schools should be free to give or not give a plate
to religious education in their schools. The Government should place no restriction in
this respect.
3. While giving grants special attention should be paid to t he standard of the schools
which give religious education.
3.4.5 Women’s Education

The Commission gave the following suggestions with regard to women education.
1. Education in Special Subjects: The Commission said that the curriculum for girls should
be different from that of boys, because of the different nature of their life duties. Subjects
useful in their life should be included in their curriculum. The Commission thought that
literary subjects would not be useful for girls. Therefore, they should be given education
in subjects useful in their life.
2. Education by Local Boards: The Commission recommended that the local boards should
be made responsible for women’s education. In the absence of a local board in some
areas the Government should shoulder the responsibility for women education.
3. Women Teachers: The Commission recommended that only lady teachers should be
appointed in girl’s schools.
4. Inspectors: The Commission recommended that inspectors for girl’s schools should be
appointed. This policy would encourage women education also.
3.4.6 Muslim Education

The Commission studied the problems of Muslim education and gave the following suggestions
to improve it :
1. Local bodies should be made responsible for Muslim education.

2. The indigenous Muslim schools should be encouraged.
3. The medium of Muslim schools should be Hindustani except in those schools where the
people do not want this medium.
4. Muslim should be given greater assistance in the field of higher English education.
5. Special provisions should be made for scholarship for Muslim students.
3.4.7 Education of the Backward Classes

The Commission recommended that in Government schools special facilities should be provided
for backward classes. It further suggested that some Government schools should be opened for
children of backward classes. The suggestions of the Commission led to the progress of education
of backward classes.
3.4.8 Missionaries and the Hunter Commission

Missionaries had become reveals to the Government in the field of education. On the
appointment of the Commission they had hoped that they would be given special facilities and
consideration in the field of education with permission to open as many new schools as they
wanted. Moreover, they had also thought that they would be recognised as supreme in the field
of education. But all the hopes of the Missionaries were believed. They did not mind when
primary education was entrusted to local boards, because they had no interest in this area.

3.4.9 Criticism of The Hunter Commission Recommendations Notes

The recommendations of the Commission have a special place in the history of Indian education.
The Commission tried to give a direction to Indian education which was in a bad shape. It drew the
attention of the Government towards the neglect of vocational education and over emphasis on
bookish education. The Commission encouraged private enterprises in the field of education. This
helped the development of education in the country.
However, some of the recommendations of the commissions have been very harmful. It was had
that the Commission neglected the clam of the mother tongue and supported English as the Medium
of instruction. Consequently the Indian languages were neglected. The suggestions of the
Commission’s to charge lower fee in private institution led to the opening of schools of lower
standard. Since education was entrusted to private enterprises, the Government become indifferent
to education of the people. This attitude ultimately harmed the cause of education. The government
was to control the inspection department according to the suggestions of the Commission. Hence
the governmental all control over education was tightened leading to loss of flexibility in education.
Through its inspectorate the government used to interfere in the working of institutions without
any resultant responsibility for their improvement.
Self Assessment:
3. State whether the following statements one ‘True’ or ‘False’ :
(i) Lahore university was established in 1869.
(ii) The Hunter Commission said that the curriculum for girls should not be different from
that of boys.
(iii) The commission encouraged private enterprises in the field of education.
(iv) According to commission the literary subjects would be useful for girls. They should
take any other subject.
3.5 Summary
• Lord Macaulay was appointed Law Member in the Governor General’s Executive Council.
He was a concurrently President of Committee of Public Instruction.
• Lord Macaulay had no knowledge of oriental culture and literature and his view about the
same had been unjust and uncharitable. He loved everything European and despised
everything Indian. Hence he had based outlook. He was more interested in farthering the
British interests in India than in any thing else.
• The advantage of Macaulay’s Minutes can be summarized as under:
1. A clear cut policy of education.
2. Definite purpose of education.
3. Establishment of English schools.
4. English as medium of instruction.
5. Proposition of filtration theory.
• The Minute of Lord Macaulay 1835 was accepted by Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)
• Bentinck’ proclamation was the first declaration of the educational policy of the British
Government which it wanted to adopt in this country.
• The British rulers in India thought that in order to run the administration peacefully and
smoothly it was essential to make the higher classes blind followers of the Britishers. This
they wanted to achieve through educating the classes to be filtered to the common.
• The immediate aim of getting educated people to run the various jobs in the administration
was fully achieved. It also helped in creating a faithful class of people. It settled the
educational policy of the British rulers and education began to progress rapidly.

Notes • Oriental Print of View: This school of thought wanted to encourage the indigenous system
of education in India and wanted the Company to spend the amount on the promotion of
this system. Among the important supporters of this policy were.
• William Adam (1789-1868) lived in India for 27 years. Through journalism and educational
situation of Bengal between (1835) and (1838) and submitted important reports.
• William Adam was born in Scotland in (1789) and became a priest in (1815) in a Baptist
Mission Society. In (1818) he reached Serampore and studied Bengali and Sanskrit. He
came in contact with Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta.
• Wood’s Despatch on Education in 1854 laid the foundation of Indian educational system
and the establishments of Universities in Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai
• Wood‘s Despatch on Education in 1854 laid the foundation on which the educational
system has since developed. Various problems related to education in India had become
one of the key concerns of the British government by 1853.
• The Wood‘s despatch proposed several recommendations in order to improve the system
of education. According the recommendations, it was declared that the aim of Government‘s
policy was the promotion of the western education.
• Government’s acceptance of educational responsibility: The Despatch for the first time
clearly accepted that the responsibility of education in India lies on British Government.
• Aims of education: The Despatch defined the aim of education keeping in view the interests
of Indians and British rule.
• Oriental languages: The Despatch emphasized the importance of Oriental languages. Mr.
Wood had recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended
them as subjects of study in regular institutions.
• The Despatch recommended that owing to the shortage of books in Indian languages, the
medium of instruction should be English
• The despatch had the following objectives of education :
1. To enable the natives of India to have those vast and material blessings which flow form
the general diffusion of Western knowledge.
2. To produce high degree of intellectual fitness and also to raise the moral character of
those who partake of the above advantages;
• The main recommendations of the Commission were as under :
1. In the field of primary education, the Commission made elaborate recommendations on
the lines of country Council Act of England with regard to its policy, objectives
curriculum, methods of teaching, teachers training, finance and administration etc. The
responsibility of imparting primary education was fixed on local bodies.
2. The curriculum should be framed according to local needs and its practical aspects properly
emphasised.
3. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction at the primary stage. The
Commission was silent about the secondary stage. Hence, indirectly, it supported the
cause of English..
4. The Commission recommended the establishment of a model government high school
in each district.
• The Commission gave the following suggestions with regard to women education.
1. Education in Special Subjects: The Commission said that the curriculum for girls should
be different from that of boys, because of the different nature of their life duties. Subjects
useful in their life should be included in their curriculum.
• The Commission recommended that only lady teachers should be appointed in girl’s schools.

3.6 Keywords Notes
• Proclamation : An official statement about something important that is made to the public
the act of making an official statement.
• Executive : A person who has an important job as a manager of a company or an
organisation.
• Indigenous : Belonging to a particular place rather than coming to it from somewhere.

1. Describe the Macaulay’s minutes briefly.
2. Describe the wood Despatch briefly.
3. What is the Hunter Commission? Explain briefly.
4. Describe the Lord Macaulay’s contributions to Indian Education.
5. What do you mean by downward filtration theory of education?
6. Write about the Adam’s Report (1835-38).
7. Write the merits and demerits of Wood’s Despatch.
8. What are the aims of Hunter commission?
9. Describe the recommendation of commission (1882).
10. Give the critical explanation of Hunter Commission Recommendations.
Answers: Self Assessment

1. (i) Lord Macaulay (ii) Bentinck
(iii) Clear cut policy (iv) English
(v) William Adam
2. (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (b) (iv) (a)
(v) (d)
3. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) False
1. Developing Equitable Education Systems : Radhika Chopra , Patricia M Jeffery,

Susan Goldrick
2. Development of Education System : Briykithore Dayal, J.C. Aggarwal, SC Shaoo.
3. Developing Equitable Education Systems : Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson , Susan
Goldrick

Notes
Unit 4: Education in India after Independence:
Secondary Education Commission of (1952-53)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Background and Appointment of the Secondary Education Commission
4.2 Report of the Commission
4.3 Barriers for Impact of Secondary Education Commission
4.4 Recommendations on the Aims of Secondary Education
4.5 Re-organisation of Secondary Education
4.6 Summary
4.7 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the Background and Appointment of the Secondary Education Commission.
• to explain about the Report of the Commission.
• to describe about the barries for impact of Secondary Education Commission.
• to discuss about the recommendations on the aims of secondary education.
• to describe about the re-organisation of Secondary Education.
Introduction
Secondary education is the stage of education that includes all the classes after the primary
school and before university education is started. This stage is considered to be the backbone of
the country’s entire educational programme. This however, is also the stage which marks the
completion of education for the large majority of pupils. Secondary education is also the basis
of higher education which gives the desired direction to the nation’s power. An inefficient
system of secondary education therefore is bound to affect adversely the quality of education at
all later stages.
This unit deals with the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53, covering its various aspects
from the background of its appointment to its recommendations which had a far reaching effect
on India’s Secondary Education.
4.1 Background and Appointment of the Secondary Education

Commission
Let us discuss the background of appointing the Secondary Education Commission. After
achieving the independence in 1947, both the public and the Government began to take keen
interest in the development of secondary education. Although the number of secondary schools
and its enrolment began to significantly increase even before India’s attaining independence,

Unit 4 : Education in India after Independence: Secondary Education Commission of (1952-53)
the quality of education imparted was unable to meet the changing socio-economic needs of the Notes
country.
In view of these considerations, the Government of India set up, the Secondary Education
Commission by Resolution dated 23rd September, 1952, under the Chairmanship of Dr. A.
Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, the Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University. Therefore this
commission is also known as Mudaliar Commission.
The Commission was inaugurated on 6th October, 1952. It submitted its Report on
June 1953.
4.2 Report of the Commission

Now we shall discuss about the report of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53. As the
report is a very lengthy one containing 311 pages, it is not possible for us to discuss all aspects
in detail. We will confine our discussion to the defects of the prevailing system of secondary
education in India and the recommendations given by the Commission regarding its aims, new
organizational pattern and the curriculum. Let us discuss all these points one by one.
4.2.1 Management and Administration of Secondary Schools

The commission have given the following suggestions in this reports :
1. The post of education director should be equivalent to the joint secretary of the secretariat
and he should advise the minister in this capacity.
2. The secondary education board should be organised under the chairmanship of education
director who should arrange for secondary education in his State.
3. A board for teacher’s training should be established.
4. Central and State Committees should be organised for giving advice on secondary
education.
5. The district inspector of schools should not only find faults with teachers but should
also assist them in performance of their duties. They should solve their problems arising
form time to time and should acquaint them with latest developments in the field of
education.
4.2.2 Evaluation of Commission Work

Below we will discuss the merits and demerits of the recommendations of the Commission:
Merits of Secondary Education Commission: The Commission has given numerous practical
suggestions for the reforms of secondary education in the country. The Commission has drawn
our attention to the various defects of the existing system of secondary education. This itself is
a great service which the commission has rendered. It has rightly pointed to the evils of the
prevailing examination system and has given practical suggestions for its overhauling.
Demerits of Secondary Education Commission: The Commission’s suggestions regarding the High
Power committee for selecting text books it ridiculous and unrealistic, How can a high court judge
assess the suitability of a text-book for schools‘ The Commission has not chosen to pay adequate
attention on the various aspects of women education.
The issue of religious education as well has not been adequately considered by the
Commission.

Notes 4.2.3 Defects of the Existing System

The Commission pointed out the following defects of the existing system
• First, the education given in our schools is isolated from life. The curriculum as formulated
and as presented through the traditional methods of teachings does not give the students
insight into the everyday world in which they are living.·
• Secondly, it is narrow and one sided and it fails to train the whole personality of the student.·
4.2.4 Aims of Secondary Education Commission

1. To produce Ideal Citizen. 2. To Develop Capacity for Earning Money.
3. To Develop Human Virtues. 4. Quality of Leadership.
5. Improvement of Vocational Efficiency 6. Development of Personality.
4.2.5 New Organisational Pattern of Secondary Education
1. Duration of Secondary Education
2. High School and Higher Secondary Schools
3. Technical and Vocational Education
4. Need for Diversification of Courses
5. Multilateral and Multipurpose Schools
6. Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools
The different vocational subjects to be included in the multipurpose schools will

be discussed in connection with the reorganized curricula of studies.
4.2.6 Medium of Instruction

The mother tongue or the stage language should be made the medium of instruction. In this connection
the Commission expressed the following ideas also :
1. The students should be taught at least two languages at the junior high schools stage.
2. The commission has suggested that the secondary stage a student should learn at least
three languages, the national language, the mother tongue or the regional languages
and a foreign languages.
Write the new organisational pattern of secondary education.
Selection of Text Books

The Commission has opined that text books should be selected on the basics of their merits and
utility. For this; purpose the Commission has recommended the appointment of a High Power
Committe which will select. The standard of production, printing and paper used and pictures
and illustrations incorporated and suitable content will be the basis of selection. In the opinion
of the commission the following persons will constitute the High Power Committee for selection
of text-books :
1. A High Court judge.
2. A Member of the Public Service Commission
3. A Vice-Chancellor of an University.
4. A Principal of the Some government educational institution.
5. Two eminent educationalists and the director of education of the stage.

The commission has further suggested that the text-books once chosen should not be changed soon. Notes
In addition to text-books each schools should have some such books which may impart general
knowledge to students.
The teachers should also be provided with new literature and books in order to keep
up their interests alive.
Self Assessment
(i) The ................... or the state language should be made the medium of instruction.
(ii) The ..................... as formulated and as presented through the traditional methods of
teachings does not give the students insight into the everyday world.
(iii) The ........................ board should be organised under the chairmanship of education
director who should arrange for secondary education in his state.
4.3 Barriers for Impact of Secondary Education Commission

The Narendradeo Committee report did not make powerful impact on Indian Education because of
the following were the main barriers :
1. The introduction of core-subjects like crafts and general science in the curriculum of the
higher secondary school required more staff.
2. The financial implication of the upgrading of a larger number of high schools into
higher secondary pattern in every state were not worked out.
3. The multipurpose schools have benefited neither the schools leaves nor the seekers of
higher education.
4. The Commission did not recommend clearly vocationalised education.
5. Even with Central aid the states that accepted the pattern could convert not more than a
certain number of schools into higher secondary institutions. Financial implications
were not worked out.
4.4 Recommendations on the Aims of Secondary Education

The Commission has made the following recommendations in regard to its aims of Secondary
Education -
• Development of democratic citizenship • Improvement of Vocational efficiency
• Education for leadership • Development of personality
An all-round development of the personality of the student is an essential aim of

secondary education.
4.5 Re-organisation of Secondary Education

• The duration of secondary education should be 7 years. It should cover the age of group
of11-17.
• Under the new organizational structure secondary education should commence after 4 or
5 years of primary or junior basic education.

Notes • The middle or senior basic or lower secondary stage should cover a period of 3 years.
• The higher secondary stage should cover 3 years.
• The commission also suggested abolition of the present intermediate classes. The 12th
class should be attached to the university and the 11th class should be added to the high
school. Thus it pleaded for one year pre-university and 3 year degree courses.
Self Assessment:
2. State whether the following statements one True or False:
(i) The introduction of core subjects like crafts and general science in the curriculum of the
higher secondary school required more staff.
(ii) The financial implication of the upgrading of a large number of high schools into higher
secondary pattern in every state were worked out.
(iii) The duration of secondary education should be 5 years.
(iv) The higher secondary stage should cover 3 years.
4.6 Summary
• Secondary education is the stage of education that includes all the classes after the primary
school and before university education is started.
• On September 23, 1952, The Government of India appointed the Secondary Education
Commission under the Chairmanship of A. L. Swami Mudaliar, A. N. Basu was appointed
its secretary.
• The Commission has emphasised the necessity of reorganising the secondary schools
curriculum in order that the aims of education may be realised.
• All the students should be medically examined at least twice a year. Full medical facilities
should be available for ailing students.
• The Commission has given numerous practical suggestions for the reforms of secondary
education in the country.
• Many useful suggestions for reorganising the curriculum have also been given suggestions
regarding the school buildings and duties of inspector of schools are also healthy.
4.7 Keywords
• Recommendation : an official suggestion about the best thing do to.
• Implication : a possible effect or result of an action or a decision.
• Instruction : Detailed information's.
• Pattern : The regular way in which something happens or is done.

1. Write the background of the secondary education commission.
2. What are the terms of reference of the secondary education commission?
3. What are the aims of secondary education commission?
4. Describe the new organisational pattern of secondary education briefly.
5. What is the role of libraries?
6. Explain the management and administration of secondary schools.

Answers: Self Assessment Notes

1. (i) mother tongue (ii) curriculum
(iii) secondary education
2. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) True
1. Development of Education Systems : SC Shaoo, Dash Bn, JC Aggarwal.

Geoffrey D Doherty (Other), A K Agrawal.
3. Development of Education System : Briykithore Dayal, Katia K., Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 5: Indian Education Commission (1964-66)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
5.1 Government Resolution setting up the Education Commission, July 14, 1964
5.2 Terms of Reference
5.3 Aim of the Commission
5.4 Recommendations of the Commission
5.5 Nomenclature Recommended for Educational Institutions by Commission
5.6 National Reconstruction and Education
5.7 Improvement of Teacher's Status
5.8 Teachers' Training
5.9 Development of Education
5.10 Evaluation of Kothari Commission Recommendations
5.11 National Policy on Education Committee of Members of Parliament
5.12 Resolution on National Policy
5.13 The Resolution on National Policy on Education Further Stated
5.14 Contribution of the Report of the Education Commission (1964-66)
5.15 National Structure of Education-Proposed by Kothari Commission
5.16 Summary
5.17 Keywords
Objectives
• to explain about the government resolution setting the education commission, July, 14,
1964.
• to discuss about the terms of reference.
• to describe about aim of the Commission
• to describe about Recommendations of the Commission
• to learn about the nomenclature recommended for educational institutions by commission.
• to explain about National Reconstruction and Education
• to describe Improvement of Teacher's Status
• to discuss Teachers' Training
• to explain Development of Education
• to describe Evaluation of Kothari Commission Recommendations
• to explain National Policy on Education Committee of Members of Parliament
• to discuss Resolution on National Policy
• to explain The Resolution on National Policy on Education Further Stated

• to discuss Contribution of the Report of the Education Commission (1964-66) Notes

• to describe National Structure of Education-Proposed by Kothari Commission
Introduction
The Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr.D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman,
University Grants Commission, began its task on October 2,1964. It consisted of sixteen members,
eleven being Indians and five foreign experts. In addition, the Commission had the benefit of
discussion with a number of internationally known consultants in the educational as well as
scientific field.
The main task of the Commission was to advise the Government on the national pattern of
education and on the general policies for the development of education at all stages-ranging
from the primary to post-graduate stage and in all its aspects besides examining a host of
educational problems in their social and economic context.
"This House is of opinion that a Committee of Members of Parliament be appointed to go into
the question on National Policy on education in all its aspects and to prepare a plan accordingly
for the next three plan periods, and also to suggest suitable machinery for its implementation."
(L.S. Deb. May 1, 1964 c.13989)
5.1 Government Resolution setting up the Education Commission,

July 14, 1964
The Commission submitted its report to the government on June 29,1966. It was laid on the
Table of the House on August 29, 1966.The principal recommendations of the Commission are
given in Appendix I. The main features of the Commission's report were as follows:
(i) Introduction of work-experience which includes manual work, production experience,
etc. and social service as integral part of general education at more or less all level
of education.
(ii) Stress on moral education and inculcation of a sense of social responsibility. Schools
should recognize their responsibility in facilitating the transition of youth from the
work of school to the world of work and life.
(iii) Vocationalization of secondary education.
(iv) Strengthening of the centres of advance study and setting up of a small number of
major universities which would aim at achieving highest international standards.
(v) Special emphasis on the training and quality of teachers for schools
5.2 Terms of Reference

The Commission will advice Government on national pattern of education and on the general
principles and politics for the development of education at all stages and in all its aspects. It
need not, however, examine the problems of medical or legal education, but such aspects of
these problems as are necessary for its comprehensive enquiry may be looked into.
Task Forces
(1) Task Force on School Education. (2) Task Force on Higher Education.
(3) Task Force on Technical Education. (4) Task Force on Agricultural Education.
(5) Task Force on Adult Education.
Working Group
(1) Working Group on Women's Education.
(2) Working Group on the Education of Backward Class.

Notes (3) Working Group on School Community Relations.

(4) Working Group on School Community Relations.
(5) Working Group on Statistics.
The destiny of India is being shaped in the classroom.
5.3 Aim of the Commission

Like other pervious commissions on education the purpose of the Education commission of
1964, too was to study the various problems of education in the country and suggest measures
for their removal. For evaluating the working of the existing system of education a number of
educationists from foreign lands were also invited to serve on the Commission as experts. At
the appointment of the Commission need of determining an educational policy for the country.
The Commission was appointed on July 14, 1964 through a resolution of the government. The
Commission Started its work on the birth day of the father of the nation, October 2, (1964).
The Commission appointed seven working committees and tweleve study-terms for studying
the various problems of education in the country. The commission toured round the whole
country and studied the various problems involved deeply and submitted its report to the
Government after twenty one months. Within these 21 months the Commission organised two
conferences of students, interviewed about 900 persons interested in education in the country
and toured for 100 days and visited many educational centres of the country.
5.4 Recommendations of the Commission

The Commission has asserted that the progress of the country, development of finance, social
security and welfare activities can be ensured only through education. Therefore, education
should be given highest priority in any scheme of national development.
Education and National Aims

1. Education should be according to the needs of life in order that the same may be successfully
met. National aims can be achieved through education alone.
2. Through education of an individual should get appropriate opportunities for his all-round
development.
Changes in Education
1. All should get general education upto a certain level capable persons should be given
opportunities for their maximum development.
2. The existing education should be revolutionised for making it a base for ushering in
socialism.
3. Education should be so planned as to encourage national productions, Education will
further develop through national production.
Reorganisation of Education
1. The standard of primary education should be raised and secondary education should be
given a vocational bias.
2. The standard of university education should be encouraged.
3. The standard of teacher's training should be raised and number of trained teachers should
be increased.

5.5 Nomenclature Recommended for Educational Institutions by Notes

Commission
Realizing the need for a uniform system of nomenclatures, the Commission recommends that
it should be evolved by the government of India, in consultation with the State Governments.
Pending the finalization of such a system, it has used the following nomenclatures throughout
the report :
5.5.1 School Education

(i) Pre-primary Education: Which includes :
(a) Pre-primary, (b) Pre-basic (c) Kindergarten (d) Montessorie etc.,
(ii) Primary Education (Classes I-VII or I-VIII): Which includes:
(a) Lower Primary Classes (I - IV or I-V): (i) Primary in some State (e.g., Punjab) (ii)
Lower Primary in some States (e.g., Gujrat) (iii) Junior Basic, and (iv) Lower
Elementary in some State (e.g., Madras).
(b) Higher Primary Classes (V -VII or VI - VIII): (i) Middle in some State (e.g., Punjab),
(ii) Junior higher scho6f'(e.g., U.P., (iii) Upper Primary in some States (e.g., Gujarat).
(iv) Senior Basic, (v) Higher elementary in some States (e.g., Madras).
(iii) Secondary Education (Classes VIII-XIII or IX-X)
High school; Higher Secondary school : Which includes :
(a) Lower Secondary Education (Classes VIII-X or IX-X) : High School.
(b) Higher Secondary Education (Classes XI-XII).: (i) This will include class XI or P. U.
C. in some States (e.g., Rajasthan), (i) It will include junior colleges in Kerala, (iii) It
will include Intermediate class in U.P. (iv) It will also include terms like pre-
professional, pre-medical and pre-engineering.
5.5.2 Higher Education

(i) Professional Degrees: All degrees which lead to a professional qualification (e.g., M.A.,
M.Sc., M.Com., B.E., M.B.B.S. B.T., LL.B., B.Sc Ag. etc).
(ii) General Degrees: All degrees other than professional ones.
(iii) Under-graduate: All courses leading to the first degree.
(iv) Post-graduate: All courses beyond the first degree (excluding certain first degrees given
after the first degree, e.g., B. Ed.)
(v) First Level of Education: This will include pre-school and primary education
5.6 National Reconstruction and Education
5.6.1 Major Problems

The following are the major problem:
(i) To produce more food-grains for solving the food problem in order to make the country
self-dependent for food.
(ii) To achieve social and political unity.
(iii) To remove unemployment problem through economic progress,
(iv) Provincialism, regionalism and religion should not be given any place in politics. The
political standard should be raised.
5.6.2 Achievement of National Goals

(i) Production should be increased in each field through education.
(ii) The things of daily necessities, should be produced through education. Social and political
unity should be achieved through education.

Notes (iii) Education should be modernized strengthening the roots of democracy.

(iv) The nature of education should be such as to enable each individual to achieve all-round
development of this personality along with his religions, moral and spiritual
development.
Self Assessment
(i) The ............ will advice government on national pattern of education and on the general
principles and politics for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects.
(ii) According to commission the .................... shouldl be given in any scheme of national
development.
(iii) .................. which lead to a professional qualification. (e.g. M.A., M.Sc. M.Com etc.)
(iv) The commission was appointed on ....................... through a resolution of the government.
(v) ........................... have been appointed by commission.
5.7 Improvement of Teacher's Status

1. The economic conditions of teachers should be improved. The central government should
fix up their grades and should give financial assistance to States.
2. Equal pay for equal work policy should be followed for teachers in all educational
institutions.
3. The pay-scale of teachers should be rationalised within ten years.
4. The salaries of teachers of universities and affiliated colleges should be suitable raised
corresponding to the nature of their work.
5.8 Teachers' Training

The Commission has criticised the existing pattern of teachers' training. It has recommended
that the pattern should be modernised and its curriculum be made more practical. In order to
remove the defects the Commission has suggested the following measures :
1. At the university level education should be made an independent branch of study and
advanced research should be encouraged in it.
2. Extension service should be started in teachers' training institutions. The pupil-teachers
should be sent in good schools for practice-teaching.
3. Well qualified and able teachers should be appointed in training colleges.
4. Teachers' education boards should be organised for determining the standard of teachers'
training, curriculum and other related programmes.
5. Modern techniques should be adopted for evaluation in education.
5.9 Development of Education

The development of Education in the light of commission recommendations have been provided
in the following heads :
(1) Development of Pre-Primary Education (2) Development of Primary Education
(3) Development of Secondary Education (4) Development of Higher Education.
5.9.1 Equalisation of Education Opportunities

The equalisation of education opportunities have been given in following paragraphs :
(i) Education of Handicapped Children: There should be at least one school in each district
for the education of handicapped children.

(ii) Women Education: Women Education should be given due importance. For expanding Notes
it Committees should be formed at the Centre and in the States. Special financial help
should be provided for the purpose.
(iii) Education of Aboriginals: The Ashram System should be adopted for education for these
people. Individual schools may also be established. Educated aboriginals should be
appointed as teachers. Residential facilities and stipends should be given to the children
of aboriginals.
(iv) Backward Classes: The children of backward classes should be given maximum
educational facilities.
What should be educational system for aboriginals?
5.10 Evaluation of Kothari Commission Recommendations

After independence members of commission and Committees were formed for the development
of Education of the our country. It has given recommendation from pre-primary education to
university education. Therefore it is a comprehensive commission of Education or National
Education Commission. Even the National Policy of Education has elaborated the
recommendations of Kothari Commission. The following are -the main comments on the
commission recommendations:
(i) A Unique Report—Mr. M.C. Chagla, the Union Education Minister submitted to centre.
(ii) Bold and Pertinent—The Indian Express, July 1, 1966.
(iii) A comprehensive, Critical and Constructive Review of the Education system prevailing
in the country—The Hindustan Times, July 1, 1966.
(iv) Bold, Categorical and Realistic—The Hindustan Standard, Calcutta, July 12, 1966.
(v) Educationists and Teachers Welcome the Recommendations—The Hindu, July 1, 1966.
(vi) Science Teachers Welcome Commission's Report-Indian Nation, 11th July, 1966.
(vii) Teachers Welcome Education Commission's Report-The Patriot, July 13, 1966.
(viii) Original and Significant Contribution-Deccan Chronicle, July 17, 1966.
(ix) A great achievement in the old pursuit of clarifying the concept of a national system of
education for the country—Naik and Nurullah : A Student's History of Education, 1974.
5.11 National Policy on Education Committee of Members of Parliament

A Committee of Members of Parliament on Education was constituted by the Government of
India on April 5, 1967, with the following terms of reference:
(i) to consider the report of the Education Commission;
(ii) to prepare the draft of a statement on the National Policy on Education for the
consideration of Government of India;and
(iii) to identify the programme for immediate action.
The report of the members of Parliament was laid on the Table of the Lok Sabha
on July 25, 1967.

Notes Self Assessment

2. Multiple Choice Questions
Choose the correct option:
(i) .................. should be adopted for evaluation in education.
(a) Modern techniques (b) Small strategies
(c) Sharp teachings (d) Developed recommendations
(ii) The children of ................ should be given maximum educational facilities.
(a) mentally retarded (b) backward
(c) rich families (d) None of these
(iii) Within these 21 months the commission organised two conferences of students, in
reviewed about ..................... person interested in the education in the country.
(a) 1000 (b) 2000 (c) 900 (d) 500
(iv) The commission submitted its report to the government on ........................... .
(a) July 2, 1960 (b) June 29, 1966 (c) 5 May, 1980 (d) 6 August, 1996
5.12 Resolution on National Policy

As a result of discussions on the recommendations of the Education Commission and the report
of the Committee of Members of Parliament, a Resolution on National Policy on Education was
formally issued by the Government of India on July 24,1966 (Appendix II). The Resolutions
enumerated some principles to guide the development of education in the years ahead. These
are:
(i) Free and compulsory Education (ii) Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers
(iii) Development of Language (iv) Equalisation of Education Opportunity
(v) Identification of Talent
When was a committee of members of parliament on education constituted?
5.13 The Resolution on National Policy on Education Further Stated

"The reconstruction of education on these lines will need additional outlay. The aim should be
gradually to increase the investment in education so as to reach a level of expenditure of six per
cent of the national income as early as possible".
The national policy on education, 1968 has been accepted by the Government as guiding principle
for all educational development in the country supplemented by the guidelines adopted in the
Sixth plan document.
The programmes spelt out in the national policy on education are being implemented by the
Central and the state governments with such modifications and adjustments as are warranted
from time to time by the socio-economic conditions in the country. Most significant of these
programmes are universalisation of elementary education and eradication of adult illiteracy.
Both these from part of Centre's minimum needs programme as well as the Revised 20-Point
Programme.
For the discharge of its specific responsibility, the Union Ministry of Education has been acting
directly by itself and through its institutions like the University Grants Commission, National
Council of Educational Research and Training, etc. The aims and objectives of these institutions

have been, by and large, to bring about improvement of standards of education and training at Notes
various levels or to promote specific areas of education like languages, production of books etc.
5.14 Contribution of the Report of the Education Commission (1964-66)

There is no exaggeration in the statement that there is no report of any educational commission
and committee in India which has made such a valuable contribution to the role of education,
its contents, development, expansion and planning etc. as the report of the Education
Commission (1964-66). The present educational system in India, by and large, draws its
inspiration from this report. The report, no doubt, has brought about radical changes in education
in India. The National Policy of Education (1986) is based on it.
5.15 National Structure of Education-Proposed by Kothari Commission

The new educational structure will consist of:
1. Duration.
(a) One to three years of pre-school education.
(b) A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into a lower primary stage of 4 or 5 years
and a higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years.
(c) A lower secondary stage of 3 to 2 years.
(d) A higher secondary stage of two years of general education or one to three years of
vocational education.
(e) A higher education stage having a course of three years or more for the first degree
and followed by a course for the second or research degree of varying durations.
2. Admission Age. Age of admission to class I ordinarily not to be less than 6.
3. Public Examination. First public examination to come at the end of first ten years of schooling.
4. Diversification of Courses. The system of streaming in school of general education to be
made beyond class X.
5. Types of Secondary Schools. Two types of secondary schools, high schools providing a ten-
year course and higher secondary schools providing a course of 11 or 12 years.
Self Assessment
(i) According to national structure of education age of admission to class I ordinarily not to
be less than 6.
(ii) First public examination comes at the end of first 12 years of schooling.
(iii) The system of streaming in school of general education to be made beyond class X.
(iv) The pay scale of teachers should be retionalised within 5 years.
5.16 Summary
• The Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr.D.S. Kothari, the then Chairman,
University Grants Commission, began its task on October 2,1964.
• The Commission submitted its report to the government on June 29,1966. It was laid on
the Table of the House on August 29, 1966.
• The Commission observed that mother-tongue had a pre-eminent claim as the medium of
education at the school and college stages.
• The Commission further observed that the public demand for secondary and higher
education had increased and would continue to increase in future.
• The Commission spent about hundred days in going round all the States and Selected
Union Territories.

Notes 5.17 Keywords

• Commission: an official group of people who have been given responsibility
• vocational : connected with the skills, knowledge, etc.
• parliament : the group of people who are elected to make and change the laws of a
country.
• integration : the act or process of combining two or more things so that they work
together.

1. What were the main features of the commissions report?
2. Write the aim of the commission.
3. Explain the curriculum recommended by the commission.
4. Discuss the equilisation of education opportunities.
5. Write the short note on “three language formula”.

1. (i) Commission (ii) education
(iii) Professional Degrees (iv) July 14, 1964
(v) Seven working committees
2. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (b)
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, JC Aggarwal.

Mel Ainscow.
3. Development of Education System : Briykithore Dayal, Khatia K., Daya Publications
House.

Unit 6: National Policy of Education, (1986)
Unit 6: National Policy of Education, (1986) Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
6.1 Main Features of National Policy on Education (1986)
6.2 Programme of Action (POA), 1986
6.3 Major Steps of National Policy of Education
6.4 National Policy on Education and Early Childhood Education and Care (ECCE)
6.5 Main Features of the National System of Education
6.6 Evaluation of the NPE
6.7 National Policy on Education and Reconstruction of Curriculum
6.8 National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education (1988)
6.9 Summary
6.10 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the main features at the nations policy of education (1986).
• to describe about the programme of action (POA), 1986.
• to discuss about the major steps of national policy of education.
• to explain about the national policy on education and early childhood education and care (ECCE).
• to discuss about Main Features of the National System of Education
• to explain Evaluation of the NPE
• to discuss National Policy on Education and Reconstruction of Curriculum
• to explain Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education (1988)
Introduction
The Education Commission 1964-66 recommended that the Government of India should issue a
statement on the National Policy on Education which should provide guidance to the State
Governments and the local authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans. In
1967 the Government of India constituted a committee of Members of Parliament on Education
to prepare the draft of a statement on the National Policy of Education. The Committee brought
together, for the first time in recent history, leading members of almost all the political parties
in the country and prepared a draft which was considered by the Central Advisory Board of
Education. A general consensus on the national policy on education emerged in the course of
the Board’s deliberations. Thereafter the Government of India issued the Resolution on National
Policy on Education in 1968.

Notes 6.1 Main Features of National Policy on Education (1986)

An out line of National Policy of Education has been divided into twelve parts : (1) Introductory
(2) The Essence and Role of Education (3) National System of Education (4) Education for Equality
(5) Reorganisation of Education at Different Stage (6) Technical and management Education.
6.2 Programme of Action (POA) 1986

The Parliament during the Budget Session in 1986 discussed and adopted the "National Policy of
Education 1986". A promise was made at that time by the Minister of Human Resource
Development that he would present in the Monsoon Session a Programme of Action for the
implementation of the Policy. Immediately after the Budget Session, the ministry undertook an
intensive exercise to prepare the promised Programme of Action.
This programme of Action is meant to provide an indication of the nature of actions which will
be needed in order to implement the directions of the Policy. It provides a broad strategy
within which detailed schemes will be subsequently drawn up; it will also facilitate the
preparatory work which will be required before such schemes can be worked out fully and put
into operational form. The detailed projects will be taken up for formulation by the various
departments and agencies, in consultation with all concerned, once the strategy outlined in the
Programme of Action has been examined and endorsed by the parliament. It is necessary to
stress that what is presented here is not an inflexible structure but only a projection of directions
with varying degrees of detail. A certain amount of flexibility is assumed which will help the
implementing agencies in tailoring the programme of Action to suit their contexts and to make
necessary modifications on the basis of experiences and emerging scenarios. Implementation of
the programmes will be a cooperative effort between the Centre and the States with full
involvement of the community and the teachers and a constant process of consultations is
envisaged.
When and where did the central advisory board of education meet?
6.3 Major Steps of National Policy of Education

Major steps of policy are given below:
(1) National System of Education.
(2) Navodava Schools.
(3) De-linking degrees from jobs.
(4) Performance and Accountability.
(5) The management of education.
(6) Indian Education service. (IES)
(7) Raising resources.
6.3.1 De-linking Degrees From Jobs

A beginning will be made in de-linking degrees from jobs in selected areas. The proposal
cannot be applied to occupation-specific courses like Engineering, Medicine, Law, Technical,
etc., Similarly, the services of specialists 'with academic qualifications in the humanities, social
sciences, sciences, etc., will continue to be required in various job positions.
De-linking will be applied in services for which a university degree need not be a necessary
qualification. Its implementation will lead to a refashioning of job-specific courses and afford

greater justice to those candidates who, despite being equipped for a given job, are unable to Notes
get it because of an unnecessary preference for graduate candidates.
Self Assessment
(i) The ......................... in 1986 discussed and adopted the “National Policy of Education
1986” during the budget session.
(ii) ............................ is meant to provide an indication of the nature of actions which will be
needed in order to implement the directions of the policy.
(iii) ................... of the programme will be a co-operative effort between the centre.
(iv) ......................... will be applied in services for which a university degree need not be a
necessary qualification.
6.4 National Policy on Education and Early Childhood Education and

Care
Important Features and Programmes:
1. The NPE has used the term ECCE in place of pre-primary or nursery education. NPE lays
stress on the holistic nature of child development, viz., nutrition, health and social, mental,
physical, moral and emotional development and recommends that ECCE should be suitably
integrated with the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Programme, wherever
possible.
2. The span under consideration in ECCE is from conception to about 6 years.
3. ICDS includes six services: supplementary nutrition, immunisation, health check up referral
services, health education and non-formal pre-school education.
4. Day-care centres should be provided as a support service for universalisation of primary
education to enable girls engaged in taking care of siblings to attend school and as a
support service for working women belonging to poorer sections.
5. Programmes of ECCE should be child-oriented.
6. Programmes of ECCE should be focussed around play and the individuality of the child.
7. Formal methods and introduction of the 3 R’s should be discouraged at this stage.
8. The local community should be fully involved in ECCE programmes.
9. A full integration of child care and pre-primary education should be brought about, both
as a feeder and strengthening for primary education and human resource development.
6.5 Main Features of the National System of Education

The National Policy on Education, 1986 has envisaged^ the following main features of the
National System of Education:
1. Philosophical and Sociological Foundations Based on Constitutional Principles: The
National System of Education derives its inspiration from the ideals and values of
democracy, secularism and socialism.
2. Universal Access to Education: The National System of Education implies that up to a
given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education
of a comparable quality. To achieve this, the Government will initiate appropriately funded
programmes. Effective measures will be taken in the direction of the Common School
System recommended in the 1968 Policy.
3. Common Educational Structure: The National System of Education envisages a common
educational structure. The 10+2+3 structure has now been accepted in all parts of the

Notes country. Regarding the further break-up of the first 10 years efforts will be made to move
towards an elementary system comprising 5 years of primary education and 3 years of
upper primary, followed by 2 years of High School.
4. National Curricular Framework with a Common Core: The National System of Education
will be based on a national curricular framework which contains a common core along
with other components that are flexible. The common core w;ll include the history of
India’s freedom movement, the constitutional obligations and other content essential to
nurture national identity. These elements cut across subject areas and will be designed to
promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and
secularism, equality of the sexes, protection of the environment, removal of social barriers,
observance of the small family norm and inculcation of the scientific temper. All educational
programmes will be carried on in strict conformity with secular values.
5. Education for International Understanding: India has always worked for price and
understanding between nations, treating the whole world as one family. True to this
hoary tradition, education has to strengthen this world view and motivate the younger
generations for international cooperation and peaceful coexistence. This aspect cannot be
neglected.
6. Equality of Opportunity of Education: To promote equality, it will be necessary to provide
for equal opportunity to all not only in access, but also in the conditions for success.
Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the core
curriculum. The purpose is to remove prejudices and complexes transmitted through the
social environment and the accident of birth.
7. Determination of Minimum Levels of Learning: Minimum levels of learning will be laid
down for each stage of education. Steps will also be taken to foster among students an
understanding of the diverse cultural and social systems of the people living in different
parts of the country.
8. Promotion of State Languages: Besides the promotion of the link language, programmes
will also be launched to increase substantially the translation of books from one language
to another and to publish multi-lingual dictionaries and glossaries. The young will be
encouraged to undertake the rediscovery of India, each in his own image and perception.
9. Universal Character of Higher Education: In higher education in general, and technical
education in particular, steps will be taken to facilitate interregional mobility by providing
equal access to every Indian of requisite merit, regardless of his origins. The universal
character of universities and other institutions of higher education is to be underscored.
10. Network Arrangement of Pooling of Resources: In the areas of research and development,
and education in science and technology, special measures will be taken to establish network
arrangement between different institutions in the country to pool their resources and
participate in project of national importance.
11. Priorities of Educational Reforms: The nation as a whole will assume the responsibility of
providing resource support for implementing programmes of educational transformation,
reducing disparities, universalisation of elementary education, adult literacy, scientific
and technological research, etc.
12. Extensive facilities for Open and Distance Learning: Life-long education is a cherished
goal of the educational process. This presupposes universal literacy. Opportunities will be
provided to youth, housewives, agricultural and industrial workers and professionals to
continue the education of their choice at the pace suited to them. The future thrust will be
in the direction of open and distance learning.
13. Strengthening of National Institutions: It is proposed to strengthen national institutions
like the University Grants Commission, NCERT, NIEPA, All India Council of Technical
Education, Indian Council of Educational Research, the Indian Medical Council, etc.

14. Meaningful Partnership: The Centre and States will make their partnership in the field of Notes
education meaningful.
15. Expenditure on Education: Efforts to be made to spend 6% of GNP on education.
16. Education for All: Attempts to made to provide elementary education and adult education
to all.
6.6 Evaluation of the NPE

The most important significant aspect of the NPE is that for the first time in the history of India,
an education policy was formulated at the initiative of a Prime Minister.
The second aspect is that a nation-wide debate was held on different aspects of education before
the NPE came into being.
The third aspect is that it was discussed in the Parliament.
Lastly, a Programme of Action was chalked out its implementation.
6.6.1 Merits of the NPE

Among the most important merits, following may be mentioned:
1. National System of Education: The NPE proposed a national system of education to
provide access to education of a comparable quality to all students, to have a common
educational structure with national curricular framework containing a common core.
2. Improvement in Primary Education: The NPE very rightly laid stress on the qualitative
improvement of elementary education.
3. Pace Setting Schools: Setting up of Navodaya Vidyalayas is a great landmark in the
history of education in India.
4. Vocational Targets: The policy fixed somewhat realistic targets of covering 10 per cent of
higher secondary students by 1990 and 25 per cent by 1995 in vocational courses.
5. Delinking Degrees from Jobs: Beginning to be made in delinking degrees from jobs in
selected areas.
6. Performance and Accountability: Stress was laid on performance and accountability at all
levels.
7. Decentralisation of the Management of Education: The policy very aptly called for evolving
a strategy of decentralisation and the creation of a spirit of autonomy for educational
institutions.
8. Indian Education Service: It envisaged that the Constitution of the Indian education Service
would bring about a national perspective in education.
9. National Testing Service: This is likely to be helpful in determining suitability of candidates
for specified jobs and to pave the way for the emergence of norms of comparable
competence across the nation.
10. Raising Resources: The policy has suggested appropriate methods of financing education.
These are:
(i) Beneficiary communities to maintain school buildings and supplies of some
Consumables; (ii) Raising fees at the higher levels of education; (iii) Levying a cess or
charge on users of research and development agencies; and (iv) Affecting savings by the
efficient use of facilities.
6.6.2 Missing Links and Limitations of the New Policy

1. Financial Aspects not Worked Out: It is very unfortunate that financial implications have not
been worked out. Targets in different areas have not been fixed. Any workable document
must be backed by financial resources otherwise it will remain a ‘paper’ document.
2. No Reference to Basic system of Education: There is no reference to the Basic System of
Education at the School Stage.

Notes 3. Working Hours in Schools: For making the optimum use of human resources, increased
working hours in educational institutions should have been recommended.
4. Too Much Expectation from Community Help: There is very little hope of obtaining
Community funds for educational purposes as there has developed a strong tendency on
the part of the rich members of the community to contribute to political parties due to
obvious reasons.
5. Neighbourhood School Concept Ignored: The neighbourhood school concept advocated by
the Kothari Commission for eliminating the segregation that now takes place between the
schools for the poor and the under-privileged classes and those for the rich and the
privileged, has been completely ignored.
6. Silent on the Existence of Public Schools: The NPE has evaded the issue of the
‘Commercialisation’ of education by most of the public schools in the country.
7. No Check on the Working of Minority Schools: The Policy does not propose any checks to
prevent the management of the pu blic of the public schools from exploiting the staff
working there.
8. Multiplication of Institutions: Setting up State Advisory Boards of Education, District
Institutes of Education and Trainin and District Boards of Education is not likely to serve
any useful purpose.
Self Assessment
2. State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
(i) The BNPE has used the term ECCE in place of pre-primary or nursery education.
(ii) The span under consideration in ECCE is from conception to about 5 years.
(iii) The local community should be fully involved in ECCE programmes.
(iv) The most important significant aspect of the NPE is that for the second time in the
history of India, an education policy was formulated at the initiative of a prime minister.
(v) NPE proposed a national system of educaiton to provide access to education of a
comparable quality to all students.
6.7 National Policy on Education and Reconstruction of Curriculum

Importance of Curriculum. Curriculum is one of the most important elements of education through
which it can bring about the ‘fine synthesis between change-oriented technologies and the
country’s continuity of cultural traditions’, as observed by the NPE. Curriculum contains subject-
matter of various disciplines and activities. It fulfills the tasks set. The NPE provided the
directions and the Programme of Action (1986) formulated for their implementation worked
out the details of the curriculum.
6.7.1 Special Features of the Curriculum

1. Common Core Curriculum: The National System of Education will be based on a national
curricular framework which contains a common core along with other components that
are flexible. The common core will include the history of India’s freedom movement, the
constitutional obligations and other content essential to nurture national identity. These
elements will cut across subject areas and will be designed to promote values such as
India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of
the sexes, protection of the environment, removal of social barriers, observance of the
small family norm and inculcation of the scientific temper. All educational programmes
will be carried on hi strict conformity with secular values.
2. Minimum Levels of Learning: Minimum levels of learning will be laid down for each
stage of education. Steps will also be taken to foster among students an understanding of
the diverse cultural and social systems of the people living in different parts of the country.

3. The Cultural Perspective: The existing schism between the formal system of education and Notes
the country’s rich and varied cultural traditions need to be bridged. The preoccupation
with modern technologies cannot be allowed to sever new generations from the roots in
India’s history and culture. De-culturisation, dehumanisation and alienation must be
avoided at all costs. Education can and must bring about the fine synthesis between change-
oriented technologies and the country’s continuity of cultural traditions.
The curricula and processes of education will be enriched by cultural content in as many
manifestations as possible. Children will be enabled to develop sensitivity to beauty,
harmony and refinement.
4. Value Education: The growing concern over the erosion of essential values and an
increasing cynicism in society has brought to focus the need for readjustments in the
curriculum in order to make education a forceful tool for the cultivation of social and
moral values.
In our culturally plural society education should foster universal and eternal values,
oriented towards the unity and integration of our people. Such education should help
eliminate obscurantism, religious fanaticism, violence, superstition and fatalism.
5. Languages: The Education Policy of 1968 had examined the question of the development
of languages in great details; its essential provisions can hardly be improved upon and
are as relevant today as before. The implementation of this part of the 1968 Policy has,
however, been uneven. The Policy will be implemented more energetically and
purposefully.
6. Media and Educational Technology: Modern communication technologies have the
potential to bypass several stages and sequences in the process of development encountered
in early decades. Both the constraints of time and distance at once become manageable. In
order to avoid structural dualism, modern educational technology must reach out to the
most distant areas and the most deprived sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with
the areas of comparative affluence and ready availability.
The media has profound influence on the mind of children as well as adults; some of it has
encouraged consumerism, violence etc., and thus had a deleterious effect. Radio and TV
programmes which clearly militate against proper educational objectives will be prevented.
Steps will be taken to discourage such trend in the films and other media also. An active
movement will be started to promote the production of children’s films of high quality
and usefulness.
7. Work Experience: Work experience, viewed as purposive and meaningful manual work,
organised as an integral part of the learning process and resulting in either goods or
services useful to the community, is considered as an essential component at all stages of
education, to be provided through well-structured and graded programmes. It would
comprise activities in accordance with the interests, abilities and needs of students, the
level of skills and knowledge to be upgraded with the stages of education. The experience
would be helpful on entry into the workforce. Pre-vocational programmes provided at the
lower secondary stage will also facilitate the choice of the vocational courses at the higher
secondary stage.
8. Education and Environment: There is a paramount need to create a consciousness of the
environment. It must permeate all ages and all sections of society, beginning with the
child. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools and colleges. This
aspect will be integrated in the entire educational process.
9. Teaching of Mathematics: Mathematics should be visualised as the vehicle to train a child
to think, reason, analyse and to articulate logically. Apart from being a specific subject, it
should be treated as a concomitant to any subject involving analysis and reasoning.
With the recent introduction of computers in schools, educational computing and the
emergence of learning through the understanding of cause-effect relationships and the
interplay of variables, the teaching of mathematics will be suitably redesigned to bring it
in line with modern technological devices.

Notes 10. Science Education: Science education will be strengthened so as to develop in the child
well defined abilities and values such as the spirit of inquiry, creativity, objectivity, the
courage to question, and an aesthetic sensibility.
Science education programmes will be designed to enable the learner to acquire problem
solving and decision making skills and to discover the relationship of science with health,
agriculture, industry and other aspects of daily life. Every effort will be made to extend
science education to the vast numbers who have remained outside the facility of formal
education.
11. Sports and Physical Education: Sports and physical education are an integral part of the
learning process, and will be included in the evaluation of performance. A nation-wide
infrastructure for physical education, sports and games will be built into the educational
edifice.
The infrastructure will consist of playfields, equipment, coaches and teachers of physical
education as part of the School Improvement Programme. Available open spaces in urban
areas will be reserved for playgrounds, if necessary by legislation. Efforts will be made to
establish sports institutions and hostel where specialised attention will be given to sports
activities and sports-related studies along with normal education. Appropriate
encouragement will be given to those talented in sports and games. Due stress will be laid
on indigenous traditional games. As a system which promotes an integrated development
of body and mind, Yoga will receive special attention. Efforts will be made to introduce
Yoga in all schools; to this end, it will be introduced in teacher training courses.
12. Education for International Understanding: India has always worked for peace and
understanding between nations, and treating the whole world as one family. True to this
hoary tradition, education has to strengthen this world view and motivate the younger
generations for international cooperation and peaceful co-existence. This aspect cannot be
neglected.
13. Curriculum at Different Stages of School Education
(i) Curriculum at pre-elementary stage: Recognising the holistic nature of child development,
viz., nutrition, health and social, mental, physical, moral and emotional development,
Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) will receive high priority and be suitably
integrated wherever possible. Day-care centres will be provided as a support service for
universalisation of primary education, to enable girls engaged in taking care of siblings
to attend school and as a support service for working women belonging to poorer
sections.
Programme of ECCE will be child-oriented, focused around play, and the individuality
of the child. Formal methods and the introduction of the 3R’s will be discouraged at this
stage. The local community will be fully involved in these programmes.
A full integration of child care and pre-primary education will be brought about, both
as a feeder and a strengthening factor for primary education and for human resource
development in general. In continuation of this stage, the School Health Programme
will be strengthened.
(ii) Curriculum at the Elementary Stage: Child-centred Approach. A. warm welcoming and
encouraging approach, in which all concerned share a solicitude for the needs of the
child, is the best motivation for the child to attend school and learn. A child-centred and
activity-based process of learning should be adopted at the primary stage. First generation
learners should be allowed to set their own pace and be given supplementary remedial
instruction.
(iii) Curriculum at the Secondary Stage: Secondary education begins to expose students to
differentiated roles of science, the humanities and social sciences. This is also an
appropriate stage to provide children with a sense of history and national perspective
and give them opportunities to understand their constitutional duties and rights as

citizens. Conscious internalisation of a healthy work ethos and of the values of a humane Notes
and composite culture will be brought about through appropriately formulated curricula.
Vocationalisation through specialised institutions or through the refashioning of
secondary education can, at this stage, provide valuable manpower for economic growth.
6.8 National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education

(1988)
For carrying out the directives in the policy, the National Council of Educational Research
Training, New Delhi, prepared a National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education.
It included the emerging curricular concerns and imperatives based on socio-cultural, political
and economic considerations.
6.8.1 Revised Curriculum 2000

The NCERT revised the curriculum in 2000. Three pillars of the revised policy are: 1. ‘Relevance’,
2. ‘Equity’ and 3. ‘Excellence’. It is based on the following objectives which by and large are the
same as contained in NPE 1986 and as modified in 1992.
1. Developing a cohesive society.
2. Strengthening national unity.
3. Preserving cultural heritage and improving the indigenous knowledge.
4. Highlighting India’s contribution to mankind.
5. Responding to the challenge of globalisation.
6. Meeting the challenges of information and communication technologies.
7. Linking education with life skills.
8. Developing values.
9. Relating education to the ‘World of work’.
6.8.2 Criticism of the Scheme

The critics point out the following demerits:
1. Admission tests do not take into consideration rural background.
2. On account of special coaching facilities, children of middle class income group are able to
get admission in large numbers at the cost of lower income group.
3. By opening these schools, the government has discarded the Common School System.
Another category of public schools has emerged.
4. These schools put a heavy burden on the State. This money should be spent in providing
elementary universal education.
Self Assessment
3. Multiple Choice Questions :
(i) The .................. structure has now been accepted in all parts of the country.
(a) 10+1+3 (b) 10+2+3 (c) 10+1+2 (d) 10+0+2
(ii) Elementary system comprising ................... years of primary education and 3 years of
upper primary.
(a) 5 (b) 8 (c) 10 (d) 12
(iii) Teaching ..................... should be visualised as the vehicle to train a child to think, reason,
analyse and to articulate logically.
(a) Hindi (b) English (c) Mathematics (d) Social Science

Notes 6.9 Summary

• The Education Commission 1964-66 recommended that the Government of India should
issue a statement on the National Policy on Education which should provide guidance to
the State Governments and the local authorities in preparing and implementing educational
plans.
• The Ministry of Human Resource Development brought out a revised document 'National
Policy on Education 1986-A Presentation. This paper was discussed at the meetings of the
State Ministers of Education, the National Development Council and the Central Advisory
Board of Education. It was revised in the light of these discussions and the, 'Draft National
Policy on Education 1986' was finally laid on the table of Parliament in the first week of
May, 1986.
The National Policy on Education was adopted by the Lok Sabha on May 8, 1986 and the
Rajya Sabha on May 13, 1986.
• Our ancient scriptures define education as that which liberates i.e., provides the instruments
for liberation from ignorance and oppression.
6.10 Keywords
• Draft : a rough written version of something that is not yet its final form.
• Perspective : a particular attitude towards somethings.
• Access : a way of entering or reaching a place.

1. What are the main features of nation policy on education, 1986?
2. Writre the short notes on “Education for Women’s equality.”
3. Briefly explain about the vocationalization of education.
4. Describe about the program of Action 1986.
5. What are the major steps of national policy of education?
6. Write the concept of Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya.
7. Wrtie the merits of National policy on education, 1986.

1. (i) 1967, the national policy of education (ii) education
(iii) deprived (iv) provision, primary (v) 50
3. (i) (a) (ii) (a) (iii) (b)
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, Khatia K.

2. Developing Equitable Education Systems : Radhika Chopra , Patricia M Jeffery,
Mel Ainscow.

Unit 7: Programme of Action, (1992)
Unit 7: Programme of Action, (1992) Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 Rammurti Review Committee (1990)
7.2 Janardan Reddy Revision Committee (1992)
7.3 Modified POA, 1992
7.4 Yashpal Committee 1992-93
7.5 Summary
7.6 Keywords
Objective
The objectives of this unit can be summarized as below :
• to discuss about the Rammurti review Committee (1990)
• to explain about the Janardan Reddy revision Committee (1992)
• to describe about the modified programme of Action, 1992
• to discuss about the Yashpal Committee, 1992-93.
Introduction
The Parliament during the Budget Session in 1986 discussed and adopted the "National Policy
on Education 1986". A promise was made at that time by the Minister of Human Resource
Development that he would present in the Monsoon Session a Programme of Action for the
implementation of the policy. Immediately after the Budget Session, the Ministry undertook an
intensive exercise to prepare the promised Programme of Action.
7.1 Rammurti Review Committee (1990)

On the 7th May 1990 the Government of India announced the appointment of a committee to
review the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 under the Chairmanship of Acharya
Rammurti.
The committee issued a Perspective Paper on Education in September 1990 and wanted responses
to this paper to be sent before October 10, 1990. The paper starts with Chairman’s Appeal
indicating three basic concerns for reviewing the Policy. These are (1) The right to work which
is proposed to be enshrined in the constitution (2) The Unity and integrity of the nation that are
seriously threatened and (3) The impoverishment of the inner men in India.
The language constitute the Fifth Modality and mother-tongue is to be given due position.
Education for Woman’s Equality has been discussed in the Sixth Modality and Removal of
Regional Disparities in the Seventh one. The Eight Modality consists of Decentralized School
Management and the Nineth one focuses on Resources in dicating strategies for augmenting
resources for education and distribution of the same.
The perspective paper was released in a Press Conference by Acharya Rammurti on September
7, 1990.

Notes
In the press Conference Acharyaji highlighted the salient features of the paper which
were reported in various newspapers on 8th September 1990.
7.2 Janardan Reddy Revision Committee (1992)

(The Revision Committee for NPE 1986)
In July 1991 Central Advisory Board of Education appointed a Committee on National Policy of
Education under the Chairmanship of Janardan Reddy, the then Chief Minister of Andhra
Pradesh. Six other Education Ministers belonging to major political parties and eight educationists
were the members of the Committee. The Committee reviewed the NPE 1986 taking into
consideration the report of Acharya Rammurti Committee known as National Policy on Education
Review Committee (NPERC) and other relevant developments since 1986.
The Janardan Reddy Committee submitted its report in January 1992. The Report of the
Committee is an important document. The committee reiterated the recommendations made in
NPE 1986 and came to the conclusion that very little change was required in National Policy on
Education 1986 and hence policy need not be reformulated. If we have a look in the Modified
National Policy on Education issued by MHRD in 1992, we notice almost the same paras and
articles with a very little change here and there.
Self Assessment
1. Fill in the blanks :
(i) Central advisory board of educations appointed a committee on national policy of
education under the chairmanship of ....................... .
(ii) On the ................................ the Government of India announced the appointment of a
committee to review the national policy on educations.
(iii) Rammurti Review Committee (1990) issued a paper on education starts with chairman’s
appeal indicating ........... for reviewing the National policy of education.
(iv) Education for ......................... has been discussed in the sixth modelity of perspective
paper issued by review committee.
(v) The Nanardan Reddy Committee submitted its report in January ..................... .
7.3 Modified POA, 1992

As discussed in the previous page POA 1986 was revised and modified to a great extent keeping
the spirit of National Policy of Education 1992. The following is the main theme of PoA 1992.
7.3.1 Education of SC, ST, and OBC

1. Analysis of present situation.
2. Access and Enrolment are highlighted, universal access is to be ensured.
3. Adequate incentives for SC/ST and OBC children.
4. All schools, NFE centres and pre-schools centres in SC/ST habitations to be equipped with
facilities.
5. Operation Blackboard to cover all schools in tribal areas and Harijan Bastis.
7.3.2 Elementary Education

1. Non-formal education has become an accepted alternative channel.
2. NCERT revised school syllabi and brought out revised text books for classes I to XII.

3. Guidelines for micro-planning have been given. Notes

4. Total literacy campaign has been advocated.
7.3.3 Secondary Education

1. Common education structure 10(5+3+2)+2.
2. 10+2+3 structure has been suggested.
3. National curricular framework has been chalked out.
4. Planned expansion of secondary education facilities. Higher-participation of girls, SC and
STs to be ensured.
5. Widening access to secondary education.
7.3.4 Early Childhood Care and Education
The Present Situation : Realising the crucial importance of rapid physical and mental growth
during early childhood, Government started a number of programmes of early childhood care
and education (ECCE). Declaration of a National Policy for Children (1974) shows the commitment
of Government for the development of children. The existing ECCE programmes include:
(i) Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS);
(ii) Scheme of assistance to voluntary organisations for conducting early childhood education
centres (ECE);
(iii) Balwadis and day-care centres run by voluntary agencies with Government's assistance;
(iv) Pre-primary schools run by the State Governments, Municipal Corporations and other
agencies;
(v) Maternal and child health services through primary health centres and sub-centres and
other agencies.
It needs to be fully integrated with the Universal immunisation programme

started with effect from 19th November, 1985.
7.3.5 Targets and Phasing

The emphasis in short term would be on upgradation, expansion and strengthening of the
existing programmes. Efforts will also be made to extend these programmes to areas and target
groups unserved by them so far. The programme of action in this behalf will consist of
development of the following modular packages:
(a) Integrated Child Development Services:
Preschool education component needs to be strengthened in ICDS- For this following steps will
be taken:
(i) Each Anganwadi Workers' Training Centre should be given the responsibility of running
at least 25 anganwadi centres so as to provide the trainees with adequate field practice
areas.
(ii) The trainees should be placed for a minimum of one month in the anganwadis for
practical training.
(iii) Instructional materials for use of trainers and the trainees should be developed.
A beginning will be made in ICDS by developing a small percentage of

Anganwadis as day care centres and effort will be made to coordinate the timings
of ICDS anganwadis with the primary schools.

Notes (b) ECE Centres (Department of-Education):

The ECE scheme as it stands, does not have components of health and nutrition, neither does it
have any provision for the training of teachers. The following measures will, therefore, be
taken with immediate effect:
(i) Adding health and nutrition components;
(ii) Provision for training the personnel;
(iii) Supply of educational materials for children;
(iv) Using play way method and discouraging teaching of 3 R's;
(v) System of monitoring to be developed and linked with the renewal of grants.
(c) Balwadis Run by Voluntary Agencies:
There are varieties of patterns in the Balwadis. Each scheme has its own history and background.
All programmes of child development implemented through voluntary agencies will have an
integrated approach, offering a comprehensive package and avoiding duplication. Where this
does not happen, the existing activities will be merged in some comprehensive and integrated
programme. Most of the programmes run by voluntary agencies do not have all the components
of health, nutrition and education. They need to be converted into total child development
centres.
Media support is essential for conveying to the parents and community the messages of ECCE.
It is also necessary for the training of personnel in ECCE. Side by side with the development of
meaningful programmes for the adults, attention should be paid to the development of
stimulating programmes for children. Concerted efforts will be made by all concerned
organisations such as Doordarshan, AIR, NCERT, NIPCCD and other related organisations in
developing the software in all major regional languages.
Write the full form of ECCE.
7.3.6 Secondary Education and Navodaya Vidyalayas Present Situation

There were 56323 secondary/higher secondary schools and 1,23,000 upper primary schools in
1983. This would give a ratio of 1:2.5. The enrolment at secondary level was 97,45,519 and at
higher secondary level 51,01,435 in 1983. There are unserved areas in the country where, there
is no school for 10 to 20 kms like in some tribal areas, desert or hilly areas where the low
density of population does not allow enough children to be enrolled. An area may also be
unserved though near a school if a physical barrier like river or mountain separates it.
Programmes & Implementation : As a short term measure the State Governments would be
persuaded to open secondary schools in unserved areas taking blocks as a unit having a lower
ratio than 1:2.5 duly considering the present distance of habitation from the nearest secondary
school and population in the unserved habitations. As a medium and long term measure a
programme of school mapping in each state for locating schools to cover all areas will be taken
up. The technique of school mapping will be followed both for planning and implementation
for location of secondary schools on the basis of clearly defined norms and standards. Special
emphasis will be laid in this study on backward areas, areas predominantly inhabitated by SC/
ST and schooling facilities for girls.
These resource centres should be located in or linked to the selected secondary teacher
training institutions or the district institutes of education.

7.3.7 Vocationalisation of Education Present Position Notes

In 1976, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) document "Higher
Secondary Education and its Vocationalisation" was presented to the country setting out a
model conceptual framework for implementation. The programme for vocationalisation of
higher secondary education was initiated in 1976. Since then it has been implemented in 10
States and 5 Union Territories. A number of other States are likely to introduce vocationalisation
in the academic year 1986-87. The current intake in the vocational stream is of the order of
72,000. Only about 2.5% of students population entering higher secondary stage is covered by
vocationalisation so far.
Being aware of the importance and need for diversification of secondary education - its
vocationalisation, the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Govt. of India and NCERT
have initiated many actions and made many proposals. Evaluation studies of vocational
programmes in most of the states were conducted to provide the findings to the states for
improving implementation.
Inspite of all these efforts, the scheme of vocationalisation of education has not yet picked up.
There have been many factors responsible for the slow progress, such as, absence of a well
coordinated management system, unemployability of vocational pass outs, mismatch between
demand and supply, reluctance in accepting the concept by the society, absence of proper
provisions for professional growth and career advancement for the vocational pass outs etc.
Renewed efforts are being made in many states to accelerate progress. Urgent steps to strengthen
the vocational education system are therefore imperative.
7.3.8 Higher Education

The Present Situation : We have a large system of higher education. But the developments in
this field have been extremely uneven. The facilities provided in Universities and Colleges
vary widely. Research in the Universities is cost effective, but large inputs have gone' to
laboratories outside the Universities. The courses offered by the universities have not been
reorganised to meet the demands of the times. Their relevance and utility are constantly
questioned. The credibility of the evaluation system is being eroded.
The University system should be enabled to move centre-stage. It should have the freedom and
responsiblity to innovate in teaching and research. The emphasis on autonomy of colleges and
departments, provision of means to interact across boundaries of institutions and funding
agencies, better infrastructure, more rationalised funding for research, integration of teaching,
search and evaluation, all these reflect this major concern.
The Policy, Programmes and Strategies for Implementation
The National Policy on Education visualises that higher education should become dynamic as
never before. The main features of the programmes and strategies to impart the necessary
dynamism to the higher education system will consist of the following:
(i) Consolidation and Expansion of Institutions
(ii) Development of Autonomous Colleges and Departments.
(iii) Redesigning Courses
(iv) Training of Teachers
(v) Strengthening Research
The Indira Gandhi National Open University will run special programmes to promote self-
learning among teachers. The recommendations of the Committee on revision of pay scales of
teachers in universities and colleges will be examined for implementation. Teachers will be
recruited on the basis of a common qualifying test the details of which will be formulated by
the UGC. Methodologies will be developed for evaluation of teacher performance through self-
appraisal, through peer groups, and also by students. Career advancement of teachers will be
linked with professional development and performance appraisal.

Notes
The Management structures of universities will be remodeled to provide

opportunities for greater participation of teachers at all levels in academic
administration.
7.3.9 Open University and Distance Education

The Open University System augments opportunities for higher education, ensures access, is
cost-effective and promotes a flexible and innovative system of education.
The Indira Gandhi National Open University has been established with these objectives and
came into existence in September.,1985. The University has been assigned the responsibility to
coordinate the distance learning system in the country and determine its standards. In order to
develop and strengthen the Open University System:
(1) To strengthen the delivery system of the Open University and the media support to its
programmes, discussions will be held with the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
for provision of separate Radio and T.V. channels.
(2) In the discharge of its responsibility to coordinate the distance learning system and
determine its standards, the National Open University will frame necessary statutes for
the guidance/compliance of the State Governments who either wish to establish their own
open universities or want to take advantage of the facilities offered by the National Open
University.
(3) Arrangements will be made to develop a network of courses in the Open University
System. This would mean that a student joining one Open University can take courses
from another Open University. The system will, therefore, offer a wide variety of academic
programmes.
(4) It is essential that the quality of the Open University programmes and the efficiency of the
delivery system are ensured. Since adequate expertise and trained manpower in this area
are limited, it will be necessary that the Open Universities to be established develop their
programmes in close collaboration with the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
(5) State Governments will ensure that Open Universities are established after very careful
planning and that the required resources and facilities are available to them.
The National Open University will also give financial assistance to the State
Open Universities and departments of correspondence courses for development
purposes.
Under extention, it is proposed to encourage educational institutions to take up Programmes

which directly benefit the community and bring about the empowerment of women.
These would include actual implementation of development programmes directly aimed at
women's empowerment such as adult education, awareness building, legal literacy, informational
and training support for socioeconomic programmes of women's development, media, etc.
write the short notes on distance education.
Priorities and Machinery for Implementation : The following areas identified for implementation
of the National Policy on Education will deserve priority attention:

(a) making the system work; Notes

(b) decentralisation of management and establishment of District Boards of Education, District
Institutes of Education and Training (DIET), provision of autonomy and establishing
accountability of institutions, systems and teachers;
(c) working out the details, mechanics, funding arrangements for the National System of
Education;
(d) manpower planning and Demand Forecasting;
(e) media and Educational Technology with special reference to Adult Education, Nonformal
Education, Open and Continuing Education;
(f) development and periodic review of curricula and teaching-learning processes;
(g) strengthening the data base; monitoring and evaluation system.
The CABE may consider looking into details of implementation of National Policy on Education
in the above mentioned areas through appropriate committees.
It was recognised that the main areas of central responsibility in respect of the management
functions include determination of national priorities, evolving strategies through the
participation of concerned agencies, laying down guidelines for formulation of programmes
and schemes, providing continuous technical back-up and resource support, undertaking
monitoring and evaluation and creating conditions for the maintenance of quality and efficiency.
Self Assessment
2. Multiple choice questions :
choose the correct option.
(i) Under early childhood care and education each Anganwadi workers training centre
should be given the responsibility of running at least .......................... Anganwadi centres
so as to provide the trainees with adequate field areas.
(a) 2 0 (b) 2 5 (c) 1 5 (d) 3 5
(ii) According to modified, POA 1992 the secondary education structure should be ...................
.
(a) 10+2+3 (b) 10+1+2 (c) 10+3+1 (d) 10+1+4
(iii) In 1976, ......................... document “Higher Secondary Education and its vocationalisation
was presented to the country.
(a) SEERT (b) ECCE (c) NCERT (d) NPE
(iv) Teacher are to be recruited on the basis of a common qualifying test the details are to be
formulated by-
(a) NCERT (b) ECCE (c) UGC (d) NCC
7.4 Yashpal Committee 1992-93

(Revision and Modification for POA)
Revised POA 1992 considering the load of school bag observed, “The tendency on the part of
some schools, particularly in urban areas, to recommend a large number of books, has contributed
to over-burdening of students.” This matter was raised by M.P.s like Mr. RK. Narayan in and
outside Parliament, in press and media. Consequently a Committee known as National advisory
Committee was set up by ministry of HRD in March 1992 under the Chairmanship of Professor
Yashpal, former chairman of UGC. The Committee had to advise on the ways and means to
reduce the burden of the school child. The committee submitted its report on July 15, 1993.
In order to examine the feasibility of implementing the recommendations of Yashpal Committee
the Ministry of HRD formed a group under the Chairmanship of Y.N. Chaturvedi, Additional
Secretary, Department of Education, Government of India.

Notes The terms of reference of NAC were “to advise on the ways and means to reduce the load on
school students at all levels, particularly the young students, whileimproving quality of learning
including the young students, while improving quality of learning including capability for
lifelong, self-learning and skill formulation.”
the Committee made certain valuable observations and recommendations. Lets us have a look
on the main recommendations of Yashpal committee.
1. Individual competitions and awards are to be discouraged and group activities/group
achievements are to be encouraged and rewarded.
2. (a) De-centralisation of the process of curriculum framing and preparation of texbooks
to district-level boards and greater involvement of teachers in the related activities.
(b) Voluntary organisation are to be provided greater freedom and support for
development of curriculum, textbooks and teacher training.
(c) Setting up of Education committees at Villlage, Block and District levels to undertake
planning and supervision of schools.
(d) Placing contingency amount (not less than 10% of salary bill) at the disposal of
heads of schools for purchase, repair and replacement of pedagogival equipment.
3. Association of scientists/experts with the preparation of textbooks at consultants and
not as writers.
4. CBSE affiliation should be restricted to KVs and NVs only.
5. Adoption of appropriate legislative/administrative measures to regulate opening and
functioning of pre-schools.
• Abolition of test-interviews for admission.
• Norms for granting recognition to private schools should be made more stringent.
Self Assessment:
3. State whether the following statements one ‘Ture’ or ‘False’ :
(i) Revised POA, 1992 does not mention the load of school bag on children.
(ii) The Yashpal Committee had to advise on the ways and means to reduce the burden of
the school child.
(iii) The national advisory committee was set up by ministry of HRD in March 1992.
(iv) According to Yashpal Committee CBSE affiliation should not be restricted to Kendriya
Vidyalayes.
7.5 Summary
• The Parliament during the Budget Session in 1986 discussed and adopted the "National
Policy on Education 1986".
• This Programme of Action is meant to provide an indication of the nature of actions
which will be needed in order to implement the directions of the Policy.
• The Task Forces had indicated in their reports broad financial implications. However,
they need close scrutiny in consultation with all-concerned, including the Planning
Commission and the Ministry of Finance.
• On the 7th May 1990 the Government of India announced the appointment of a committee to
review the National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 under the Chairmanship of Acharya
Rammurti.
• The perspective paper is divided into nine modalities.
• In July 1001 Central Advisory Board of Education appointed a Committee on National Policy
of Education under the Chairmanship of Janardan Reddy, the then Chief Minister of Andhra
Pradesh.

• The Janardan Reddy Committee submitted its report in January 1992. The Report of the Notes
Committee is an important document.
• As discussed in the previous page POA 1986 was revised and modified to a great extent
keeping the spirit of National Policy of Education 1992.
• The Central Council of Rural Institution is expected to be set up shortly.
• Realising the crucial importance of rapid physical and mental growth during early
childhood, Government started a number of programmes of early childhood care and
education ( ECCE ). Declaration of a National Policy for Children (1974) shows the
commitment of Government for the development of children.
• The National Policy on Education has given a great deal of importance to ECCE. It views
ECCE as an important input in the strategy of human resource development, as a feeder
and support programme for primary education and as a support service for working
women of the disadvantaged sections of society.
• The significance of play and activity approach and the need for child- centredness in the
programmes of ECCE as well as in primary school education have been spelt out, and it
cautions against the dangers of using formal methods of teaching and early introduction of
the 3 R's.
• In all models of ECCE programmes, the component of training will be strengthened.
• Media support is essential for conveying to the parents and community the messages of
ECCE.
• Provision of free and compulsory education to all the children until they complete the age
of 14 years is a Directive Principle of the Constitution.
• The central feature of the implementation strategy will be area-specific and population
specific planing.
• A comprehensive system of incentives and support services will be provided for girls and
children of the economically weaker sections of society.
• Keeping in view the high transition rate from primary to upper primary stage, enrolment
in the 11-14 age-group will automatically increase after universalisation of primary
education.
• In 1976, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) document
"Higher Secondary Education and its Vocationalisation" was presented to the country setting
out a model conceptual framework for implementation.
• Provision of educational opportunities to women has been an important programme in
the education sector since independence.
• The National Policy on Education (NPE) envisages that education would be used as a
strategy for achieving a basic change in the status of women.
• At each stage in school education; or a part of work experience or vocationalisation, girls
should be exposed to a variety of vocational training activities.
• Revised POA 1992 considering the load of school bag observed, “The tendency on the part
of some schools, particularly in urban areas, to recommend a large number of books, has
contributed to over-burdening of students.”
7.6 Keywords
• Action : The process of doing something in order to make something happen or to
deal with a situation.
• Programme : Plan of things that will be done or included in the development of
something.
• Significance : The importance of something.
• Stagnation : a peeriod of economic stangation.
• Comparable : Similar to somebody/something else and able to be compared.

Notes 7.7 Review Questions

1 Write the brief deeciptions on Lammurti Review Committee, 1990.
2 Write the brief decriptions on Janardan Reddy Rivision Committee, 1992.
3 Briely explain hte modified POA, 1992.
4 Indicate the functions of Rammurti Committee, 1990.
5 Enumerate main recommendations and suggestions of Yashpal Committee, 1993.
6 Explain the fullow-up programmes of National Policy of education, 1986.
7 Indicate the major recommendations of Janardan Reddy Committee, 1992 and its
limitations.
8 Enumerate the major features of modified programme of Action, 1992.
9 What are the main features of education and monitoring system?
10 Explain the present situation of secondary education and Navodaya Vidyas.
Answers: Self Assement

1. (i) Janardan Reddy (ii) 7th May 1990
(iii) Three basic concerns (iv) Women
(v) 1992
2. (i) (b) (ii) (a) (iii) (a) (iv) (c)
3. (i) False (ii) True (iii) True (iv) False
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, DK Publications.

2. Development Of Educational System In India (Hardbound) : Geoff Doherty(Editor),
Geoffrey D Doherty (Other), Alan Dyson.
Goldrick

Unit 8: Quality of Education: Concept, Parameters, Status and Prospects with Focus on Objectives....
Unit 8: Quality of Education: Concept, Parameters, Notes
Status and Prospects with Focus on Objectives

Outlined in Delor’s Commission Report
CONTENTS
Objectivies
Introduction
8.1 Delor's Commission Report: An Initiative of Quality in Education
8.2 Concept of Quality in Education
8.3 Parameters of Quality in Education
8.4 Status of Quality in Education in India
8.5 Prospects for Quality in Education
8.6 Summary
8.7 Keywords
Objectivies
• to discuss about the Delor’s commission report: an initiative of quality in education.
• to explain about the concept of quality in education.
• to discuss about parameters of quality in education.
• to discribe about status of quality in education in India.
• to discuss about the prospects of quality in education.
Introduction
Education is integral to the human capital development and increasingly technology is catalyzing
the process of change. The world continues to get smaller and flatter, and now the planet needs
to get "smarter." It highlights the need to solve some of the most pressing problems of the
world by leveraging technology.
Education is one such domain which is getting "smarter" by technology and has intricate
relationship with the overall improvement of quality of life.
An accreditation process can protect the quality of education, provide a guarantee of the
qualification granted, and encourage improvements in the curriculum. Accreditation inspires
confidence in the provider by assuring that the product or service has been assessed by an
independent and competent body. Accreditation adds to the brand value of an institution and
helps not only in its positioning but also in improving and sustaining its systems and processes.
The Delor Commission's Report also reflects on education in the 21st century in the global
context. It does not predict what education will be but what education should be. It is also not
an exercise in scenario building. It is full of imagination and indeed a creative document on
education.

Notes 8.1 Delor’s Commission Report: An Initiative of Quality in Education

The Report of Jacques Delor, who headed the International Commission on Education for the
21st century, has been presented to UNESCO and endorsed by the Commonwealth Education
Ministers and the Commonwealth Heads of Government in their meetings in 1994 and 1995. It
brings together all the salient points and critical issues in education that are likely to be faced
and addressed to, in the next millennium. As a matter of fact, the education is the foundation of
an individual's progress and the overall progress of the nation. Learning the treasure within', a
UNESCO report on World-Education by Delor commission reflects that the "Importance of the
role of the teacher as an agent of change promoting understanding and tolerance, has never
been more critical as in the 21st Century ". The Commission recommended an allocation of 6%
of GNP by every nation for education. It also views on private and social financing of education
needs critical examination. Below the minimum threshold of development, education has to be
supported by the State - not only basic education but also higher education. It further suggests
that: " It is vital that all children wherever they may be, should be able to acquire a knowledge
of scientific method in some appropriate form and become "friends of science", for life." It
implies that it is not just teaching of science or scientific theories but developing a positive
outlook to science as a way of life.
Education for the 21st Century

India Country Report on the Delors Commission Report: In the past few years there have
been two major futuristic, landmark reports offering visions of emerging challenges in education
from UNESCO. The first one, Learning to Be, was prepared in 1973 by a commission under the
chairmanship of Edgar Faure. This report was extensively discussed and debated the world
over and it shaped the education discourse of the seventies and eighties. The Indian National
Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO played an active role in disseminating this report
in our country.
Its successor is the recently published report Learning: The Treasure Within, prepared by the
International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century under the chairmanship
of Jacques Delors. The report is a majestic survey of the emerging world and the sweeping
technological, economic and social change and the multiple tensions arising from this shift. The
Commission has reinterpreted the philosophical and pedagogic principles of education to meet
the emerging scenario. Further, the report neatly balances the economic, cultural and social
aspects of education. The Commission has laid great emphasis on life-long learning and
commended that education in the future should be based on four pillars-learning to know,
learning to do, learning to be, and learning to live together.
The Delors Report has become a matter of deep interest and public debate in India as we plan
for education in the twenty first century. Focusing equally on the four pillars of education, we
hope to effectively face the challenges of a changing world, where ethical concerns and democratic
values demand much more attention than the conventional 'three Rs'.
India's educational ethos needs major reforms in the context of the changes that are sweeping
our country. The transformation that society is going through warrants a rejuvenation in the
way we teach and what we teach. The way we structure our educational institutions and
determine the content of our curricula can by themselves help us move towards a culture of
peace and non-violence.

Notes
The reason why the commission titled its report learning: The treasure within is
taken from a line in one of the parables of La Fontaine, titled The Ploughman
and his Children, which calls learning a treasure.
Self Assessment
1. Fill in the Blanks:
(i) The report of .................... emphasizes on education in the 21st century in the global
context.
(ii) The Delor’s commission recommended an allocation of ....................... by every nation
for education .
(iii) The commission has laid great emphasis on ............................. and commended that
education should be four pillars-learning to know, learning to do, learning to be, and
learning to live.
(iv) .................... in education is fundamental to the quality of the human resource of the
nation.
(v) ....................... may be collected on a regular and systematic basis by governments.
(vi) A .......................... is a point of reference against which something may be measured.
8.2 Concept of Quality in Education

The University Education Commission (1948-49) used the term 'standard' and not 'quality'.
The term 'standard' usually means a basis for measurement or a 'yardstick' to describe a required
characteristic or a parameter and this would vary from country to country, from time to time
and even from institution to institution over a period of time. However, it is also true that once
the standards are set, the institutions and individuals can try to achieve quality so as to attain
excellence.
Wider Concept of Quality in Education: The quality in education need to be defined in the wider
sense of the overall aim of education as the all round development of the individual and his
commitment to social objectives; and viewed in this context, there is no doubt that vigorous
efforts will have to be made to improve these to suit the changing needs of the country. It has
become increasingly evident that the relevance of education, its significance, its validity for
personal aspiration, its link with societal needs and goals, its efficiency and impact are the basic
parameters of every educational system.
Highlighting the importance of the quality in higher education for socio-economic development,
Prof. V.N. Rajasekharan Pillai, former Director, NAAL (National Assessment and Accreditation
Council) in convocation address of North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon on March 3,2003
pointed out the need for quality control as given below.
8.2.1 Accountability
Why do we need quality in higher education? The question is answered by the word
"accountability". This answer immediately provokes a second question "accountable to whom?"
There are several answers to this question because higher education (from whole universities
to colleges, departments and individual teachers) is accountable to at least three different groups
-society (government), clients (students, employers) and subject (profession, colleagues).
8.2.2 Accountability to Society

There is a popular demand and an economic necessity for more higher education. Society pays
for much of this through taxes. Government acts for society in distributing funds to higher
education either directly to the universities or indirectly through student grants or loans.

Notes Governments have a responsibility to society to ensure that what they 'buy' from higher
education is acceptable and provides value for money. Governments all over the world have
established agencies concerned with quality and efficiency in higher education.
8.3 Parameters of Quality in Education

What are the parameters of quality education? This question is only partly answered in the
UGC's document-Higher Education in India: Emerging Issues Related to Access, Inclusiveness
and Quality. Apart from that, a number of measures of quality encompass the ratios of
educational 'inputs' to the 'outputs' of (an institution) of higher education that qualify to be
used as the 'indicator' ratios. Another set of measures of quality concentrates on the quality of
inputs as well as that of outputs. Yet another set of measures of quality brings in the 'process'
through which inputs are transformed into outputs. It goes without saying that the institutions
of higher education are multi-output processing units. Some researchers on quality in higher
education stress on the inputs side, the others on the output side while yet others argue in
favour of concentration upon the process. The quality research international provides a right
material on definition and measurement of quality and performance in higher education. Some
abridged and suitably compiled views on these concepts are presented below.
Harvey and Green (1933) argued that there could be five discrete but interrelated ways of
thinking about quality. Harvey (1955) provides the following brief overview of the five
categories: (a) exceptional view of quality (b) Quality as perfection, (c) Quality as fitness for
purpose, (d) Quality as value for money, and (e) Quality as transformation.
The exceptional view of quality sees quality as something special. Traditionally, quality refers
to something distinctive and elitists, and, in educational terms is linked to notions of excellence,
'of high quality' unattainable by most.
Quality as perfection sees quality as a consistent or flawless outcome. In a sense it

'democratizes' the notion of quality and if consistency can be achieve then quality can
be attained by all.
Quality as fitness for purpose sees quality in terms of fulfilling a customer's requirements,
needs or desires. Theoretically, the customer specifies requirements. In education, fitness for
purpose is usually based on the ability of an institution to fulfill its mission or a proramme of
study to fulfill its aims.
Quality as fitness for purpose sees quality in terms of fulfilling a customer's requirements,
needs or desires. Theoretically, the customer specifies requirements. In education, fitness for
purpose is usually based on the ability of an institution to fulfill its mission or a proramme of
study to fulfill its aims.
Quality as value for money sees quality in terms of return on investment. If the same outcome
can be achieved at a lower cost, or better outcome can be achieved at the same cost, then the
'customer' has a quality product of service. The growing tendency for governments to require
accountability from higher education reflects a value-for-money approach. Increasingly students
require value-for money for the increasing cost to them of higher education.
Quality as transformation is a classic notion of quality that sees it in terms of change from one
state to another. In educational terms, transformation refers to the enhancement and
empowerment of students of the development of new knowledge.
Based on these five views of quality, various external review indicators, performance indicators,
quality statistics and benchmarks may be defined.
External review indicators: Operational variables referring to specific empirically measurable
characteristics of higher education institutions or programmes on which evidence can be collected

that allows for a determination of whether or not standards are being met. Indicators identify Notes
performance trends and signal areas in needs for action and/or enable comparison of actual
performance with established objectives. They are also used to translate theoretical aspects of
quality, a process known as operationalization. An indicator must be distinguished from a
which is the level of acceptable performance in terms of a specific numeric criterion. Another
distinction is made between the different types of indicators: (i) indicators of economy (following
and respecting budgets); (ii) indicators of efficiency (actual productivity or output per input
unit); and (iii) indicators of effectiveness (degree of attainment of objectives). A third and
relatively consequent distinction is made between: (i) context indicators, that relate to the
specific environment of a higher education institution or programme (social, economic, political,
geographical etc.) (ii) input indicators, that relate to the logistical, human, and financial resources
used by a institution, to the management of the inputs, and to the functioning of the organization;
and (iv) output indicators, that concern that actual achievements or products of the higher
education institution. This latter framework is also known as the CIPO-model (i.e., Context,
Inputs, Process, Outputs), frequently used in evaluation studies.
Performance Indicators: A range of statistical parameters representing a measure of the extent
to which a higher education institution or a programme is performing in a certain quality
dimension. They are qualitative and quantitative measures of the output (short-term measures
of results) or of the outcome (long-term measures of outcomes and impacts) of a system or of
a allow comparison among higher education institutions. Performance indicators work efficiently
only when they are used as part of a coherent set of input, process, and output indicators. As
higher education intuitions are engaged in a variety of activities and target a number of different
objectives, it is essential to be able to indentify and to implement a large range of performance
indicators in order to cover the entire field of activity.
Statistical indicators may be collected on a regular and systematic basis by governments
(especially where institutions of higher education are publicly funded) and these or other
statistics may be included in quality review processes. Statistical indicators are sometimes used
synonymously with performance indicators and sometimes are meant to imply a lesser evaluative
status than embodied in quantitative performance indicators. West (1999) makes the following
distinction between a statistic, an indicator and a performance indicator: Statistics unlike
indicators are purely descriptive; so, for example, the total number of trainees enrolled on a
programme is an example of an indicator. Indicators unlike raw statistics can assist with making
a range of different sorts of comparisons as a result of having a common point of reference.
A benchmarkis a point of reference against which something may be measured. In the higher
education context a benchmark is usually either (1) a level of performance, resources, or outcome
against which an institution or group might be compared, or (2) the specification or codification
of comparable processes. Benchmarks may be (1) defined for an institution (or sub-institution
unit) as targets, possibly on continuous basis (2) the basis of comparison between two or more
institutions (or sub-institutional units) (3) specifications of processes that can be compared as a
basis for identifying, for example, optimum effectiveness, efficiency or transparency.
Operationilization of Quality Parameters: The Manual for Self-Studies for the universities
(NAAC, 2008) has provided a detailed list of criteria that may be used for setting quality
parameters-statistics, indicators and benchmarks. The criteria are grouped into seven group,
namely: (1) Curricular aspects, (2) Teaching, learning and evaluation, (3) Research, consultancy
and extension, (4) Infrastructure and learning resources, (5) Student support and progression, (6)
Governance and leadership, and (7) Innovative practices. Recently, the UC has circulated the
Regulations of Minimum Qualifications for Teachers and other Academic Staff governing
selection, appointment and promotion of teachers, etc. and maintenance of standards in the
institutions of higher learning.

Notes
Harvey, L. and Green, D., 1993, ‘Defining quality’, Assessment and Evaluation in
Higher Education, 18(1). pp.9-34. Harvey, L., 1995, ‘Editorial: The quality agenda’,
Quality in Higher Education, 1(1) pp. 5-12. Nuttall, D., 1992, The OECD International
Educaiton Indicators. Van den Berghe, W., 1998, Indicators in Perspective.
8.4 Status of Quality in Education in India

The first thing this commission acknowledges is the existence of several types of institutions of
higher learning, both private and public, and also vocational and non-vocational. The
increasingly stringent selection in order to ease the pressure on higher education is unacceptable;
therefore, the first suggestion is for the universities to diversify what they offer, like:
1. as scientific establishments and centres of learning from where students go on to theoretical
of applied researcher teaching;
2. as establishments offering occupational qualifications;
3. as meeting places for learning throughout life;
4. as leading partners in international cooperation;
5. for the developing countries they must provide the vocational and technoloical training
of future leaders; the higher and middle level education is additionally required to save
them from grinding poverty and underdevelopment.
The strategies proposed are (i) seeking cooperation of the local community including parents,
schools, teachers and other (ii) public authorities, and (iii) the international communities.
The commission in general and Monsieur Delors in particular should have remembered while
talking of international cooperation that neither in Europe nor in Middle East does one see any
signs of international understanding or cooperation. The way the so-called developed nations
behave is decidedly not designed to bring about any cooperation. It is these nations which
define 'progress,' 'quality of life', 'development,' standards of cooperation and even norms for
research. The way they have usurped the right of others to think independently is surely not
very ideal.
Not unlike our-grown concept of the overload of curricula, Dellors also points out the dilemma
education faces, i.e., when children and adolescents should be care free, they are worried about
future. There are no places where they can learn and discover none to give them the wherewithal
to think or offer them a choice of pathways suited to their abilities.
Clearly this is the price our societies in general and children in particular have to pay hooked
as they are on the concepts of 'progress,' development,' and 'future well-being' as defined by
the rich and powerful. The lure to achieve lands them in the competitive grooves which very
few are able to master.
Delors repeats the off-cited concept of broadening international cooperation in the global village.
If these terms are to be defined by the USA or read Britain only, do can save us from the
impending disasters. Still his questions are worth noting because there is considerable repetition
of what the World Summit in March 1995 at Copenhagen had recommended.
The chapter scheme in the report reflects the basic thinking already done by Delors and Co. But,
interestingly enough, everything said and suggested/recommended in less than extraordinary.
8.4.1 Present Enrolment and Dropout Ratios

Indian education system largest in Common wealth countries and 2nd largest in the world next
to USA.

Tremendous Growth since Independence, but still: Notes

The gross enrolment ratio
Classes (I-V) (6-11 years) 109.4%
Classes (VI-VIII) (11-14 years) 71.15%
Classes (I-VIII) (6-14 years) 94.92%
Classes (IX-X) (14-16 years) 52.26%
Classes (XI-XII) (16-18 years) 28.54%
Higher Education (18-24 yrs) 11.61 %
The drop out rate
Classes (I-V) (6-11 years) 25.47 %
Classes (I-VIII) (6-14 years) 48.71 %
Classes (I-X) (6-16 years) 61.59 %
These high drop out rates from both primary and secondary school, combined with low
enrolment rates at the higher levels deprive tens of millions of children of their full rights as
citizens.
• Out of approx. 211 million children in the (6-14 yrs) age group - 84.91 % are enrolled in
schools.
• More than 35 million children in the (6-14) age group are out of school
• Net primary school enrolment/attendance is only 77%
• By year 2016 there will be approx. 500 million people with less than five yrs of schooling
• Another 300 million that will not have completed high school. Two third of the population
will lack minimum level of education
• Children put in an average of 21 hours of labour per week, at the cost of education
• 60 million children are thought to be child labourers
• 35% of our population are still illiterate
8.4.2 Vocational training and self-employment avenus

• Every year 5.5 million students pass out of Class X, of which 3.3 million go to Class XI,
leaving 2.2 million out of the education stream.
• Those who drop out after Class VIII are approx. 20-21 million.
• Urgent attention needed for this 21 million-target group.
• Available formal training capacity of the country - only 2.3 million students.
• This leaves a gap of 18.7 million. The ITI system needs to be revamped to fill up this gap.
• Among persons of age 15 years and above:
(i) Only 2 % had any type of technical degrees/ diplomas/ certificates.
(i) The proportion was only 1% in the rural areas and 5 % in the urban.
• Only 40 % of the 55,000 instructors have undergone a full instructor-training course”
(Urgent need to look into training of trainers) (Planning Commission).
• About 95% of the world youth (15 - 35 yrs) age learn any type of vocation / skill / trade,
with a choice of 3000 vocational streams.
• In India we have identified only about 170 trades and only 2-3% of the youth (15-29 yrs)
goes in for formal vocational training.
• The proportion of persons (15-29 yrs) who received formal vocational training was the
highest among the unemployed.
(i) 3 % for the employed
(ii) 11% for the unemployed, and

Notes (iii)2% for persons not in the labour force

• China has nearly 500,000 senior higher secondary vocational schools, whereas we have
about 5100 ITI’s and 6000 VET schools in all.
• To boost Vocational Education and Skill Development Prime Minister in his Independence
Day address stated to open.
(i) 1600 new ITI’s and Polytechnics
(ii) 50,000 new Skill Development Centers,
• It would enable 1 core students to get Vocational training.
8.4.3 Shortage of skill in Various Sectors

• The projected growth rates in industry and services sectors are expected to generate 60
millions job opportunities during 2006-12 and 156 million during 2006-16
• Semi-skilled and skilled labour: The shortage of factory workers and construction labourers
is already being felt across industries.
• Engineering industry is growing at a fast pace will be major requirement of skilled/
talented manpower in this sector
• Food industry is fast-expanding, need professional food scientists and technicians in great
number.
• Media and Entertainment: The demand for animation production services from India is
growing. This has opened up innumerable opportunities for students of Design, Fine Arts
and Mass Communication.
• Biotechnology sector: 80 % shortfall of doctorate and post doctorate scientists.
• Food processing sector: 65 % shortfall of refrigeration mechanics, electricians’ etc. 70 %
shortfall of food safety personnel
• Additional 21 million new jobs in merchandise trade by 2009-10
• IT and BPO sector could employ 9 million persons directly and indirectly by 2010
• Raising the rate of growth of manufacturing to 12 % could create 1.6 to 2.9 million direct
jobs annually, and another 2-3 times that number indirectly
• Retail Sector: demand of 3-5 lakh trained people in the northern region alone by 2010.
This sector would throw up 2 million employment by 2010.
• Leather: Based on increased targets for export and domestic demand, it would generate 3
million additional jobs by 2022
• Construction sector with a current employment of over 30 million is to witness boom by
an annual growth rate of 30% in infrastructure. It would translate large no. of jobs far
short of the employable skill available
• Health sector: Shortage of 5 lakh doctors and 10 lakh Nurses.
• IT sector : Shortage of 5 lakhs (half a million) engineers.
• Education sector: Faculty shortage of 25-40 percent.
• Automobiles: employment expected to increase to 25million by 2015-16 from current 10.5
million, majority in the shop floor of auto manufacturing
• Logistics: will grow in tandem with growth in trade, aviation and tourism
• Banking and Finance sector: 50-80 percent personnel shortage.
• Aviation sector: Severe shortage of pilots and ground duty officials.
• Textile sector: employ 35 million directly, besides 55 million in its allied sector. Expected
to generate additional 14million jobs by 2012

• Pharma sector: Severe shortage of top pharma scientists as research expenditure by pharma Notes
companies has quadrupled in the last 5 years. Thus there is a shortage of middle-level and
junior scientists too. This has made salaries of top pharmacy scientists rise to US levels.
• Project Management Services: this labour intensive sector will grow with growth in
corporate structure, infrastructure & retail industry
8.5 Prospects for Quality in Education

As countries like India race to embrace the next phase of growth and become more globally
competitive, it is technology that will provide the advantage. Every country today is vying for
place in the global economy and the network can give then the edge they need. According to
Gartner's market Trends: Industry Analysis, India 2004-2009, Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) investments in India are expected to double by 2009, which implies, the need
for a skilled workforce is growing exponentially.
Given India's 1.1 billion population it may be difficult to imagine how we can face a shortage
of talent. However, with literacy at 52 percent, high poverty levels (319 Million live blows USD
1 per day), India's wide rural-urban divide, and the quality of education available, the paucity
of talent is finding becoming a cause for worry. In particular, this demand-supply gap is already
being felt by India's burgeoning IT industry and fears of the gap widening in the future are
being examined carefully. In fact, according to NSSCOM, each year over 3 million graduates
and post=graduates are added to the Indian workforce. However, of these only 25 percent of
technical graduates and 10-15 percent of other graduates are considered employable by the
rapidly growing IT and ITEs segments. Hence, what we have today is a growing skills gap
reflecting the sum availability of high-quality college education in India and the galloping pace
of the country's service=driven economy, which is growing faster than most countries in the
world.
• Expand and upgrade vocational education and training
• Expand and upgrade higher technical education
• Promote research in educational institutions; and
• Redesign the educational pattern at the school level to facilitate skill development.
8.5.1 Government have to redefine its role in

• Reforming and strengthening vocational education and training.
• clear policy for facilitating capacity expansion through private sector participation.
• make investment in vocational training institutes bankable.
• promote industry and academia interaction to narrow the existing gap between the dmand
and supply of the skilled manpower.
• It is very important at this stage to have different problem specific policy because one
policy is not in to fit in.
8.5.2 Challenges to be addressed

• Disconnect between skills provided and skills required by the industry.
• Revision of course curricula lasa behind the need of the industry.
• Out-dated machinery/tools and technology.
• Skill demand of Services/Unorganized Sector are largely unmet.
• Unsatisfactory employability of trainees because of poor quality of training.
• Shortage of trained instructors and low instructor training capacity in the country.
• Low prestige attached to vocational training.

Notes 8.5.3 Recommendations

• Need for creation of large scale skill development opportunities and infrastructure.
(i) to meet the demand of skilled work force by the industry and service sector
(ii) to keep the economy growing,
(iii) to facilitate employability of the rapidly growing work force.
• Integration of vocational education at the school level
(i) to impart the basic technical skills to a large number of new entrants to the about force
(ii) Special reorientation for the school drop-outs
(iii) through professional career counseling
(iv) widespread use of ICT in skill training
• Skill Mapping
(i) To identify precise skill requirement for the growth of industry-ready manpower
• Flexibility
(i) Academics should be more flexible and inter-disciplinary.
(ii) Vertical as well as horizontal mobility between different stream of education, and
(iii) while VE and VT are being dealt with separately, it is essential that both form part of a
continuum and a common framework.
(iv) Build Specific enterprise skills into all VET programmes
(v) widespread use of ICT in skill training
(iv) widespread use of ICT in skill training
• Private Sector Participation (PPP model)
(i) Participation of private sector to be encouraged at the ITI level of skill development and
vocational education and training.
(ii) Develop quality ITI’s and Polytechnics with skill development courses in association
with industry to run these.
(iii) Institutionalize and establish coordination between the private sector and the government
to run institutions for skill development.
8.5.4 Special Strategy to be planned for remote areas

• Course and Curriculum development
(i) curricula to be revised periodically.
(ii) flexible approach in developing courses and curriculum.
(iii) curriculum be developed based of the learnin outcome rather than on prescribed rigid
format
(iv) add on specialized vocational courses to be offered at Unviersity and Higher Institution
level.
• More and more market oriented popular trades
• Optimum utilization of available resources
• Certification and standard
(i) An appropriate certificate system should be instituted by the central and state
governments along with industry for certifying the skills of trainees

(ii) Certification to be kinked with training Notes

(iii) Encourage testing of the skills of trainees by independent assessing bodies
(iv) Skills to be quantifired in terms of rades or credits
• Faculty Training with industry participation
(i) Training of teachers in upcoming trades and technologies
(ii) Faculty training through various fellowship programmes
(iii) Industry exposure to Faculty to match the emerging needs of the economy.
(iv) Flexible teaching and cross movement of faculty to industry and industry personnel to
institution to enhance quality of teaching learning process.
(v) Active participation of industry in training programmes conducted in ITI's and technical
institutions.
Why is the need for creation large scale shall development in India?
Self Assessment
(i) Every year 5.5 million students pass out of class X of which 3.3 million o to class XI
leaving 2.2 million out of the education system.
(ii) According to annual status of educational report the percentage of girls in the age group
11 and 14 years who have been out of schools have seen a considerable decrease in 2011.
(iii) Children attendance shows an incline in 2011 in rural primary schools.
(iv) There is no need for creation of large scale skill development opportunities and
infrastructure.
(v) Participation of industry in operating ITIs and technical institutes should be encouraged.
8.6 Summary
• The Report of Jacques Delor, who headed the International Commission on Education for
the 21st century, has been presented to UNESCO and endorsed by the Commonwealth
Education Ministers and the Commonwealth Heads of Government in their meetings in
1994 and 1995.
• The Treasure Within, prepared by the International Commission on Education for the
Twenty-first Century under the chairmanship of Jacques Delors. The report is a majestic
survey of the emerging world and the sweeping technological, economic and social change
and the multiple tensions arising from this shift.
• The Delors Report has become a matter of deep interest and public debate in India as we
plan for education in the twenty first century.
• India's educational ethos needs major reforms in the context of the changes that are
sweeping our country.
• The quality in education need to be defined in the wider sense of the overall aim of
education as the all round development of the individual and his commitment to social
objectives; and viewed in this context, there is no doubt that vigorous efforts will have to
be made to improve these to suit the changing needs of the country.
• A number of measures of quality encompass the ratios of educational 'inputs' to the
'outputs' of (an institution) of higher education that qualify to be used as the 'indicator'

Notes ratios. Another set of measures of quality concentrates on the quality of inputs as well as
that of outputs.
• Quality as fitness for purpose sees quality in terms of fulfilling a customer's requirements,
needs or desires.
• Quality as value for money sees quality in terms of return on investment.
• Quality as transformation is a classic notion of quality that sees it in terms of change from
one state to another. In educational terms, transformation refers to the enhancement and
empowerment of students of the development of new knowledge.
• Based on these five views of quality, various external review indicators, performance
indicators, quality statistics and benchmarks may be defined.
• External review indicators: Operational variables referring to specific empirically
measurable characteristics of higher education institutions or programmes on which
evidence can be collected that allows for a determination of whether or not standards are
being met. Indicators identify performance trends and signal areas in needs for action
and/or enable comparison of actual performance with established objectives.
• Performance Indicators: A range of statistical parameters representing a measure of the
extent to which a higher education institution or a programme is performing in a certain
quality dimension. They are qualitative and quantitative measures of the output (short-
term measures of results) or of the outcome (long-term measures of outcomes and impacts)
of a system or of a allow comparison among higher education institutions.
• Statistical indicators may be collected on a regular and systematic basis by governments
(especially where institutions of higher education are publicly funded) and these or other
statistics may be included in quality review processes. Statistical indicators are sometimes
used synonymously with performance indicators.
• A benchmarkis a point of reference against which something may be measured. In the
higher education context a benchmark is usually either (1) a level of performance, resources,
or outcome against which an institution or group might be compared, or (2) the specification
or codification of comparable processes.
• Operationilization of Quality Parameters: The Manual for Self-Studies for the universities
(NAAC, 2008) has provided a detailed list of criteria that may be used for setting quality
parameters-statistics, indicators and benchmarks. The criteria are grouped into seven group,
namely: (1) Curricular aspects, (2) Teaching, learning and evaluation, (3) Research,
consultancy and extension, (4) Infrastructure and learning resources, (5) Student support
and progression, (6) Governance and leadership, and (7) Innovative practices.
• High drop out rates from both primary and secondary school, combined with low enrolment
rates at the higher levels deprive tens of millions of children of their full rights as citizens.
• The projected growth rates in industry and services sectors are expected to generate 60
millions job opportunities during 2006-12 and 156 million during 2006-16
• Semi-skilled and skilled labour: The shortage of factory workers and construction labourers
is already being felt across industries.
• Engineering industry is growing at a fast pace will be major requirement of skilled/
talented manpower in this sector
• Reforming and strengthening vocational education and training.
• clear policy for facilitating capacity expansion through private sector participation.
• Disconnect between skills provided and skills required by the industry.
• Revision of course curricula lasa behind the need of the industry.
• Out-dated machinery/tools and technology.
• Need for creation of large scale skill development opportunities and infrastructure.

(i) to meet the demand of skilled work force by the industry and service sector Notes
(ii) to keep the economy growing,
(iii) to facilitate employability of the rapidly growing work force.
• Course and Curriculum development
(i) curricula to be revised periodically.
(ii) flexible approach in developing courses and curriculum.
(iii) curriculum be developed based of the learnin outcome rather than on prescribed
rigid format.
8.7 Keywords
• Initiative : A new plan for dealing with a particular problem or for achieving a
particular purpose.
• Accountable : Responsible for your decisions or actions and expected to explain then
when you are asked.
• Parameters : Something that decides or limits the way in which something can be
done.
• Status : The situation at a particular time during a process.
• Prospects : The possibility that something will happen

1. Explain the Delor’s Commission report in the context of education.
2. Give the concept of quality in educations.
3. What are the external review indicators and performance indicator.
4. What is the status of education according to Annual Status of Educational Report (ASER)
2011.
5. Explain the prospects for quality in education.

1. (i) Jacques Delor (ii) 6% of GNP (iii) life long learning (iv) Real quality
(v) statistical indicators (vi) Benchmark
2. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False
(v) True
1. Educational Regimes in Contemporary India : Radhika Chopra , Patricia M Jeffery.

2. Developing of Education Systems : JC Aggarwal, Khatia K., Dash Bn.
Geoffrey D Doherty (Other), Alan Dyson.

Notes
Unit 9: National Knowledge Commission 2009
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1 The terms of Reference of NKC
9.2 Summary of Recommendations
9.3 Concepts
9.4 Creation
9.5 Applications
9.6 School Education
9.7 Quantity and Resources
9.8 Quality and Management
9.9 Higher Education
9.10 Summary
9.11 Keywords
Objectives
The Objectives of this unit can be summarized as below:
• to discuss the terms of reference of NKC
• to explain the summary of recommendations
• to explain about Concepts
• to discuss about Creation
• to describe about Applications
• to discuss about School Education
• to describe about Quantity and Resources
• ti duscuss about Quality and Management
• to describe about higher education and training
Introduction
Knowledge has been recognised as the key driving force in the 21st century and India ability to
emerge as a globally competitive player will substantially depend on its knowledge resources.
To foster generational change, a systemic transformation is required that seeks to address the
concerns of the entire knowledge spectrum. This massive endeavour involves creating a roadmap
for reform of the knowledge sector that focuses on enhancing access to knowledge, fundamentally
improving education systems and their delivery, re-shaping the research, development and
innovation structures, and harnessing knowledge applications for generating better services.
Such a knowledge revolution that seeks to build capacity and generate quality will enable our
country to empower its human capital including the 550 million below the age of 25. Our

unique demographic dividend offers a tremendous opportunity as well as a daunting challenge Notes
which requires creative strategies for a new knowledge oriented paradigm.
9.1 The Terms of Reference of NKC

Keeping this scenario in mind, the National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted in
June 2005 by the Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Sam
Pitroda, to prepare a blueprint for reform of our knowledge related institutions and infrastructure
which would enable India to meet the challenges of the future. The Terms of Reference of NKC
are:
• Build excellence in the educational system to meet the knowledge challenges of the 21st
century and increase India’s competitive advantage in fields of knowledge.
• Promote creation of knowledge in Science & Technology laboratories.
• Improve the management of institutions engaged in Intellectual Property Rights.
• Promote knowledge applications in Agriculture and Industry.
Write the full form of NKC.
9.2 Summary of Recommendations

Providing access to knowledge is the most fundamental way of increasing the opportunities of
individuals and groups. Therefore, it is essential to revitalise and expand the reach of knowledge
in society. In this context NKC has submitted recommendations on areas such as Right to
Education, language, translation, libraries, portals and knowledge networks.
(i) Right to Education
(ii) Language
(iii) Translation
(iv) Libraries
(v) National Knowledge Network
9.3 Concepts
Knowledge concepts are organised and disseminated through the education system. Education
is the key enabler for the development of an individual and for altering the socio-economic
landscape of a country. Therefore, NKC’s work has focused on revamping the education sector.
NKC’s concern with many aspects of the Indian education system covers school education,
higher education, professional education, and vocational education.
(i) School Education
(ii) Vocational education and training (VET)
(iii) Higher Education
(iv) More Talented Students in Maths and Science
(v) Professional Education
Self Assessment
1. Fill in the blanks
(i) The national knowledge commission was constituted in June 2005 by the prime minister...
(ii) It is essential to revitalize and expand the reach of knowledge in .............. .

Notes (iii) .......................... promotes knowledge applications is Agricultural and Industry.

(iv) Knowlege concepts are organised and disseminated through .................... .
(v) ............................. is the key enable for the development of an individual and for attering
the socio-economic landscape of a country.
9.4 Creation
Producing new knowledge and protecting existing resources is critical for a nation to compete
in the global knowledge economy. This makes it important to consider all activities that lead to
the creation of knowledge directly or help in protecting the knowledge that is created. NKC
has therefore examined issues such as innovation systems in the country, science and technology
activities and the regime of Intellectual Property Rights.
(i) Intellectual Property Rights
(ii) Legal Framework for Public Funded Research
(iii) National Science and Social Science Foundation
(iv) Innovation
(v) Entrepreneurship
9.5 Applications
Knowledge can be productively applied to promote technological change, enhance quality of
life and facilitate reliable and regular fl ow of information. This requires signifi cant investment
in goal-oriented research and development along with delivery models that can simplify
processes within an industry.
(i) Traditional Health Systems (ii) Agriculture:
(iii) Enhancing Quality of Life
Initiatives in the areas of agriculture, labour and traditional knowledge can demonstrate
that knowledge can be very effectively applied for the betterment of the community.
9.6 School Education

Ensuring quality school education to all is the foundation upon which any further advances
towards a knowledge society must be based. Noting the crucial importance of school education,
the National Knowledge Commission held a series of workshops and consultations around the
country involving a very wide range of stakeholders, to discuss issues of quantity, quality and
access in school education.
1. Central Legislation for the Right to Education, backed by Fnancial Commitment
2. More Fexibility in Disbursal of Funds
3. Decentralisation and Greater Local Autonomy
4. Expansion of Functional Literacy
5. Planning for School Infrastructure
9.7 Quantity and Resources

1. Substantially increased public spending is required for both elementary and secondary
education: NKC strongly endorses the speedy enactment of a central legislation that will ensure
the right of all children in the country to good quality school education up to Class VIII. We

also believe that this should be extended to cover universal schooling up to Class X as soon as Notes
possible. NKC has emphasised that a vibrant, good quality and universally accessible government
school system is the basic foundation upon which the schooling system in the country must
rest.
The norms for secondary schools, which include not only provision for specialised
subject teachers but also for science labs, counselling etc, must be strictly adhered
to when new schools are created and when primary schools are upgraded.
2. Urban planning and local planning must explicitly incorporate the physical requirements for
schooling, including provisions for playgrounds and other school facilities : It is important to
remember that land is an essential requirement of schools, and this requirement is likely to
increase in the near future given the expansion required by demographic changes and the need
to ensure universal schooling. In the context of rapid urbanisation, it has been found that urban
conglomerations often come up without adequate provision for ensuring the physical space
required for schools in the vicinity. This is particularly a problem in new settlements with
quickly increasing density of population, not only in large cities but also in smaller towns and
fast growing villages. This makes it difficult to establish schools where required, and to ensure
that schools are able to provide all the necessary facilities including sports fields etc. It is
essential that the urban land use policies and regulations in all states and municipalities explicitly
factor in the physical requirements of schools in areas of a certain population density.
Similarly in rural areas, there must be adequate provision for land for setting up schools in
areas that surpass a certain population density. In rural areas with low population density,
difficult terrain or extreme climatic conditions, the government may consider setting up
residential schools, which could also address the problem of migrant labourers and nomadic
populations.
3. The norms for central government disbursal to states of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) funds
and other central schemes for school education are too rigid and must be made more flexible
: The current system of funds transfer and the accounting rules create unnecessary rigidities that
often do not allow the State Governments to use the money in the most efficient or desirable
way, and also lead to less than complete utilisation of the budgetary allocation.
Some of these problems include:
(i) very rigid norms on unit costs and what is allowed in terms of spending, that do not
recognise the diverse requirements of different states or particular regions;
(ii) inadequate financial provisions for infrastructure such as buildings etc, especially for
some states and cities, which leads to the creation of poor quality infrastructure;
(iii) an inflexible accounting system that does not allow transferring funds across heads to
meet particular or changing requirements, and therefore inhibits full utilisation and
also prevents synergies from developing;
(iv) insufficient allocation for repair and maintenance of infrastructure;
(v) treating rural and urban schools in the same manner even though the requirements are
often very different (for example, urban government schools may require different
infrastructure and facilities in order to attract students); and
9.8 Quality and Management

1. Currently school education is highly segmented, even in government run institutions, as
a result of the parallel track of education centres in some states. These separate systems
must be integrated to give all children access to schools of acceptable quality.

Notes 2. At the same time, planning for school education must take into account the ecology of
education the need to adjust school systems to agro-climatic and other local variation
3. School management must be decentralised as far as possible
4. There is a multiplicity of management structures and government departments in the
administration of school education. This creates confusion, unnecessary replication and
possibly inconsistent strategies across different schools. There must be greater co-ordination
between different departments of government on school education policy, even while
ensuring more autonomy to the local community in matters of day-to-day management of
schools
There is need for a national body to monitor the quality of both government and
private schools, to ensure that minimum standards are met in terms of learning
outcomes
9.9 Higher Education

Higher education has made a significant contribution to economic development, social progress
and political democracy in independent India. But there is serious cause for concern at this
juncture. The proportion of our population, in the relevant age group, that enters the world of
higher education is about 7 per cent. The opportunities for higher education in terms of the
number of places in universities are simply not adequate in relation to our needs. Large
segments of our population just do not have access to higher education. What is more, the
quality of higher education in most of our universities leaves much to be desired.
Foundations are critical. NKC believes that an emphasis on expansion and reform of our school
system is necessary to ensure that every child has an equal opportunity to enter the world of
higher education. It is engaged in consultations on school education and will submit
recommendations in this crucial area in due course. In this recommendation, it focuses on
higher education. NKC has engaged in formal and informal consultations on the issue with a
wide range of people in the world of higher education. In addition, it consulted concerned
people in parliament, government, civil society and industry. Concerns about the higher
education system are widely shared. There is a clear, almost unanimous, view that higher
education needs a systematic overhaul, so that India can educate much larger numbers without
diluting academic standards.
NKC recognises that meaningful reform of the system, with a long-term

perspective, is both complex and difficult. Yet, it is imperative.
9.10 Summary
• Knowledge has been recognised as the key driving force in the 21st century and India
ability to emerge as a globally competitive player will substantially depend on its
knowledge resources.
• The National Knowledge Commission (NKC) was constituted in June 2005 by the Prime
Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Sam Pitroda, to prepare a
blueprint for reform of our knowledge related institutions and infrastructure which would
enable India to meet the challenges of the future.
• Providing access to knowledge is the most fundamental way of increasing the opportunities
of individuals and groups.

• The 86th Constitutional amendment act made the Right to Education a Fundamental Right. Notes
• In the current scenario an understanding and command over the English language is a
most important determinant of access to higher education, employment possibilities and
social opportunities.
• The developments in information and communication technology have created new
opportunities for enhancing the efficiency of health care delivery.
9.11 Keywords
• Scenario : a discription of how things might happen
• Amendment : The process of changing a law or a document
• Vision : The ability to see

1. Write the terms of reference of National Knowledge Commission.
2. Write the short notes on the following :
(a) Right to Education (b) National Knowledge Network
(c) Health Information Network (d) Sehoul Education
3. How many possible networking options are suggested by the wid consultations with
experts and technology provisions?
4. What are the recommendations for developing a health information network?
5. Briefly describe the quality and management.

1. (i) Dr. Manmohan Singh (ii) Society (iii) National Knowledge Commission
(iv) Education System
(v) Education
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, Briykithore Dayal,

Dominannt Publisher & Distributer.
Dash Bn, A K Agrawal

Notes
Unit 10: National Curriculum Framework (2005)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 National Curriculum Framework (2005)
10.2 Learning and Knowledge
10.3 Implications for Curriculum and Practice
10.4 Knowledge and Understanding
10.5 Recreating Knowledge
10.6 Children’s Knowledge and Local Knowledge
10.7 School Knowledge and the Community
10.8 Some Developmental Considerations
10.9 Summary
10.10 Key Words
Objectives
• to explain about the national curriculum framework (2005)
• to describe about Learning and Knowledge
• to discuss about Implications for Curriculum and Practice
• to discuss about Knowledge and Understanding
• to describe about Recreating Knowledge
• to explain Children’s Knowledge and Local Knowledge
• to describe School Knowledge and the Community
• to discuss Developmental Considerations
Introduction
India is a free nation with a rich variegated history, an extraordinarily complex cultural diversity
and a commitment to democratic values and well-being for all. Ever since 1986 when the
National Policy on Education was approved by Parliament, efforts to redesign the curriculum
have been focused on the creation of a national system of education. We will discuss about
National Curriculum framework (2005) in different aspects of education.
10.1 National Curriculum Framework (2005)

The NPE, 1986 and the PoA 1992 assign a special role to NCERT in preparing and promoting a
National Curriculum Framework. The present exercise of reviewing the NCF was initiated
following the statement made by the Hon'ble Minister for Human Resource Development in
the Lok Sabha that NCERT should take up such a revision. This was followed by a decision in
the Executive Committee in its meeting in July 2004 to revise the national Curriculum
Framework Subsequent to this meeting a letter from Education Secretary to the Director NCERT

reiterated the necessity to review the National Curriculum Framework for School Education Notes
2000 in the light of Learning without Burden (1993).
The National Curriculum Framework -2005 has been brought out by the NCERT through a
wide-ranging process of deliberations and consultations. The document was approved by the
Central Advisory Board of Education in September, 2005. So, this carriculum is named as
(National curriculum framework - 2005). The document proposes reform in various aspects of
school education at all the stages in the following areas: Syllabus and Textbooks; Pedagogic
Practices; Time Management in School; Assessment; Learning Resource; School Ethos including
academic monitoring and effective leadership; Arts, Craft, Work, Peace and Health and
Information and Communication Technology. Realising the connectivity of these reforms with
the existing practices the document also proposes reform in examination and teacher education.
The National Curriculum Framework, while placing the learner as the constructor of knowledge,
emphasises that curriculum, syllabus and textbooks should enable the teacher to organise
classroom experiences in consonance with the child’s nature and environment, and providing
opportunities for all children. Significant changes are recommended in all the curricular areas
with a view to making education more relevant to the present day and future needs in order to
alleviate the stress children are coping with today. The NCF recommends the softening of
subject boundaries so that children can get a taste of integrated knowledge and joy of
understanding.
The term National Curriculum Framework is often wrongly construed to mean that an
instrument of uniformity is being proposed.
10.1.1 Guiding Principles

We need to plan and pay attention to systemic matters that will enable us to implement many
of the good ideas that have already been articulated in the past.
Paramount among these are :
• connecting knowledge to life outside the school,
• ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods,
• enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain
textbook centric,
• making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom life and,
• nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic
polity of the country.
• The Constitution of India guarantees equality of status and opportunity to all citizens.
Continued exclusion of vast numbers of children from education and the disparities caused
through private and public school systems challenge the efforts towards achieving equality.
Education should function as an instrument of social transformation and an egalitarian
social order.
10.1.2 The Quality Dimension

Even as the system attempts to reach every child, the issue of quality presents a new range of
challenges. The belief that quality goes with privilege is clearly irreconcilable with the vision
of participatory democracy that India upholds and practises in the political sphere. Its practise
in the sphere of education demands that the education available to all children in different
regions and sections of society has a comparable quality. J.P. Naik had described equality,
quality and quantity as the ‘elusive triangle’ of Indian education. Dealing with this metaphorical
triangle requires a deeper theoretical understanding of quality than has been available. UNESCO’s

Notes recently published global monitoring report discusses systemic standards as the appropriate
context of the quality debate. From this point of view, the child’s performance needs to be
treated as an indicator of systemic quality. In a system of education that is divided between a
fast-growing private sector and a larger state sector marked by shortages and the uneven
spread of resources, the issue of quality poses complex conceptual and practical questions. The
belief that private schools have higher quality treats examination results as the sole criterion
for judging quality. This kind of perception ignores the ethos-related limitations of the privileged
private schools. The fact that they often neglect the child’s mother tongue warrants us to wonder
about the opportunities that they are able to provide to the child for constructing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
10.1.3 The Social Context of Education

Hierarchies of caste, economic status and gender relations, cultural diversity as well as the
uneven economic development that characterise Indian society also deeply influence access to
education and participation of children in school. This is reflected in the sharp disparities
between different social and economic groups, which are seen in school enrolment and completion
rates. Thus, girls belonging to SC and ST communities among the rural and urban poor and the
disadvantaged sections of religious and other ethnic minorities are educationally most
vulnerable.
In urban locations and many villages, the school system itself is stratified and provides children
with strikingly different educational experiences. Unequal gender relations not only perpetuate
domination but also create anxieties and stunt the freedom of both boys and girls to develop
their human capacities to their fullest. It is in the interest of all to liberate human beings from
the existing inequalities of gender.
The education system does not function in isolation from the society of which it is a
part.
10.1.4 Aims of Education

The aims of education serve as broad guidelines to align educational processes to chosen ideals
and accepted principles. The aims of education simultaneously reflect the current needs and
aspirations of a society as well as its lasting values, and the immediate concerns of a community
as well as broad human ideals. At any given time and place they can be called the contemporary
and contextual articulations of broad and lasting human aspirations and values. Educational
aims turn the different activities undertaken in schools and other educational institutions into
a creative pattern and give them the distinctive character of being ‘educational’. An educational
aim helps the teacher connect her present classroom activity to a cherished future outcome
without making it instrumental, and therefore give it direction without divorcing it from
current concerns. Thus, an aim is a foreseen end: it is not an idle view of a mere spectator;
rather, it influences the steps taken to reach the end. An aim must provide foresight. It can do
this in three ways: First, it involves careful observation of the given conditions to see what
means are available for reaching the end, and to discover the hindrances in the way.
10.2 Learning and Knowledge

This chapter establishes the need to recognise the child as a natural learner, and knowledge as
the outcome of the child’s own activity. In our everyday lives outside the school, we enjoy the
curiosity, inventiveness and constant querying of children. They actively engage with the world

around them, exploring, responding, inventing and working things out, and making meaning. Notes
Childhood is a period of growth and change, involving developing one’s physical and mental
capacities to the fullest. It involves being socialised into adult society, into acquiring and
creating knowledge of the world and oneself in relation to others in order to understand, to act,
and to transform. Each new generation inherits the storehouse of culture and knowledge in
society by integrating it into one’s own web of activities and understanding, and realising its
‘fruitfulness’ in creating afresh.
10.2.1 Primacy of the Active Learner

Informal learning in society builds on the learners’ natural ability to draw upon and construct
their own knowledge, to develop their capacities, in relating to the environment around them,
both physical and social, and to the task at hand. For this to happen, opportunities to try out,
manipulate, make mistakes and correct oneself are essential. This is as true of learning language
as it is of a craft skill or a discipline. Schools as institutions provide new opportunities for all
learners to learn about themselves, others, and society, to access their inheritance and engage
with it irrespective of and outside the access provided by one’s birth into a family and a
community. The formal processes of learning that school makes possible can open up new
possibilities of understanding and relating to the world. Our current concern in curriculum
development and reform is to make it an inclusive and meaningful experience for children,
alongwith the effort to move away from a textbook culture. This requires a fundamental change
in how we think of learners and the process of learning. Hence the need to engage in detail
with the underpinnings and implications of ‘childcentred’ education.
‘Child-centred’ pedagogy means giving primacy to children’s experiences, their voices, and
their active participation. This kind of pedagogy requires us to plan learning in keeping with
children’s psychological development and interests. The learning plans therefore must respond
to physical, cultural and social preferences within the wide diversity of characteristics and
needs. Our school pedagogic practices, learning tasks, and the texts we create for learners tend
to focus on the socialisation of children and on the ‘receptive’ features of children’s learning.
Instead, we need to nurture and build on their active and creative capabilities—their inherent
interest in making meaning, in relating to the world in ‘real’ ways through acting on it and
creating, and in relating to other humans. Learning is active and social in its character.
Frequently, the notions of ‘good student’ that are promoted emphasise obedience to the teacher,
moral character, and acceptance of the teacher’s words as ‘authoritative’ knowledge.
10.2.2 Learners in Contest

Children’s voices and experiences do not find expression in the classroom. Often the only voice
heard is that of the teacher. When children speak, they are usually only answering the teacher’s
questions or repeating the teacher’s words. They rarely do things, nor do they have opportunities
to take initiative. The curriculum must enable children to find their voices, nurture their
curiosity—to do things, to ask questions and to pursue investigations, sharing and integrating
their experiences with school knowledge—rather than their ability to reproduce textual
knowledge. Reorienting the curriculum to this end must be among our highest priorities,
informing the preparation of teachers, the annual plans of schools, the design of textbooks,
Common sources of physical discomfort
• Long walks to school.
• Heavy school bags.
• Lack of basic infrastructure, including support books for reading and writing.
• Badly designed furniture that gives children inadequate back support and cramps their
legs and knees.
• Time tables that do not give young children enough breaks to stretch, move and play, and
that deprive olderchildrenofplay/sportstime, and encourage girls to opt out.

Notes 10.2.3 Development and Learning

The period from infancy to adolescence is one of rapid growth and change. The curriculum
must have a holistic approach to learning and development that is able to see the interconnections
and transcend divisions between physical and mental development, and between individual
development and interaction with others. The precondition for all development is healthy
physical growth of all children. This requires that the basic needs in terms of adequate nutrition,
physical exercise and other psycho-social needs are addressed. Participation of all children in
free play, informal and formal games, yoga and sports activities is essential for their physical
and psycho-social development.The range of abilities as a result of games, sports and yoga will
improve stamina, fine and gross motor skills and dexterities, self-awareness and control, and
coordination in team games. Simple adaptation of playgrounds, equipment and rules can make
activities and games accessible to all children in the school.
Cognition involves the capacity to make sense of the self and the world, through action and
language. Meaningful learning is a generative process of representing and manipulating concrete
things and mental representations, rather than storage and retrieval of information. Thinking,
language (verbal or sign) and doing things are thus intimately inter-twined. This is a process
that begins in infancy, and develops through independent and mediated activities. Initially,
children are cognitively oriented to the here and now, able to reason and act logically on
concrete experiences.
10.2.4 Adolescence
Adolescence is a critical period for the development of self-identity. The process of acquiring a
sense of self is linked to physiological changes, and also learning to negotiate the social and
psychological demands of being young adults. Responsible handling of issues like independence,
intimacy, and peer group dependence are concerns that need to be recognised, and appropriate
support be given to cope with them.
It is important to create an inclusive environment in the classroom for all students, especially
those who are at risk of marginalisation, for instance, students with disabilities. Labelling an
individual student or a group of students as learning disabled etc. creates a sense of helplessness,
inferiority and stigmatisation. It tends to overshadow difficulties that children may be facing in
schools due to diverse socio-cultural backgrounds and inappropriate pedagogical approaches
being used in the classroom. A student with a disability has an equal right to membership of
the same group as all other students. Differences between students must be viewed as resources
for supporting learning rather than as a problem. Inclusion in education is one of the components
of inclusion in society.
Self Assessment
(i) The ............. of India guarantees equality of status and opportunity to all citizens.
(ii) The private schools have .................... treats examination results as the sole criterion for
judging quality.
(iii) The aims of education serve as broad ..................... to align educational processes to
chosen ideals and accepted principles.
(iv) ........................ are a craft skills or discipline.
10.3 Implications for Curriculum and Practice

Teaching for Construction of Knowledge In the constructivist perspective, learning is a process
of the construction of knowledge. Learners actively construct their own knowledge by connecting
new ideas to existing ideas on the basis of materials/activities presented to them (experience).
For example, using a text or a set of pictures/visuals on a transport system coupled with

discussions will allow young learners to be facilitated to construct the idea of a transport Notes
system. Initial construction (mental representation) may be based on the idea of the road
transport system, and a child from a remote rural setting may form the idea centred around the
bullock cart. Learners construct mental representations (images) of external reality (transport
system) through a given set of activities (experiences). The structuring and restructuring of
ideas are essential features as the learners progress in learning. For instance, the initial idea of
a transport system built around road transport will be reconstructed to accommodate other
types of transport systems—sea and air—using appropriate activities. The engagement of
learners, through relevant activities, can further facilitate in the construction of mental images
of the relationships (cause-effect) between a transport system and human life/economy.
However, there is a social aspect in the construction process in the sense that knowledge needed
for a complex task can reside in a group situation. In this context, collaborative learning provides
room for negotiation of meaning, sharing of multiple views and changing the internal
representation of the external reality. Construction indicates that each learner individually and
socially constructs meaning as he/she learns. Constructing meaning is learning. The constructivist
perspective provides strategies for promoting learning by all. The teacher’s own role in children’s
cognition could be enhanced if they assume a more active role in relation to the process of
knowledge construction in which children are engaged. A child constructs her/his knowledge
while engaged in the process of learning.
10.3.3 Critical Pedagogy

Teacher and student engagement is critical in the classroom because it has the power to define
whose knowledge will become a part of school-related knowledge and whose voices will shape
it. Students are not just young people for whom adults should devise solutions. They are critical
observers of their own conditions and needs, and should be participants in discussions and
problem solving related to their education and future opportunities. Hence children need to be
aware that their experiences and perceptions are important and should be encouraged to develop
the mental skills needed to think and reason independently and have the courage to dissent.
What children learn 23 out of school — their capacities, learning abilities, and knowledge base
— and bring to school is important to further enhance the learning process. This is all the more
critical for children from underprivileged backgrounds, especially girls, as the worlds they
inhabit and their realities are underrepresented in school knowledge.
Many of our schools now have large numbers of firstgeneration school goers. Pedagogy must
be reoriented when the child’s home provides any direct support to formal schooling. First-
generation school goers, for example, would be completely dependent on the school for
inculcating reading and writing skills and fostering a taste for reading, and for familiarising
them with the language and culture of the school, especially when the home language is different
from the language of school. Indeed they need all the assistance they can get. Many such
children are also vulnerable to conditions prevailing at home, which might make them prone
to lack of punctuality, irregularity and inattentiveness in the classroom. Mobilising inter sector
alsupport for freeing children from such constraints, and for designing a curriculum sensitive
to these circumstances, therefore is essential.
Self Assessment
2. State whether the following statements are 'True' of 'False' :
(i) In the constructivist perspective learning is a process of the construction of knowledge.
(ii) Teacher and student engagement is critical in the classroom because it has the power to
define where knowledge will become a part of school related knowledge and voices
will shape it.
(iii) Pedagogy must not be reoriented when the child's home provides any direct support to
formal schooling.
(iv) The structuring and restructuring of ideas are not essential features as the learner's
progress in learning.

Notes 10.4 Knowledge and Understanding

The question, ‘What should be taught to the young’? derives from a deeper question, namely,
What aims are worth pursuing in education? The answer is a vision of the capabilities and
values that every individual must have and a socio-political and cultural vision for society. This
is not a single aim, but a set of aims. So also the content selected seeks to do justice to the entire
set of aims; it has to be comprehensive and balanced. The curriculum needs to provide experiences
that build the knowledge base through a progressive introduction to the capabilities of thinking
rationally, to understand the world through various disciplines, foster aesthetic appreciation
and sensitivity towards others, to work and to participate in economic processes. This section
discusses the nature and forms of knowledge and understanding as necessary elements terrains
for making informed curricular choices and approaches to content. Knowledge can be conceived
as experience organised through language into patterns of thought (or structures of concepts),
thus creating meaning, which in turn helps us understand the world we live in. It can also be
conceived of as patterns of activity, or physical dexterity with thought, contributing to acting in
the world, and the creating and making of things. Human beings over time have evolved many
bodies of knowledge, which include a repertoire of ways of thinking, of feeling and of doing
things, and constructing more knowledge. All children have to re-create a significant part of this
wealth for themselves, as this constitutes the basis for further thinking and for acting appropriately
in this world. It is also important to learn to participate in the very process of knowledge
creation, meaning making and human action, i.e. work.
10.4.1 Basic Capabilities

Children’s basic capabilities are those that form the broad basis for the development of
understanding, values and skills.
(a) Language and other forms of expression provide the basis for meaning making, and
sharing with others. They create possibilities of development of understanding and
knowledge, providing the ability to symbolise, codify, and to remember and record.
Development of language for a child is synonymous with development of understanding
and identity, and also the capability of relating with others. It is not only verbal languages
with scripts, but also languages without scripts, sign languages, scripts such as Braille
and the performing arts, that provide the bases for making meaning and the expression.
(b) Forming and sustaining relationships with the social world, with the natural world, and
with one’s self, with emotional richness, sensitivity and values. This gives meaning to
life, providing it with emotional content and purpose. This is also the basis for ethics
and morality.
(c) Capabilities for work and action involves the coordination of bodily movement with
thought and volition, drawing on skill and understanding, and directing oneself to
achieve some purpose or create something. It also involves handling tools and
technologies, and the ability to manipulate and organise things and experiences, and to
communicate.
10.4.2 Knowledge in Practice

A vast array of human activities and practices sustain social living and culture. Crafts such as
weaving, carpentry and pottery, and occupations such as farming and shopkeeping, constitute
alongwith and performing and visual arts and sports a valuable form of knowledge. These
forms of knowledge are of a practical nature, tacit and often only partially articulated. Many of
them involve abilities that are developed. These include the ability to conceptualise and imagine
products that are useful or aesthetic, the knowledge of and ability to work with materials to
fashion a product, knowledge of one’s own abilities, appreciation of team work, and attitudes
of persistence and discipline. This is true whether it is an object being fashioned or whether it
is a play to be presented to an audience.

Notes
The attempt is to furnish a narrative that in some way ‘corresponds’ to reality.
10.5 Recreating Knowledge

These capabilities, practices, and skills of understanding are what we seek to develop through
the school curriculum. Some of them readily lend themselves to being formulated as ‘subjects’
of study such as mathematics, history, science, and the visual arts. Others, such as ethical
understanding, need to be interwoven into subjects and activities. The basic capabilities of
language require both approaches, and aesthetic understanding also readily lends itself to both
approaches. All these areas require opportunities for project activities, thematic and
interdisciplinary courses of studies, field trips, use of libraries and laboratories.
This approach to knowledge necessitates a move away from ‘facts’ as ends in themselves, and a
move towards locating facts in the process through which they come to be known, and moving
below the surface of facts to locate the deeper connections between them that give them meaning
and significance. In India, we have traditionally followed a subject-based approach to organising
the curriculum, drawing on only the disciplines. This approach tends to present knowledge as
‘packaged’, usually in textbooks, along with associated rituals of examinations to assess,
knowledge acquisition and marks as a way of judging competence in the subject area. This
approach has led to several problems in our education system.
10.6 Children’s Knowledge and Local Knowledge

The child’s community and local environment form the primary context in which learning
takes place, and in which knowledge acquires its significance. It is in interaction with the
environment that the child constructs knowledge and derives meaning. This area has generally
been neglected both in the conceptualisation of textbooks and in pedagogic practices. Hence, in
this document, we emphasise the significance of contextualising education: of situating learning
in the context of the child’s world, and of making the boundary between the school and its
natural and social environment porous. This is not only because the local environment and the
child’s own experiences are the best ‘entry points, into the study of disciplines of knowledge,
but more so because the aim of knowledge is to connect with the world. It is not a means to an
end, but both means and end. This does not require us to reduce knowledge to the functional
and immediately relevant, but to realise its dynamism by connecting with the world through
it. Unless learners can locate their individual standpoints in relation to the concepts represented
in Textbooks and relate this knowledge to their own experiences of society, knowledge is
reduced to the level of mere information. If we want to examine how learning relates to future
visions of community life, it is crucial to encourage reflection on what it means to know
something, and how to use what we have learnt. The learner must be recognised as a proactive
participant in his or her own learning. Day after day children bring to school their experiences
of the world around them the trees that they have climbed, the fruits they have eaten, the birds
they have admired. All children are alive to the natural cycles of day and night, of the weather,
the water, the plants and the animals that surround them. Children, when they enter Class I
already have a rich language base of small numbers, and the rudiments of operations are
already in place. Yet rarely do we hear the knowledge that they already have and which they
bring into the classroom.
10.7 School Knowledge and the Community

Experiences of the socio-cultural world also need to become a part of the curriculum. Children
need to find examples of the plurality of peoples and ways of life represented in the textbooks.

Notes These portrayals need to ensure that no community is oversimplified, labelled, or judged. It
may even be better for children to study and generate portrayals of the local social groups as a
part of their social science studies. They can then directly interact with the gram panchayat
representative, who may be invited to the school to speak about the extent to which
decentralisation has helped in addressing local civic issues. Local oral history could also be
connected with regional history and national history. But the social context also calls for a
much greater critical awareness and critical engagement on the part of curriculum developers
and teachers. Community-based identities, of gender, caste, class and religion are primary
identities, but they can also be oppressive and reaffirm social inequalities and hierarchies.
School knowledge can also provide a lens Local Knowledge Traditions Many communities and
individuals in India are a rich storehouse of knowledge about many aspects
10.8 Some Developmental Considerations

Children’s interests, physical skills, linguistic capacity, and ability for abstract thinking and
generalisation develop over the span of schooling, from the pre-school period through higher
secondary school. This is a period of intensive growth and development, and also of fundamental
shifts and changes in interests and capabilities.
Self Assessment
(i) .................. and other forms of expression provide the basis for meaning making, and
sharing with others.
(a) language (b) school
(c) knowledge (d) education
(ii) In India, traditionally followed ...................... activity to organising the curriculum,
drawing on only the disciplines.
(a) school based (b) subject based
(c) student based (d) state based
(iii) The child’s community and local environment from the context in which learning takes
place and knowledge acquires its significance.
(a) primary (b) secondary
(c) tertiary (d) old
10.9 Summary
• In spite of the recommendations of the NPE, 1986 to identify competencies and values to
be nurtured at different stages, school education came to be driven more and more by
high-stake examinations based on information-loaded textbooks.
• Even as the system attempts to reach every child, the issue of quality presents a new range
of challenges. The belief that quality goes with privilege is clearly irreconcilable with the
vision of participatory democracy that India upholds and practises in the political sphere.
• he aims of education serve as broad guidelines to align educational processes to chosen
ideals and accepted principles. The aims of education simultaneously reflect the current
needs and aspirations of a society as well as its lasting values, and the immediate concerns
of a community as well as broad human ideals.
10.10 Keywords
• Milieus: The social environment that you live.
• Envisage: To imagin what will happen in the future.
• Pursue: To continue to discuss.

1. Explain social context of education.

2. Write about children’s knowledge and local knowledge.
3. What is mother-tongue education?
4. Why health and physical education need to be included in the curriculum.
5. Educationis a significant dimension of the building up peace, explain.

1. (i) constitution (ii) higher quality (iii) quidelines (iv) learning
3. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (a)
1. Development of Education Systems : SC Shaoo, Khatia K, Briykithore Dayal, Daya

Publications House.
2. Development of Educational System in India : A K Agrawal , Mel Ainscow , Alan
Dyson , Susan Goldrick

Notes
Unit 11 : Functions of Apex Bodies of Education :
NCERT and SCERT
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
11.1 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
11.2 NCERT: Constituent Units
11.3 Functions of NCERT
11.4 State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
11.5 Structure of SCERT
11.6 Functions of SCERT
11.7 Summary
11.8 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the national council of educational research and training.
• to discuss about the constituent units NCERT.
• to describe about the functions of NCERT.
• to explain about state council of educational research and training (SCERT) and its structure.
• to discuss about Structure of SCERT.
• to describe about the Functions of SCERT
Introduction
The National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) is an autonomous
organization setup in 1961 by the government of India to assist and advise the central and state
governments on policies and programmes for qualitative improvement in school education. In
addition to research, development, training, extension publication and dissemination activities,
the NCERT is an implementation agency for bilateral cultural exchange programmes with
other countries in the field of school education. With the discussion about NCERT we will
discuss about SCERT also. SCERT is level educational agency. It works for the qualitative
improvement of school education at state level. In this unit we will discuss about the functions
of both of above.
11.1 National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) was set up by Government
of India in 1961 as an autonomous organisation registered under Societies Registration Act (Act
XXI of 1860) to advise and assist the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of
India and Departments of Education in States/ UTs in formulation and implementation of their
policies and major programmes in the field of education, particularly for qualitative

Unit 11: Functions of Apex Bodies of Education: NCERT and SCERT
improvement of school education. For realization of its objectives, the NCERT and its Constituent Notes
Units.
11.2 NCERT: Constituent Units

The major Constituent Units of the NCERT are:
1. National Institute of Education (NIE), New Delhi
2. Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET), New Delhi
3. Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), Bhopal
4. Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Ajmer
5. Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Bhopal
6. Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Bhubaneswar
7. Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Mysore
8. North-East Regional Institute of Education (NE-RIE), Shillong
11.2.1 National Institute of Education

The National Institute of Education (NIE) in New Delhi carries out research and development
activities related to pedagogical aspects of curriculum; prepares prototype curricular and
supplementary materials; develops school education-related database and undertakes experiments
in pre-school, elementary, secondary and higher secondary stages to support all-round
development of the learner. NIE also organizes in-service training of key resource persons and
teacher educators associated with implementation of centrally sponsored school improvement
schemes. The educational concerns of the Departments of the NIE are.
11.2.2 Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET)

The CIET is concerned with development of educational technology, especially mass
communication media, to extend educational opportunities and improve the quality of
educational processes, practices and outcome.
Activities of CIET also include design and production of media software viz. radio and television
programmes. CIET also holds programmes to build competencies of media personnel from
State Institutes of Educational Technology in the development and utilization of such software.
The Institute disseminates its software through broadcast and non-broadcast modes. The research
and evaluation activities are undertaken to assess needs, determine the audience profile and
study the effectiveness of materials and programmes developed by CIET to support the
transaction of curricular and co-curricular materials.
11.2.3 Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education

(PSSCIVE)
Located at Bhopal, PSSCIVE organizes research, development, training and extension activities
related to work education and vocational education, both at formal and non-formal levels.
Besides development of vocational curricula, guidelines and instructional materials, research/
action research and training/ orientation of key functionaries, preparation of data-base, clearing
house functions, promotion /popularization and implementation of work and vocational
education programmes are also areas of activities of PSSCIVE. It is also a member of E-forum
of UNEVOC, UNESCO’s Project on Technical and Vocational Education.
11.2.4 Regional Institutes of Education

The Regional Institutes of Education (RIEs) located at Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and Mysore
cater to educational needs (preservice and in-service education) of teachers in the States and UTs
under their jurisdiction. To a limited extent, pre-service professional training to prepare school
teachers for teaching Science and Mathematics and teacher educators of Elementary Teacher
Training Institutions is also offered by the RIEs. They act as Regional Resource Institutions for

Notes school education and teacher education, extend required assistance in implementing the policies
of the States/UTs and assist in implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the Centrally
Sponsored Schemes. The RIE Ajmer looks after teacher education and other educational
requirements of the States of Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and the UT of Chandigarh. The RIE Bhopal has within its
pale the States of Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and UTs of Dadra
and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. The States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Manipur, Meghalya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tripura, West Bengal and the UT of
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are covered by the RIE Bhubaneswar. The States of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu and UTs of Pondicherry and Lakshadweep are covered
by the RIE Mysore.
A new RIE (NE-RIE) has been set up at Shillong. When it becomes operational, it would cater to
the educational needs of North-Eastern States i.e., Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura.
Self Assessment
(i) The national council of educational research and training was set up in ............ .
(ii) National institute of education organizes ............ of key resource persons and teacher
educators.
(iii) Central institute of educational technology is concerned with ..................... .
(iv) Regional institute of education is located in ........................ .
(v) NCERT acts as a major agency for implementing the ................... programmes.
11.3 Functions of NCERT

Research: The NCERT performs the important functions of conducting and supporting educational
research and offering training in education research methodology. Different Departments of
the National Institute of Education (NIE), Regional Institutes of Education (EIEs), Central Institute
of Educational Technology (CIET) and Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational
Education (PSSCIVE) undertake research programmes on different aspects of school education
and teacher education. NCERT also supports research programmes of other institutions/
organizations by providing financial assistance and academic guidance. Assistance is given to
scholars for publication of their Ph.D. theses. Research fellowships are offered to encourage
studies in school education to create a pool of competent research workers.
Which constituent units of NCERT undertaken research programmes?
Development: Developmental activities in school education constitute an important function of

the NCERT. The major developmental activities include development and renewal of curricula
and instructional materials for various levels of school education and making them relevant to
changing needs of children and society. The innovative developmental activities include
development of curricula and instructional materials in school materials in school education in
the area of pre-school education, formal and non-formal education, vocationalisation of education
and teacher education. Developmental activities are also undertaken in the domains of
educational technology, population education, and education of the disabled and other special
groups.
Training: Pre-service training of teachers at various levels; pre-primary, elementary, secondary
and higher secondary, vocational eduation, eduational technology, guidance and counseling,

and special education are the areas of training in which NCERT works. The pre-service teacher Notes
education programmes at the Regional Institutes of Education (RIEs) incorporate many
innovative features. The RIEs also undertake the training of key personnel of the states and of
state level institutions and training of teacher educators and in-service teachers.
Extension: Various Departments of the NIE, RIEs, CIET and PSSCIVE, are engaged in various
ways. Constituents of NCERT work in close collaboration with various agencies and institutions
in the functionaries in these areas where special problems exist and where special efforts are
needed. Special programmes are organized for the education of the disadvantaged sections of the
society. The extension programmes cover all States and Union Territories of the country.
Publication and Dissemination: NCERT published textbooks for different school subjects for
Classes I to XII. It also brings out workbooks, teachers' guides, supplementary readers, research
reports, etc. In addition, it publishes instructional materials for the use of teacher educators,
teacher trainees and in-service teachers. These instr5uctional materials, produced through research
and developmental work, serve as models to various agencies in States and Union Territories.
These are made available to state level agencies for adoption and/or adaptation. The textbooks
are published in English, Hindi and Urdu. For dissemination of educational information, or the
NCERT publishes six journals: The Primary Teacher is published both the English and Hindi
and aims at giving meaningful and relevant educational inputs to primary school teachers for
direct use in the classroom; School Science serves as an open forum for discussion on various
aspects of science education; Journal of Indian Education provides a forum for encouraging
original and critical thinking in education through discussion on current educational issues;
Indian Educational Review contains research articles and provides a forum for researchers in
education; and Bharatiya Adhunik Shiksha, published in Hindi, provides a forum for encouraging
critical thinking in education on contemporary issues and for dissemination of educational
problems and practices.
A house journal called NCERT Newsletter is also published in English and Hindi
(Shaikshik Darpan).
Exchange Programmes: NCERT interacts with international organizations such as UNESCO,

UNICEF, UNDP, NFPA and the World Bank to study specific educational problems and to
arrange training programmes for personnel from other countries. It is one of the Associated
Centres of APEID. It also acts as the Secretariat of the National Development Group (NDG) for
Educational Innovations. The NCERT has been offering training facilities, usually through
attachment programmes and participation in workshops, to educational workers of other
countries. Educational materials are exchanged with other countries. On request, the faculty
members are deputed to participate in international conferences, seminars, workshops, symposia,
etc.
Self Assessment
2. State whether the following statements one ‘True’ or ‘False’:
(i) The union minister of Human resource development is the president of the general
body of the NCERT.
(ii) NCERT does not organize any kind of pre-service and in-service training of teachers.
(iii) NCERT acts as a nodal agency for achieving goals of universalisation of elementary
education.
(iv) The chairperson of the NCERT is the convener of the executive committee.

Notes (v) The NCERT headquarters do not consist council secretariat.

(vi) Developmental activities in school education constitute an important function of NCRT.
The NCERT acts as a major agency for implementing the Bilateral Cultural Exchange
Programmes entered into by the Government of India with the governments of other
countries in the fields of school education and teacher education.
11.4 State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)

The Directorate of Teacher Education and SCERT came into existence as an independent
Directorate on January 15, 1990. It progressively acquired its present status from the State
Institute of Education, established in 1964 to State Council of Educational Research and Training
(SCERT) in 1979, and from SCERT to TE and SCERT in 1990. Its progressive evolution from SIE
to TE and SCERT was largely mandated by ever expanding and emerging developments in
education.
Name five units related to education system.
11.5 Structure of SCERT

The SCERT has the following Departments and units:
(i) Department of Curriculum Development
(ii) Department of Teacher Education and in-Service Education
(iii) Department of Educational Research
(iv) Department of Science and Mathematics Education
(v) Department of Educational Technology
(vi) Department of Evaluation and Examination Reforms.
(vii) Department of Non-formal Education
(viii) Department of Population Education
(ix) Department of Pre-school and Elementary Education
(x) Department of Adult Education and Education for Weaker Sections
(xi) Department of Extension Service and School Management
(xii) Publication Unit
(xiii) Library Unit
(xiv) Administrative Unit
SCERT is serving as the academic wing of the Department of Education. It is trying to bring
about the qualitative improvement of school education and teacher education. It is maintaining
Objective
The Main objective of SCERT are following:
• To organize pre-service training for prospective teachers, and capacity building
programmes for inservice teachers, conferences, meetings, seminars and briefing sessions
for State Education Officers and field functionaries. To organize induction level training
programmes for the new entrants/teaching workforce of the teachers training institutions.

• To restructure syllabus and curriculum used at the elementary education and teacher Notes
education sector so as to make it need-based and relevant based and functional.
• To undertake, aid, promote and coordinate research and innovation activities among faculty
members of teacher training institutions.
11.6 Functions of SCERT

The State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT) were set up in each state on
the pattern of N.C.E.R.T. As education is a state subject, NCERT cannot do much to improve
education in the state. The SCERT has a Programme Advisory Committee under the
Chairmanship of the State Education Minister.
(i) To act as an agent of change in school education, lifelong non-formal education and
teacher education.
(ii) To supervise the working of the Teacher Training Colleges, Secondary Training Schools
and Elementary Training Schools.
(iii) To arrange for the in-service training and orientation of teachers, inspecting officers
dealing with pre-school, elementary, secondary and higher secondary education in the
state.
(iv) To arrange for in-service training of teacher-educators working in teacher training
institutions for all states of education.
(v) To organize programmes, including correspondence-cum-contact courses for overall
professional development of teachers, teacher-educators and supervisory/inspecting
officers.
(vi) To provide extension services to teacher training institutions at all levels.
(vii) To develop curriculum and produce instructional material, text-books for the use of
educational institutions and teachers of pre-school, elementary, secondary and higher
secondary stages in the state.
(viii) To prescribe curriculum and text-books for the school and teacher training centres.
(ix) To co-ordinate the work of extension services centres of teacher training institutions in
the state.
(x) To produce instructional materials for the use of teacher educators.
(xi) To organize and implement the special educational projects sponsored by UNICEF,
NCERT and other agencies for the qualitative improvement of school education, teacher
education and supervision of education.
(xii) To coordinate the programmes of different subject-teacher associations in the state.
(xiii) To evaluate the adult and non-formal education programmes or any other project
entrusted to by the government from time to time.
11.7 Summary
• The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) was set up by
government of India in 1961.
• The major constituent units of the NCERT are:
(i) National Institute of Education: It carries out research and development activities related
to curriculum, develops school education related database.
(ii) Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET): It is concerned with the development
of educational technology especially mass communication media to extend educational
opportunities and improve quality of educational processes.

Notes (iii) Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE): Organizes
research, development training and extension activities related to work education and
vocational education.
(iv) Regional Institute of Education: The need of teachers in the states and UTs under their
jurisdiction.
• The union minister of human resource development is the president of the general body of
the NCERT. General body includes educational ministers of all states and union territories.
Other members are chairperson of UGC, secretary to the government of India, ministry of
Human resource development, four vice chancellors of universities.
• The Chairman of the Central Board of Secondary Education; the Commissioner of the
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan; the Director, Central Health Education Bureau; the Director
of Training, Directorate General of Training and Employment, Ministry of Labour; one
representative of the Education Division, Planning Commission; all the members of the
Executive Committee.
• The main governing body of the NCERT is the Executive Committee. The Union Minister
of Human Resource Development is its President (ex officio) and the Union Minister of
State in the Ministry of Human Resource Development is the ex officio Vice-President.
• The NCERT performs the important functions of conducting and supporting educational
research and offering training in education research methodology.
• Developmental activities in school education constitute an important function of the NCERT.
The major developmental activities include development and renewal of curricula and
instructional materials for various levels of school education and making them relevant to
changing needs of children and society.
• Pre-service training of teachers at various levels; pre-primary, elementary, secondary and
higher secondary, vocational eduation, eduational technology, guidance and counseling,
and special education are the areas of training in which NCERT works.
• Various Departments of the NIE, RIEs, CIET and PSSCIVE, are engaged in various ways.
Constituents of NCERT work in close collaboration with various agencies and institutions
in the functionaries in these areas where special problems exist and where special efforts
are needed.
• NCERT published textbooks for different school subjects for Classes I to XII. It also brings
out workbooks, teachers' guides, supplementary readers, research reports, etc.
• NCERT interacts with international organizations such as UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, NFPA
and the World Bank to study specific educational problems and to arrange training
programmes for personnel from other countries.
11.8 Keywords
• Autonomous : An organization to govern itself independently
• Constituent : One of the parts f something that combine to form the whole.
• Organizational : The quality of being arranged in a neat careful and logical way.
• Structure : The way in which the parts of something are connected together,
arranged or organized.
• Department : A section of a large organization such as a government, university etc.

1. Discuss about NCERT and explain about its constituent units.
2. What are the functions of NCERT?

3. Explain the organizational structure of NCERT. Notes

4. When was SCERT established? Give its functions.
5. Give the structure of SCERT.

1. (i) 1961 (ii) in-service training
(iii) development of educational opportunities (iv) Ajmer
(v) Bilateral cultural exchange
2. (i) False (ii) True (iii) True (iv) False (v) True
1. Development of Education Systems : S.C. Shaoo, Briykithore Dayal, J.C. Aggarwal.

3. Development Of Educational System In India (Hardbound) : Dash Bn, A K
Agrawal, Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson , Susan Goldrick

Notes
Unit 12: Functions of CBSE and State Boards of
Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
12.1 Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)
12.2 Functions of CBSE
12.3 State Board of Secondary Education
12.4 Function of State Board
12.5 Brief Introduction of Some of the State Boards
12.6 Summary
12.7 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about central board of secondary education.
• to discuss about the functions of secondary education
• to explain about state board of secondary education.
• to discuss about functions of state board.
• to explain a brief introduction of some of state board.
Introduction
CBSE is one of the best and most recognized boards of school education in India, other prominent
board is Indian Certificate of Secondary Education or ICSE. The Central Board of Secondary
Education has undergone a number of changes over the years that have resulted to the board's
present avatar.
There is a state board of each state, recognized by the Department of Higher Education, Ministry
of Human Resource. Management, Govt. of India each board works for the educational
development of children at high school, secondary level. We will discuss about it is a descriptive
manners.
12.1 Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE)

CBSE board is considered very important in Indian education system because, it focuses to
impart a common education in this land of diverse culture and heritage called across India.
Thus, it has created a common standard of education for all across the country. CBSE education
keeps getting updated with time. This board has successfully matched the needs and changing
trends in the world of education. The quality of education system has always been high and
competitive. At present there are more than 9000 schools are affiliated with the board and
the figure includes around 140 schools spread in 21 countries with more than 12 million
students.

Unit 12: Functions of CBSE and State Boards of Education
Notes
CBSE board is not dependent on any outside source for income. It doesn't receive
any grants from central or state government. Its expenses are covered from
examination fees charges, fees taken from different courses and sale of its
publications.
12.1.1 Historical Context of CBSE Board

The first Board set up in India was Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate
Education in 1921, which was under jurisdiction of Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior. Later
Govt. of India suggested to set up a joint Board in 1929, which was named as the "Board of High
School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana". This included Ajmer, Merwara, Central India
and Gwalior.
A trail of developments mark; the significant changes that took place over the years in shaping
up the Board to its present status. U P Board of High School and Intermediate Education was
the first Board set up in 1921. It has under its jurisdiction Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior.
In response to the representation made by the Government of United Provinces, the then
Government of India suggested to set up a joint Board in 1929 for all the areas which was
named as the ' Board of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana. This included
Ajmer, Merwara, Central India and Gwalior.
The Board witnessed rapid growth and expansion at the level of Secondary education resulting
in improved quality and standard of education in institutions. But with the advent of State
Universities and State Boards in various parts of the country the jurisdiction of the Board was
confined only to Ajmer, Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh later. As a result of this, in 1952 , the
constitution of the Board was amended wherein its jurisdiction was extended to part-C and
Part-D territories and the Board was given its present name 'Central Board of Secondary
Education'. It was in the year 1962 finally that the Board was reconstituted.
12.1.2 Objectives
The main objectives were those of: serving the educational institutions more effectively, to be
responsive to the educational needs of those students whose parents were employed in the
Central Government and had frequently transferable jobs.
12.2 Functions of CBSE

(i) The CBSE board prepares the syllabus for standard 9 to 12 in affiliated schools. Two major
exams are conducted by this board every year, for class 10, All India Secondary School
Examination (AISSE) and class 12, All India Senior School Certificate Examination (AISSCE).
(ii) The syllabus for these exams is also prescribed by the board. Many privately owned
schools in India and abroad are also affiliated to CBSE. Score of both of these exams is
necessary for higher education. AISSCE examination score is widely recognized
internationally for direct enrollment in any university graduation course. The medium of
teaching and conducting examination is either English or Hindi.
(iii) The board also conducts the AIEEE exam, an entrance examination for undergraduate
courses in engineering and architecture in many colleges across India. It also conducts
AIPMT All India Pre medical Test, an entrance examination for admission to medical
colleges in India.

Notes The CBSE board has officially declared that grading system will replace the existing marking
system for class X from academic year 2008, the results will not include pass or fail tag, it will
only show grades that a student has got. The board has also introduced a new nine point scale
system, the students to get required grades in four or five subjects to get promoted to next
level. Its result will not carry pass or fail tag, students who don't have qualifying grades will
get four options to improve their grades in period of two years from exam. Students will get
grades ranging from A to E. The board has been continuously introducing innovative changes
to match required standards of education in this world of competition. CBSE education is
proved to be very beneficial to all students in India and out of India.
Grading System used by CBSE: Central Board of Secondary Education is going to introduce
grading system for all classes from year 2009-2010. This announcement was made secretary of
the CBSE during National Sahodaya conference of principals, held at Bhopal.
The students who will pass their class 10 board examination in March 2010 will be awarded
grades at the place of Marks. It will be implemented in classes 7, 8, 9, 11 and 12 also.
The official announcement about implementation of grading system in CBSE board classes is an
appreciable step. This news was published in expressindiadotcom.
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan is giving grades to the primary classes for last few
years but it was not there for other classes. Some of the educational institutions in
India were providing grades at the place of Marks.
Self Assessment
(i) There are more than ......................... CBSE affiliated schools.
(ii) The first board set up in India was .................. in 1921.
(iii) The CBSE board prepares the syllabus for standard .................... in affiliated schools.
(iv) The grading system has officially been declared by CBSE in academic year.
12.3 State Board of Secondary Education

In India, education is looked after by different agencies, both government and private. There
are three main stages or levels of education as they may be called, received by the students in
India. They are schooling, college and higher studies. At all the three stages, government takes
the responsibility for helping the students with different provisions at each level.
12.3.1 Historical Context

The jurisdiction of the Board is extensive and stretches beyond the national geographical
boundaries. As a result of the reconstitution, the Delhi Board of Secondary Education' was
merged with the Central Board and thus all the educational institutions recognized by the
Delhi Board also became a part of the Central Board . Subsequently, all the schools located in
the Union Territory of Chandigarh. Andaman and Nicobar Island, Arunachal Pradesh, the state
of Sikkim , and now Jharkhand, Uttaranchal and Chhattisgarh have also got affiliation with the
Board. From 309 schools in 1962 the Board today has 8979 schools on 31-03-2007 including 141
schools in 21 countries. There are 897 Kendriya Vidyalayas, 1761 Government Schools, 5827
Independent Schools, 480 Jawahar Novodaya Vidyalayas and 14 Central Tibetean Schools.
Following are the list of State Boards of School Education in India, recognized by the Department
of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Management, Government of India.

12.3.2 Schooling and State Boards Notes

The education system in India is typically K-12, meaning a graduation from kindergarten to
class 12th. A student who wishes to join the college has to complete the 12 years or grades and
the kindergarten. Excluding the kindergarten, the schooling has further been divided in primary,
secondary and higher secondary level of education. From grade I to VIII, the level is primary;
from VIII to X, it is secondary and from X to XII it is higher secondary. The last two, i.e.,
secondary and higher secondary education is looked after by state boards of education or any
other board recognised by the Indian government.
12.4 Functions of State Boards

• Advise the State Government on policy matters.
• See the implementation of Education Policies, as laid down by the Central Government.
• Maintain uniform standard of education in schools all over the state.
• Lay guiding principles for curriculum and syllabi. The syllabus is prescribed by the state
boards.
• Conduct Examinations (board examinations), at the completion of secondary and higher
• Prescribe textbooks to schools affiliated with them.
• Provide the Certification for the qualifying students.
• Prescribe conditions to schools regarding admissions of regular and private students.
Besides the primary functions mentioned above, state boards are also concerned with promoting
education among the under privileged, helping students with scholarships and stipends, etc.
State boards as such are authoritative agencies so far as schooling is concerned. The schools
affiliated with the boards have to abide by the rules and regulations of the state boards.
What is the grading system used by CBSE?
Self Assessment:
(i) There are two main stages or levels of education received by the students in India.
(ii) The education system in India is typically K-12 meaning a graduation from kindergarten
to class 12th.
(iii) The main function of state boards is to advise the central government on policy matter
related to school education.
(iv) The state boards are concerned with promoting education among the under privileged,
helping students with scholarships and stipends.
(v) The schools affiliated with the boards have to abide by the rules and regulations of the
state boards.
12.5 Brief Introduction of Some of State Boards
There are over 30 state boards and central boards of education in India. In almost every state,
there is at least one education board which caters to the secondary and higher secondary education.
Here we will discuss about few them:
12.5.1 Andhra Pradesh Board of Secondary Education

Andhra Pradesh Board Of secondary Education is the Authority which conducts the secondary

Notes school public examination to the candidates of the state of Andhra Pradesh, through it's affiliated
schools.
12.5.2 Assam Board of Secondary Education

Assam board of secondary Education is a statutory body of the Government of Assam, which
was established in the year 1962, is responsible for conducting the High School Leaving
Certificate Examination (X Class) School Exams to the candidates, through the affiliated schools.
12.5.3 Bihar School Examination Board

Bihar School Examination Board conducts Secondary School Examination twice every year to
the candidates through the affiliated Schools:
• Annual Examinations
• Supplementary Examinations
The Annual examination is normally conducted in the month of February / March.
Supplementary Examination is generally conducted in the month of July/August. Two categories
of students appear at the Supplementary examination i.e 'A' & 'C'. 'A' means all subjects. 'C'
means compartmental i.e. students who want to clear their subjects in which they failed at the
annual examination, appear as compartmental examinee.
12.5.4 The Chhattisgarh Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary

Education
The Chhattisgarh Board of Secondary (10th class) and Higher Secondary (10+2 class) Education
is a corporate statutory Body established by an Act of the Government of Chhattisgarh. The
Board is an autonomous and self financing organization without any regular grants from the
Govt. he objective of The Chhattisgarh Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education is,
apart from granting recognition to the Secondary and higher Secondary schools and conduct of
secondary and higher secondary exam, the Board advises the state Government on policy matters
relating to secondary and higher secondary education in general and on the following matters
in particular in ensuing a uniform pattern of education:
• Maintaining of uniform standard of education in Secondary and Higher Secondary
Education.
• Co-ordination between the national policies and policies of the state in respect of secondary
and higher secondary Education.
• Co-ordination between primary, secondary, higher secondary and University education.
12.5.5 Gujarat Secondary And Higher Education Board

"Gujarat Secondary and Higher Education Board" is the authority which conducts the main and
the supplementary public Examinations every year for the SSC (Secondary School Certificate -
Class X) and HSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate - Class XII). The exams are conducted in
the months of March and October every year.
In the state of Gujarat, about 7 Lakhs students take these Exams every year in about 350 centers.
The question papers are set in 6 languages Gujarati, Hindi, English, Marathi, Sindhi & Tamil.
Apart from these above mentioned public exams, Gujarat Secondary and Higher Education
Board conducts a "Talent Search" for students of Std VIII & IX in five major subjects every year.
12.5.6 Haryana Board of Education

Haryana Board of Education is the authority which conducts the Public Examinations at Middle,
Matric and Senior Secondary (Academic & Vocational) levels twice a year in the state of Haryana
through the affiliated schools.
The Board of School Education - Haryana was set up in September 1969 with its headquarters at
Chandigarh. The Board started conducting the Middle Examination with effect from 1976 to
improve educational standards at Middle level and more than 1.5 lakhs students had appeared

in this examination. The number of candidates has increased to more than 4 lakhs in the year Notes
2003.
The headquarters of the Board was shifted to Bhiwani in 1981. The Board adopted 10+2 pattern
of education and conducted XII class examination under the new scheme with effect from 1987
in which about 32,000 students had appeared. The number of candidates has increased to nearly
2 lakhs in 2003. It started conducting 10+2 Vocational Examination in 1990, keeping in view the
need & relevance of vocationalization of education in the backdrop of the fast changing economic
Main Functions
• Conduct examinations for school education, admit to such examinations, on the prescribed
conditions, candidates who pursue the prescribed courses of instruction, whether in
recognized institutions or otherwise, and demand and receive the prescribed fees
• Prescribe the courses of instruction, text book and other books of books of study for
school education
• Publish the results of such examinations, grant certificates and diplomas to persons who
have passed such examinations and institute and award scholarships, medals and prizes
• Prescribe conditions for recognition of schools and other institutions which send candidates
to the examinations conducted by the Board in terms of teachers and their qualifications,
curriculum equipment, buildings and other educational facilities.
12.5.7 Himachal Pradesh Board of School Education

Himachal Pradesh Board of School Education is the authority which holds the right to conduct
examinations for the 8th, 10th, Plus One and Plus Two classes. In addition, Departmental
Examinations like J.B.T., T.T.C and P.V.T.C are also being conducted by the Board. As many as
4.5 lac candidates annually appear in different Examinations, conducted by the Board.
The Board which came into existence in 1969, apart from conducting the exams holds other
responsibilities such as prescribing syllabi, courses of instructions and text books for school
education in the state of Himachal Pradesh besides conducting Examinations based on such
courses.
Until 1982, the Board had it's headquarter at Shimla, which was subsequently shifted to
Dharamshala in Kangra District in 1983.
12.5.8 J&K State Board of School Education

The state of Jammu & Kashmir, India conducts the secondary and the higher secondary public
examinations to the state students (through affiliated schools), through "J&K State Board of
School Education". THE exams conducted by the Board are:
• Higher Secondary - Part II Bi-Annual (Pvt)
• Matric Bi-Annual - Srinagar
• Jammu - Annual Private Class X
• Higher Secondary - Pt II Annual (Pvt) - Jammu Prov.
• Jammu - Annual Regular Class X
• Higher Secondary Pt II Annual (Reg.) Jammu Prov.
• Higher Secondary Pt II Annual (Pvt.) Kashmir Prov.
• Srinagar - Annual Private Class X
• Higher Secondary Part Two - Kashmir - Annual
J&K Government have decided to introduce English as compulsory subject from class 1st in all
government and non-government schools in Jammu and Kashmir. This decision was taken at a
meeting of the state cabinet held under the chairmanship of Chief Minister Mufti Mohammad
Sayeed. Announcing the decisions of the cabinet, the Chief Secretary, Dr. Sudhir S. Bloeria said
that at present the English language is being taught in the government schools from 6th class.

Notes Now it will be taught as a subject right from class 1st from the next academic session with the
existing staff.
"The J&K Board of School Education" has also been recommending introduction of English
language in government schools right from class 1st and it has already prepared a series of new
books on teaching of English language from class 1st to 8th.Dr. Bloeria said that the cabinet
unanimously passed a resolution requesting the central government to include Dogri language
into the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution.
There are 10609 government primary schools with 22300 teachers. Besides there are 1365 private
primary schools in the state. The decision to introduce English from 1st primary has been taken
as it has been found that ignorance of English becomes a major handicap for students at later
stage when the course content in most of the subjects is available only in English. It is because
of this factor also many parents who could afford, prefer to send their children to English
medium private schools. This has been one of the reasons of exodus of students from government
schools to private schools.
12.5.9 Uttar Pradesh Board of High School & Intermediate Education

The biggest examining body in the World, Uttar Pradesh Board of High School & Intermediate
Education started its functioning from the year 1922. In the state of Uttar Pradesh a few secondary
schools are being governed by the Indian Council of School Education (ICSE) and Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), but most of the Secondary schools seek recognition of
the UP Board. At present there are 9121 secondary schools are recognized by the UP Board of
High School and Intermediate Education.
The first public examination after 10 years education is High School Examination and after the
10+2 stage, there is Intermediate Examination.
Main Functions
• To conduct High school (X Class) and Intermediate (XII Class) Examination to the affiliated
schools (both Government and private schools) under the jurisdiction of the state of Uttar
Pradesh.
• To grant recognition to aspiring school located in Uttar Pradesh.
• To prescribe courses and text books for High school and Intermediate level.
• To provide equivalence to the examinations conducted by other Boards.
12.5.10 Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary

Education
Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education conducts SSC (X Class)
& HSC (XII Class) Examinations at the end of Class X and XII twice a year in March and
October.
As a State level organization, the Board substantially contributes towards upgrading educational
standards and introducing innovations in the field of secondary and higher secondary education.
The Board is diverse, mass participative education system with a broader base of access that
provides the benefits of uniformity and diversity. Over a period of 3 decades, the Board has
grown tremendously in terms of schools and number of students
The Board provides 27 languages besides Marathi, Hindi and English. A student can opt for a
State language or any Indian language or classical language or a Foreign Language under the
three language formula adopted by the State. This is aimed to developed tolerance and respect
for diversity within the State as India is a multicultural and multi-linguistic nation.
12.5.11 Madhya Pradesh Board of Secondary Education

Madhya Pradesh Board of Secondary Education is the statutory body of the Government of
Madhya Pradesh, which started its functioning from the year 1959. This board holds the authority
to conduct the secondary school exams HSC (X Class) and HSSC (XII Class) and other Exams

such as Diploma in Education (DEd) and Bachelor of Education (BEd) in the state of Madhya Notes
Pradesh through affiliated Schools.
12.5.12 Manipur Board of Secondary Education

Manipur Board of Secondary Education functions under Directorate of General Education,
Government of Manipur. Statutory Body of the State Directorate of Education and it holds the
Authority to conduct the secondary school examination (X Class), started its functioning from
the year 1972.
12.5.13 Meghalaya Board of School Education

Meghalaya Board of School Education started its inception in the year 1973, is a statutory body
of the government of Meghalaya, which conducts the school Examinations in the state. The
School examinations conducted by the board, every year are mentioned hereunder:
• Secondary School Leaving Certificate Examination (SSLC-X Class)
• Higher Secondary School Leaving Certificate Examination (HSSLC-XII Class)
• he Mizoram Board of School Education
• The Mizoram Board of School Education is an autonomous body established under the
MBSE Act, 1975, with delegated powers to regulate, supervise and control school education
in Mizoram. It is the State Education Board which substantially contributes towards
upgrading educational standards and introducing innovations in the field of School
Education i.e. Class I to XII. The public Examinations of Class X and Class XII are the
important examinations conducted by the Board.
15.5.14 Nagaland Board of School Education

Nagaland Board of School Education started its inception in the year 1974, is a statutory body of
the government of Nagaland, which conducts the school Examinations in the state. The School
examinations conducted by the board, every year are mentioned hereunder:
• Secondary School Leaving Certificate Examination (SSLC-X Class)
• Higher Secondary School Leaving Certificate Examination (HSSLC-XII Class)
12.5.15 Orissa Board of Secondary Education

Orissa Board of Secondary Education started its inception in the year 1965, is a statutory body
of the government of Orissa, which conducts the secondary school (10th class) Examinations in
the state.
12.5.16 Punjab School Education Board

• The Punjab School Education Board came into being under an Act of Legislation in 1969,
amended in 1987, 2000 and 2005.
• Hold examinations for school education publish the results of such examinations and
grant certificates to the persons, who have passed such examinations. Admit to the
examinations, on the prescribed conditions, candidates, who have pursued the prescribed
courses of instructions, whether in affiliated institutions or otherwise. However; any change
in the prevalent conditions shall be made with the prior approval of the State Government.
• Prescribe the syllabi, courses of the studies and text books for school education, Organize
research for grading of textual vocabulary and arrange for regular revision of text books
and other books and Other over-all functions.
12.5.17 Rajasthan Board of Secondary Education

The history of the Board of Secondary Education Rajasthan (BSER) is a remarkable panorama of
progressive record of the futurological vision for developing a dynamic system of various sub-
systems of examinations and highlights of the academic excellence of the last four decades.

Notes The BSER took rapid strides for promotion and development of Secondary Education in Rajasthan,
spread over 3,42,239 sq. km. and in more than 6000 schools located in 32 districts involving 8.5
lakhs students.
12.5.18 Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education

Started its inception in the year 1910, Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education, is functioning
under the purview of the Department of Education, Government of Tamil Nadu, India. Up to
and ending at the secondary (class 10) level, Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education offers
the following streams of education:
• The SSLC (Secondary School Leaving Certificate) stream
• The Anglo-Indian stream
• The Oriental School Leaving Certificate (OSLC) stream and the Matriculation stream
The jurisdiction of the board extends to schools located inside the state of Tamil Nadu only.
Schools can choose to affiliate themselves to the Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education.
12.5.19 Tripura Board of Secondary Education

Tripura Board of Secondary Education started its functioning in the year 1973, is a statutory
body of the Government, which conducts the school Examinations in the state. The School
examinations conducted by the board, every year are:
• Higher Secondary (HS: +2) Examination - for XII Class
• Madhyamik Pariksha (10 class examination) - for X Class
12.5.20 West Bengal Board Of Secondary Education

The West Bengal Board of Secondary Education is the West Bengal state government administered
autonomous examining authority for the Standard 10 examination (or secondary school level
examination) of West Bengal, India.
The examination for the 10th Class is called the Madhyamik Pariksha or secondary examination.
The Madhyamik examination is conducted annually and simultaneously all over the state of
West Bengal and also in affiliates of the board located outside West Bengal, elsewhere in India.
More than 7,50,000 examinees take the exam each year.
Self Assessment
(i) There are over ..................... state boards of education in India.
(a) 30 (b) 40 (c) 50 (d) 60
(ii) The Board of school education-Haryana was set up in .................... .
(a) Sept. 1950 (b) Sept. 1969 (c) Sept. 1975 (d) Sept. 1980
(iii) The biggest examining body in the world ......................... board of high school X Inter
Mediate education.
(a) West Bengal (b) Chhattisgarh (c) Uttar Pradesh (d) Tamil Nadu
(iv) The Maharashtra State board of secondary and higher secondary education.
(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 25 (d) 27
12.6 Summary
• CBSE board is an autonomous apex body of education at school level.
• It is considered very important in Indian education system because it focuses to impart a
common education in this land of diverse culture and heritage called across India.

• The first board set up in India was Uttar Pradesh board of high school and intermediate Notes
education in 1921, which was under jurisdiction of Rajputana, Central India and Gwalior.
Later Govt of India suggested to set up joint board in 1929 which was named as the "Board
of High School and Intermediate Education, Rajputana. Later it was confined only to
Ajmer, Bhopal and Vindhya Pradesh. In 1952, it convening to its present from with the
name "Central Board of Secondary Education".
• CBSE board has many functions. It prepares the syllabus for standard 9 to 12 in affiliated
schools.
• It conducts the two major exams every year for class 10, All India Secondary School
Certificate Examination (AISSCE).
• It prepares the syllabus for these exams, it also conducts the AIEE exam an entrance
examination for undergraduate courses in engineering and architecture and AIPMT (all
India Premedical Test) for various medical colleges in India.
• CBSE board has officially declared the grading system will replace the existing marking
system for class X from 2008. It will show only grades that a student has got board
introduced a new nine point scale system.
• There are over 30 state boards in India. Different state boards have functions regarding to
school education like.
• The important functions of state board are advise the state government on policy matters,
se the implementation of education policies made by central government, maintain uniform
standard of education in schools all over the state prescribe the text books to schools
affiliated with then and provide the certification for the qualifying student.
• Except above functions state board also concerned with promoting education among the
under privileged, helping student with scholarships.
12.7 Keywords
• Central : Most important
• Scenario : A description of how things might happen in the future.
• Jurisdiction : An area or country in which a particular system of laws has authority.
• Concerned : Related to something interested in something.
• Scholarship : An amount of money given to somebody an organization to help pay for
their education.
12.8. Review Questions

1. Explain the functions of CBSE.
2. What are the main objectives of the CBSE board.
3. Discuss about the “grading system” used by CBSE.
4. Give the functions of state boards of education.
5. Write a short note on any five state boards.

1. (i) 9000 (ii) Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education
(iii) 9 to 12 (iv) 2008
2. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True
(v) True
3. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (d)

Notes 12.9 Further Readings

Dash Bn.
3. Development Of Educational System In India (Hardbound) : Dash Bn, Mel
Ainscow, Alan Dyson , Susan Goldrick.

Unit 13: Functions of UGC, NAAC and NCTE
Unit 13: Functions of UGC, NAAC and NCTE Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
13.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)
13.2 Functions of University Grants Commission or UGC
13.3 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
13.4 Functions of NAAC CELL
13.5 National Council of Teacher Education
13.6 Functions of National Council of Teacher Education
13.7 Summary
13.8 Keywords
Objectives
The Objectives of this unit can be summarized as below :
• to discuss about the university grants commission.
• to discuss about the functions of university grants commission.
• to explain the national assessment and accreditation council.
• to discuss about the functions of NAAC.
• to describe the national council of teacher education.
• to discuss the functions of national council of teacher education.
Introduction
The National Council for Teacher Education as a statutory body came into existence in pursuance
of the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993 (No. 73 of 1993).
The University Grants Commission (UGC) is a statutory organisation by an Act of Parliament
in 1956. It is a national body for the coordination, determination and maintenance of standards
of university education. It serves as a coordinating body between the Union and State
Governments and the institutions of higher learning. It also acts as an advisory body to these
Governments and institutions on issues relating to higher education.
Section 12 of the UGC Act provides that the Commission shall, in consultation with the
universities concerned, take all such steps as it may think fit for the promotion and coordination
of university education and for the maintenance of standards in teaching, examination and
research.
13.1 University Grants Commission (UGC)

University Grants Commission, Constitutional Body in India. University Grants Commission
or the UGC is a statutory body of the Government of India which looks after the proper growth
and spread of higher education in the country.

Notes Right from the early times India has been an important seat of learning. Universities like
Nalanda, Taxila and Vikramshila have attracted students not only from various parts of the
country but it have also brought in large number of students from countries in and around
India. Till today India has remained a great seat of higher education and many students come
down to India to study on various subjects throughout the year. The first attempt to begin a
national level educational system in India had begun in the year 1944. The Central Advisory
Board of Education recommended the formation of a University Grants Commission in the
year 1944. The University Grants Commission or UGC was formed in the year 1945 and was
assigned the responsibility of looking into the working of the Banaras Hindu University and
the Delhi and Aligarh Universities as well. In the year 1947, the University Grants Commission
or the UGC was assigned the responsibility of looking into the working of all the existing
universities of the country at that time.
13.1.1 History of University Grants Commission or UGC

As soon as India got her Independence, in the year 1952 a University Education Commission
was set up which recommended that the University Grants Commission be remodelled according
to the University Grants Commission of the United Kingdom with a full time Chairman and
the other members of the Commission should be recruited from educationists of repute.
The Commission also decided that all issues relating to the allocation of public funds to the
Central Universities and other educational institutes of higher learning should be referred to
the UGC and it was decided that the opinion of the UGC in this regard would be considered
final. Finally in the year 1953, the University Grants Commission was re-inaugurated by Maulana
Abul Kalam Azad, the then Minister of Education, Natural Resources and Scientific Research on
28th of December 1953.
Finally the UGC was established as a statutory organ of the government in November 1956
through an Act of Parliament. The commission has been assigned the duties of coordination,
determination and maintenance of standards of university education in India. In order to bring
about effective region-wise working of the commission throughout the country, the UGC has
decentralised its operations by setting up six regional centres at Pune, Hyderabad, Kolkata,
Bhopal, Guwahati and Bengaluru. The head office of the UGC is located at Bahadur Shah Zafar
Marg in New Delhi.
13.1.2 Initiatives by UGC

The University Grants Commission (UGC) has its Regional Offices at Hyderabad, Pune, Bhopal,
Kolkata, Guwahati and Bangalore. The Northern Regional Office which was earlier located at
Ghaziabad has now been functioning from the UGC Head Quarters as Northern Regional
Colleges Bureau (NRCB). The UGC has taken up some new initiatives, viz.
• Promotion of Entrepreneurship and knowledge based enterprises.
• Protection of Intellectual Property Rights.
• Promotion of Indian Higher Education abroad.
• Training and development of Academic Administrators.
• Comprehensive Computerisation Initiative.
13.1.3 Unversity Grants Commission (UGC) - Activities

Activities and Programmes to realize its aim of determining and maintaining the educational
standards of the university, the University Grants Commission -
• Allocates grants to the universities and colleges out of its own funds for their development
or other general purpose.
• Advises the central and state government on disbursing grants to the universities out of
the Consolidated Fund of India.
• Advises any authority on the establishment of new university or on the proposal seeking
expansion of any university.

• Collects information on university education in India and in other countries. Notes

• Seeks information from the universities from time to time. The information may range
from the financial position of the university, their various branches of learning to the
rules and regulations followed in a particular university.
• Imparts education to the students in various streams through its Country wide classroom
teachings and a four-year old 24 hours educational channel 'Vyas'.
• Conducts National Eligibility Test (NET) through its National Educational Testing Bureau
in a bid to determine eligibility for lectureship. It also awards Junior Research Fellowship
(JRF), which has been set as the minimum standards for Indian nationals to enter teaching
profession and research. Humanities (including languages), Forensic Science, Computer
Science, Social Sciences, Environmental Sciences, and Applications and Electronic Science
are the subjects in which a student can appear for a JRF.
The University Grants Commission has recently launched an 'e-scripting' course in

television for all those students who want to make a career in broadcast media. The
course is being run by its Consortium of Educational Communication, an Inter
University Centre of the UGC on electronic media.
13.2 Functions of University Grants Commission or UGC

The prime functions of the University Grants Commission are as follows:
• It provides funds to the various higher educational institutes.
• It carries out the function of co-ordination, determination and maintenance of standards
in institutions of higher education.
In addition to these the University Grants Commission also performs the following functions
as well:
• Promoting and coordinating university education.
• Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in
universities.
• Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
• Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education; disbursing
grants to the universities and colleges.
• Serving as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of
higher learning.
• Advising the Central and State governments on the measures necessary for improvement
of university education.
Self Assessment
(i) The University Grants Commission was formed in the year ....................... .
(ii) UGC conducts ...................... through its national educational testing bureau in a bid to
determine eligibility for lectureship.
(iii) UGC advises the central and state government on disbursing grants to .............. out of
the consolidated fund of India.
(iv) University Grants Commission was re-inaugurated by ..................... .
(v) The head office of the UGC is located at ................................ .

Notes 13.3 National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)

National Assessment and Accreditation Council, an autonomous body, has been established by
the University Grants Commission in 1994 in pursuance of the recommendations made by the
National Policy of Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992 which lay special
emphasis on evaluating the quality of higher education in India. The prime mandate of NAAC,
as envisaged in its Memorandum of Association (MoA), is to assess and accredit institutions of
higher learning, universities and colleges or one or more of their units, i.e., departments,
schools, institutions, programmes, etc. The NAAC functions through its General Council and
Executive Committee where educational administrators, policy makers and senior academicians
from a cross-section of system of higher education are represented.
Under the new methodology introduced by NAAC w.e.f. 1st April, 2007, the higher education
institutions are assessed and accredited by a two-step approach. In the first step, the institution
is required to seek 'Institutional Eligibility for Quality Assessment (IEQA)' and the second step
is the assessment and accreditation of the institute under the grades 'A', 'B', 'C' for accredited
institutions; and 'D' for those which are not accredited. NAAC has identified seven criteria- i.
Curricular aspects, ii. Teaching-learning and evaluation, iii. Research, Consultancy and extension,
iv. Infrastructure and learning resources, v. Student support and progression, vi. Governance
and leadership and vii. Innovative practices as the basis for its assessment procedure.
The National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) is established by University Grants
Commission (UGC) to assess and accredit institution of higher learning in the country. The
NAAC was originally formed in 1992 as a result of recommendations from 'National Policy on
Education - 1986' which emphasizes on deteriorating quality of higher education in the country.
The NAAC has opened its office in Bangalore, Karnataka.
The higher education in India has grown at a rapid pace after independence. The country has
developed its educational resources in all spheres, be it primary education, secondary education,
higher education, technical or higher technical education or research. But the critics says that
the country has allowed mushrooming of private institutions offering fancy courses and hence
pushing the present and upcoming generation far from moral education. To address the issue
the 'National Policy on Education - 1986' and the Plan of Action (POA - 1992) stressed out the
need for strategic plans and advocated for the establishment of an independent national
accreditation body.
13.3.1 Structure and Working of NAAC

The Assessment and Accreditation council functions through its General Council (GC) and
Executive Committee (EC). Both the GC and EC are represented by educational administrators,
policy makers and senior academicians from a cross-section of the system of higher education.
The president of the GC is Chairperson of the UGC and the chairperson of the EC is an eminent
academician. The Director of the NAAC is its academic and administrative head, and is the
member-secretary of both the GC and EC. The Council also has many advisory and consultative
committees to guide its practices, in addition to the statutory bodies that steer its policies. The
NAAC has a core staff and consultants to support its activities. It also receives assistance from
a large number of external resources from all corners of the country.
13.3.2 Vision of the NAAC

The activities and future plans of the NAAC are guided by its vision and mission that focus on
making quality assurance an integral part of the functioning of higher education institutions.
The vision of the NAAC is : To make quality the defining element of higher education in India
through a combination of self and external quality evaluation, promotion and sustenance
initiatives.

13.3.3 Eligibility Notes

Institutions that wish to be assessed have to record their intention and provide general
information about the institution to the NAAC. The format for the letter of intention and the
general information required are given in Annexure I and II. On receiving the letter of intention,
the NAAC checks the eligibility of the institution. The Executive Committee of the NAAC has
resolved as under regarding the eligibility criteria: Any institution of higher education imparting
instruction at degree level and above shall be eligible for assessment by the NAAC, provided
the institution works under the relevant provisions and discipline of some university established
under the Indian law, at least as regards the programmes/courses to be assessed.”
13.3.4 The Methodology

For the assessment of a unit that is eligible to be assessed, the NAAC follows a three stage
process which is a combination of self-study af). d peer review. The three stages are :
1. The preparation and submission of a self-study report by the unit of assessment.
2. The on-site visit of the peer team for validation of the self-study report and for
recommending the assessment outcome to the NAAC.
3. The final decision by the Executive Committee of the NAAC.
Accreditation by the NAAC is voluntary and during the first phase of assessment, the NAAC
has taken up accreditation of institutions. There is also provision and a separate process to
assess and accredit the departments of an institution. Guidelines (manuals) have been developed
to suit different units of higher education.
What is the methodology of NAAC for assess any institution?
13.3.5 Criteria for Assessment

The NAAC has identified the following seven criteria to serve as the basis for its assessment
procedures :
1. Curricular Aspects
2. Teaching-Learning and Evaluation
3. Research, Consultancy and Extension
4. Infrastructure and Learning Resources
5. Student Support and Progression
13.3.6 Core Values of NAAC

The Indian higher education system is in a constant state of change and flux due to the increasing
needs of expanding access to higher education, impact of technology on the delivery of education,
increasing private participation and the impact of globalization. Taking cognizance of these
developments and the role of higher education in society, NAAC has developed five core
values : contributing to national development, fostering global competencies among students,
inculcating a value system in students, promoting the use of technology and quest of excellence.
The detailed explanation of these values from the NAAC (2004) document on Guidelines for Re-
Accreditation is presented below.
(i) Contributing to national development
(ii) Fostering global competencies among student
(iii) Inculcating a value system in students
(iv) Promoting the use of technology
(v) Quest for excellence

Notes 13.3.7 Objectives of NAAC

The activities and future plans of the NAAC are guided by its vision and mission that focus on
making quality assurance an integral part of the functioning of higher education institutions.
The NAAC has the following prime objectives : to make quality the defining element of higher
education in India through a combination of self and external quality evaluation, promotion
and sustenance initiatives; to arrange for periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions
of higher education or units thereof, or specific academic programme or projects; to stimulate
the acadmic environment for promotion of quality of teaching-learning and research in higher
education institutions; to encourage self-evaluation, accountability, autonomy and innovations
in higher education; to undertake quality-related research studies, consultancy and training
programme; to collaborate with other stakeholders of higher eduction for quality evaluation,
promotion and sustenance.
Guided by its vision and striving to achieve its mission, the NAAC primarily assesses the
quality of institutions of higher education that volunteer for the process, through an
internationally accepted methodology. For the assessment of a unit, the NAAC follows a three-
stage process which is a combination of self-study and peer review. The three stages are:
• The preparation and submission of a self-study report by the unit of assessment.
• The on-site visit of the peer team for validation of the self-study report and for
recommending the assessment outcome to the NAAC.
• The final decision by the Executive Committee of the NAAC.
The NAAC certifies institutions of higher learning (Colleges, Universities,

Institutes, etc) in the country; however, it does not include the institutes providing
technical education. The approval of technical education is done by National
Board of Accreditation (NBA), an organization established by All India Council
for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
13.4 Functions of NAAC CELL

The National Assessment & Accreditation Council (NAAC) stresses on making quality assurance,
an integral part of the functioning of higher education institution. The mission statements of
the NAAC aim at translating the NAAC's vision into reality, defining the following key tasks
of the organization:
• To arrange for periodic assessment and accreditation of institutions of higher education or
units thereof, or specific academic programme or projects.
• To stimulate the academic environment for promotion of quality of teaching-learning and
research in higher education institutions.
• To encourage self-evaluation, accountability, autonomy and innovations in higher
education.
• To undertake quality-related research studies, consultancy and training programme.
• To collaborate with other stakeholders of higher education for quality evaluation,
promotion and sustenance.
• Collect the statistical data with regards to seven criteria
• Get the ‘School Profile’ prepared
• Get the ‘Profile of the Administrative Section’ prepared
• Submission of LOI (Letter of Intent)
• Collect the School wise & Administration section wise data based on Questionnaire of
NAAC

• Preparation of RAR Notes

• Organise MOCK visits before actual Peer Team Visit
• Suggest Development of Infrastructure & Academics
• Suggest formation of various committees as per guidelines of NAAC
Self Assessment
2. State whether the following statements are ‘True’ or ‘False’.
(i) National assessment and accreditation council, an autonomous body has been established
by university grants commission.
(ii) The Indian higher education system is in a constant state of change and flux due to the
increasing needs of expanding access to higher education.
(iii) The NAAC has identified the five criteria to serve as the basis for its assessment.
(iv) There is not any provision and a separate process to assess and accredit the departments
of an institution.
13.5 National Council of Teacher Education

Since 1973, the National Council for Teacher Education was an advisory body for the Central
and State Governments on all matters pertaining to teacher education, with its Secretariat in the
Department of Teacher Education of the National Council of Educational Research and Training
(NCERT). Despite its commendable work in the academic fields, it could not perform essential
regulatory functions, to ensure maintenance of standards in teacher education and preventing
rise of substandard teacher education institutions. The National Policy on Education (NPE),
1986 and the Programme of Action thereunder, envisaged a National Council for Teacher
Education with statutory status and necessary resources as a first step for overhauling the
system of teacher education.
13.5.1 Objective
The main objective of the NCTE is :
1. to achieve planned and coordinated development of the teacher education system
throughout the country.
2. the regulation and proper maintenance of Norms and Standards in the teacher education
system and for matters connected therewith.
3. The mandate given to the NCTE is very broad and covers the whole gamut of teacher
education programmes including.
4. research and training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary,
secondary and senior secondary stages in schools.
5. and non-formal education, part-time education, adult education and distance
(correspondence) education courses.
13.5.2 Organisational Structure

NCTE has its headquarder at New Delhi and four Regional Committees at Banglore, Bhopal,
Bhubaneshwar and Jaipur to look after its stautory responsibilities. In order to enable the
NCTE to perform the assigned functions including planned and co-ordinated development and
initiating innovations in teacher education, the NCTE in Delhi as well as its four Reginal
Committees have administrative and academic wings to deal respectively with finance,
establishment and legal matters and with research, policy planning, monitoring, curriculum,
innovations, co-ordination, library and documentation, inservice programmes. The NCTE

Notes Headquarters is headed by the Chairperson, while each Regional Committee is headed by a
Regional Director.
13.6 Functions of National Council of Teacher Education

The main functions of NCTE fall into two categories:
1. Providing a range of ICT-related support services to schools.
2. Policy development, strategic and administrative functions.
ICT support services to schools

• Providing relevant and up to date ICT advice and support to schools on a range of
appropriate and suitable technologies
• Coordinating the Schools Broadband Programme for all primary and post-primary schools,
and managing the Broadband Service Desk as a single point of contact for schools to
support the delivery of online content and learning resources
• Designing and delivering a comprehensive national programme of continuing professional
development for teachers to assist them in integrating ICT into learning and teaching
• Supporting and promoting the use, application and development of digital content which
is relevant to the Irish curriculum
(i) through the on-going development of Scoilnet as a portal site, which provides access to
thousands of teacher reviewed resources relevant to the Irish curriculum.
(ii) through the evaluation and development of digital materials and resources (including
software) and
(iii) project partnerships
• Developing internet safety programmes, subject modules and advising on the development
and use of, Acceptable Use Policies (AUPs) in schools
• Supporting and facilitating leadership in schools as it relates to e-Learning planning
• Supporting the innovative use and integration of ICT in schools through pilot projects
• Providing a general ICT advice service to schools via the phone, email and the NCTE
website.
Policy development, strategic and administrative functions

• Providing advice to & developing policy proposals for the Department of Education and
Skills (DES) on issues related to the development & use of ICT in the Irish education
system
• Providing support to the Minister as regards strategic issues relating to ICT and education
• Providing information and advice to other educational agencies on ICT in education
• Encouraging the integration of ICT in education across other organisations, agencies, and
in industry.
• Promoting curriculum innovations to enhance learning through the use of ICTs in the
classroom.
• Undertaking research on the best uses of ICT in education and on the status of ICT in
education on a national level
• Maintaining Irish involvement in EU and international projects related to ICT and education
• Participating in and contributing to the work of a wide range of working groups and
committees at national and international levels
• Managing the funding for the administration of the schools ICT support service

Self Assessment Notes

3. Multiple choice questions: Choose the correct option.
(i) NCTE’s head quarter is at .......................... .
(a) New Delhi (b) Banglore (c) Bhopal (d) Jaipur
(ii) The NCTE head quarter is headed by the -
(a) Coordinator (b) Chairperson (c) Regional director (d) Chancellor
(iii) The NCTE has ..................... regional committees.
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
13.7 Summary
• The University Grants Commission (UGC) is a statutory organisation by an Act of
Parliament in 1956. It is a national body for the coordination, determination and
maintenance of standards of university education.
• The University Grants Commission (UGC) has its Regional Offices at Hyderabad, Pune,
Bhopal, Kolkata, Guwahati and Bangalore.
• Education Commission was set up which recommended that the University Grants
Commission be remodelled according to the University Grants Commission of the United
Kingdom with a full time Chairman and the other members of the Commission should be
recruited from educationists of repute.
• The prime functions of the University Grants Commission are as follows: (i) It provides
funds to the various higher educational institutes; (ii) It carries out the function of co-
ordination, determination and maintenance of standards in institutions of higher education.
• Promoting and coordinating university education.
• Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in
universities.
• Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.
• Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education; disbursing
grants to the universities and colleges.
• National Assessment and Accreditation Council, an autonomous body, has been established
by the University Grants Commission in 1994 in pursuance of the recommendations made
by the National Policy of Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992 which
lay special emphasis on evaluating the quality of higher education in India.
• The activities and future plans of the NAAC are guided by its vision and mission that
focus on making quality assurance an integral part of the functioning of higher education
institutions. The vision of the NAAC is : To make quality the defining element of higher
education in India through a combination of self and external quality evaluation, promotion
and sustenance initiatives.
• Institutions that wish to be assessed have to record their intention and provide general
information about the institution to the NAAC.
• On receiving the letter of intention, the NAAC checks the eligibility of the institution. The
Executive Committee of the NAAC has resolved as under regarding the eligibility criteria.
• For the assessment of a unit that is eligible to be assessed, the NAAC follows a three stage
process which is a combination of self-study af). d peer review. The three stages are: 1. The
preparation and submission of a self-study report by the unit of assessment; 2. The on-site
visit of the peer team for validation of the self-study report and for recommending the
assessment outcome to the NAAC; 3. The final decision by the Executive Committee of the
NAAC.

Notes • The NAAC has identified the following seven criteria to serve as the basis for its assessment
procedures: 1. Curricular Aspects; 2. Teaching-Learning and Evaluation; 3. Research,
Consultancy and Extension; 4. Infrastructure and Learning Resources; 5. Student Support
and Progression.
• The activities and future plans of the NAAC are guided by its vision and mission that
focus on making quality assurance an integral part of the functioning of higher education
institutions. The NAAC has the following prime objectives : to make quality the defining
element of higher education in India through a combination of self and external quality
evaluation, promotion and sustenance initiatives; to arrange for periodic assessment and
accreditation of institutions of higher education or units thereof, or specific academic
programme or projects; to stimulate the acadmic environment for promotion of quality of
teaching-learning and research in higher education institutions
• Collect the statistical data with regards to seven criteria
• Get the ‘School Profile’ prepared
• Get the ‘Profile of the Administrative Section’ prepared
• Submission of LOI (Letter of Intent)
• Collect the School wise & Administration section wise data based on Questionnaire of NAAC
• Preparation of RAR
• Since 1973, the National Council for Teacher Education was an advisory body for the
Central and State Governments on all matters pertaining to teacher education, with its
Secretariat in the Department of Teacher Education of the National Council of Educational
Research and Training (NCERT).
• The main objective of the NCTE is: 1. to achieve planned and coordinated development of
the teacher education system throughout the country; 2. The mandate given to the NCTE
is very broad and covers the whole gamut of teacher education programmes including; 3.
research and training of persons for equipping them to teach at pre-primary, primary,
secondary and senior secondary stages in schools.
• NCTE has its headquarter at New Delhi and four Regional Committees at Bangalore,
Bhopal, Bhubaneswar and Jaipur to look after its statutory responsibilities. In order to
enable the NCTE to perform the assigned functions including planned and co-ordinate
development and initiating innovations in teacher education, the NCTE in Delhi as well as
its four Regional Committees have administrative and academic wings to deal respectively
with finance, establishment and legal matters and with research, policy planning,
monitoring, curriculum.
• The main functions of NCTE fall into two categories: 1. Providing a range of ICT-related
support services to schools; 2. Policy development, strategic and administrative functions.
• Providing relevant and up to date ICT advice and support to schools on a range of
appropriate and suitable technologies
• Coordinating the Schools Broadband Programme for all primary and post-primary schools,
and managing the Broadband Service Desk as a single point of contact for schools to
support the delivery of online content and learning resources
• Designing and delivering a comprehensive national programme of continuing professional
development for teachers to assist them in integrating ICT into learning and teaching
• Providing advice to & developing policy proposals for the Department of Education and
Skills (DES) on issues related to the development & use of ICT in the Irish education system.
• Providing support to the Minister as regards strategic issues relating to ICT and education
• Providing information and advice to other educational agencies on ICT in education
• Encouraging the integration of ICT in education across other organisations, agencies, and
in industry..

13.8 Keywords Notes
• Statutory : Fixed by law, that must be done by law.

• Regional : Relating to region.
• Co-ordination : The act of making parts of something, groups of peoples work together
in an efficient and organized way.
• Assessment : The act of judging or forming an opinion about something.
• Accreditation : an official approval given by organisations stating that something or
somebody has achieved a required standard.
• Administrative : Connected with organizing the work of a business or an institution.

1 Give a brief introduction of university grants commission.
2 Write five main functions of UGC.
3 Explain about National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC). Give its functions
also.
4 What is the criteria for assessment of an higher education institution of NAAC?
5 Explain the organisational structure of National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE).
6 What are the main functions of NCTE.

1. (i) 1945 (ii) National Eligibility for Lectureship (NET)
(iii) Universities (iv) Maulana Abul Klam Azad
(v) New Delhi
2. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c)

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 14: Constitutional Provisions with Special
Reference to Education in India
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
14.1 Constitution Provisions with Reference to Education
14.2 Entries for Education in Union List
14.3 Reservation in Education
14.4 Summary
14.5 Keywords
Objectives
• to explain Constitution provisions with reference to education.
• to discuss the entries for education in union list.
• to describe about the reservation in education.
Introduction
15th August 1947 is a red letter day in Indian History when India got freedom. The Constitution
of the country was adopted on Nov. 26, 1949 and came into force on Jan 26, 1950. The Preamble
of the Constitution outlines the social philosophy which should govern all our institutions
including educational. Right to Education is one of the fundamental rights enshrined in the
Constitution of India. The Constitution of India gives a few directions and suggestions for the
development of education in the countries which are also called constitutional provisions.
14.1 Constitution Provisions with Reference to Education

The following provisions have a great bearing on the functioning of the educational system in
India:
Article 28: According to our Constitution article 28 provides freedom as to attendance at religious
instruction or religious worship in educational institutions.
Article 29: This article provides equality of opportunity in educational institutions.
Article 30: It accepts the right of the minorities to establish and administrate educational
institutions.
Article 45: According to this article "The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory education for all
children until they complete the age of 14 years."
We notice that the responsibility for universal elementary education lies with the Central
Government, the State Governments, the Local Bodies and voluntary organisations.
Article 46: It provides for special care to the promotion of education and economic interests of
the scheduled caste, scheduled tribes and the weaker sections of society.

Unit 14: Constitutional Provisions with Special Reference to Education in India
Article 337: This provides for special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit Notes
of Anglo-Indian community.
Article 350A: This article relates to facilities for instruction in mother tongue at primary stage.
Article 350B: It provides for a special offer for linguistic minorities.
Article 351: This article relates to the development and promotion of the Hindi language.
The seventh schedule of the Indian Constitution contains legislative powers under three lists
viz. The Union List, the State List and the Concurrent List
14.2 Entries for Education in Union List

This list contains 97 subjects where the following entries are related to education:
Entry 13: To provide Educational and Cultural relations with foreign countries.
Entry 62: The institutions known at the commencement of the Constitution as National Library,
The Indian Museum, the Imperial War Museum, the Victoria Memorial, and Indian War
Memorial. Any other such institutions financed by the Government of India wholly or in part
and declared by the Parliament by law to be an institution of national importance.
Entry 63: Institutions of national importance. The institution known at the commencement of
this Constitution as the BHU, AMU and Delhi University etc. declared by Parliament by law to
be an institution of national importance.
Entry 64: The institution of scientific and technical education financed by the Government of
India wholly or in part and declared by law to be institutions of national importance like IITs
and lIMs.
Entry 65: Union agencies and institutions for:
(i) Professional, vocational or technical training, including the training of police officers.
(ii) The promotion of special studies or research.
(iii) Scientific or technical assistance in the investigation of detection of crime.
Entry 66: Coordination and determination of standards in the institution of higher education or
research and scientific and technical institutions.
14.2.1 State List:

State list consists of 66 entries, out of which the following is the entry related to education:
Entry 12: According to this entry all libraries, museums and other similar institutions controlled
or financed by the state, ancient and historical monuments and records other than those declared
by or under law made by the Parliament to be of the national importance.
14.2.2 Concurrent List:

It comprises 47 entries, among them the following are related to education:
Entry 20: Economic and social planning.
Entry 25: Education, including technical education, medical education and universities subject
to provision of entries 63,64,65,66 of list (Union List).
Entry 34: Newspapers, books and printing presses.
What provisions are to be given to minorities of education?


(i) Article ............... of constitution provides equality of opportunity in educational
institutions.
(ii) Article 46 provides special care to the promotion of education and economic interests of
the ............................ , .................... and weaker sections of society.
(iii) Article 350A relates to facilities for instruction in ..................... at primary stage.
(iv) ......................... provides educational and cultural relations with foreign countries.
(v) The state list consists ............................. entries.
14.3 Reservation in Education

14.3.1 Education of minorities
Article 28 of the Constitution has made certain provisions for the education of the minorities
including
(i) If any institution has been established under any endowment trust even if administrated
by state, can impart religious education.
(ii) None person attending an educational institution recognized by the state or receiving
funds from state government shall be required to take part in any religious worship or
instruction that may be conducted in such institutions or in any premises attached there to
unless such person or if such person in a minor and his guardian has given his consent
thereto.
According to article 28 of the constitution no religious instruction shall be

provided in educational institutions wholly maintained out of state funds.
14.3.2 Cultural and Educational Rights

Under article 29 and 30 for the protection of educational interest of minorities viz.
(i) Article 29 (i): Any section of citizen residing in the territory of India on any part thereof
having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to conserve the
same.
(ii) Article 30 (i): All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have the right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
(iii) Article 30 (ii): The state shall not in granting and to educational institution discriminate
against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a
minority whether based on religion or language.
(iv) To make any law providing for the compulsory acquisition of any property of any
educational institutions established and administrated by minorities, the state shall ensure
that the amount fixed by or determined under such law for acquisition of such property is
such as would not restrict on abrogate the right guaranteed to them.
14.3.3 Admissions
(i) Article 29 (II) states that no citizen of India can be denied admission into any educational
institution, which is either maintained by the state or receiving aid out of state funds oil
ground only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them.
(ii) Article 15 (III) states that to make special provisions for women. Hence, separate educational
institutions for women can be established.

Unit 14: Constitutional Provisions with Special Reference to Education in India
14.3.4 Mother Tongue Notes

For promotion of teaching of mother tongue the Constitution of India has made some provisions
for Hindi language.
Article 350 (A): It shall be endeavour of every state and local authorities with the state to
provide adequate faculties for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage of education
to children belonging to linguistic minority groups : the President may issue directions to any
state as he considers necessary for recurring the facilities.
Article 351: It is to promote the development of Hindi language and slates that it shall be the
duty of the Central Government to promote the spread of Hindi language in the entire country.
14.3.5 Right to Education

Article 41 of the Constitution provides that "All the citizens have equal right to education ''. It
states. "The state shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make
effective provisions for the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of
employment, old age, sickness and disablement''.
14.3.6 Weaker Section

Our Constitution has made some special provisions for the weaker sections of our society viz.
Article 45: The state shall endeavour to provide within a period often years from the
commencement of the Constitution for the free and compulsory education for all children until
they complete the age of 14 years.
Article 46: The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of
weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes,
and shall protect them social injustice and all forms of exploitations''.
The Supreme Court of India has given the following guidelines to promote education of the
people:
(i) The state can make regulatory measures to promote efficiency of education.
(ii) Educational institutions of minority groups cannot claim immunity from general laws
such as contract law, labour law and industrial law etc.
(iii) The state can take over the management of the institutions of minority groups in case of
irregularity and inefficiency.
(iv) Teachers have the right to approach to the Arbitration Tribunal in case of any injustice to
them by the institution.
Self Assessment
(i) Article 29 and 30 of constitution are for the protection of educational interest of minorities.
(ii) Article 15 (III) states that separate educational institutions for women cannot be
established.
(iii) According to constitution, free and compulsory education should be provided to all
children until they complete the age of 10 years.
(iv) Educational institutions of minority groups cannot claim immunity from general laws
such as contract law labour low and industrial low.
14.4 Summary
• There are so many provisions for education at each perspective in India.
• Article 28: Provides freedom for religious worship in educational institution.
• Article 29: provides equality of opportunity in educational institutions.

Notes • Article 30: provides rights to minorities to establish and administrate educational
institutions.
• Article 45: provides free and compulsory education for all children.
• Article 46: provides special care to the promotion of education of SC, ST and weaker
sections of society.
• Article 350A: relates facilities for instruction in mother tongue.
350B: provides for a special offer for linguistic minorities.
• Article 351: relates to development and promotion of Hindi language.
• The union list contains 97 entries; entry 13, 62, 63 and 64, 65 and entry 66 are related to
education.
• The state list consists of 66 entries in which entry 12 is related to education.
• Concurrent list consists 47 entries in which entry 20, 25, 34 are related to education.
• Some special articles related to education are:
(i) Article 28 of the constitution: according to it no religious instruction shall be provided
in educational institution.
(ii) Cultural and education right: protection of educational interest of minorities. Except it
provision for admission and mother tongue.
(iii) Right to education: provides to education for all citizens.
14.5 Keywords
• Constitution : The system of laws and basic principles that a state, a country is governed
by that they need or want.
• Provision : The act of supplying somebody with something.
• Article : A separate item (law) in a constitution.
• Entry : A piece of information that is written about some particular law in the
constitution
• Concurrent : Existing or happening at the same time.

1. Write the implications of the following articles of constitution (a) Article 28 (b) Article 46
(c) Article 350 A and B
2. Describe about the education of minorities.
3. What are cultural and educational rights?
4. What are the special provisions of education for weaker sections?
5. How many entries are in state list?

1. (i) 29 (ii) Schedule caste, schedule tribe
(iii) mother tongue (iv) entry 13 (v) 66
1. Development of Education Systems : SC Shaoo, Dash Bn, JC Aggarwal.

2. Development of Education System : Briykithore Dayal, Katia K., Dash Bn.

Unit 15 : Universalization of Elementary Education : Concept and Problems
Unit 15 : Universalization of Elementary Education : Notes
Concept and Problems
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
15.1 Concept of Universalisation of Elementary Education
15.2 Problems of Universalization of Education and their Remedies
15.3 Summary
15.4 Keywords
Objectives
• to explain universal elementary education.
• to describe about the Problems of Universalization of Education and their Remedies
Introduction
Free and compulsory education to all children up to the age of fourteen years is the Constitutional
commitment in India. At the time of adoption of the Constitution in 1950, the aim was to
achieve the goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) within the next ten years
i.e. by 1960. Keeping in view the educational facilities available in the country at that time, the
goal was far too ambitious to achieve within a short span of ten years. Hence, the target date
was shifted a number of times. Till 1960, all efforts were focused on provision of schooling
facilities. It was only after the near realization of the goal of access that other components of
UEE, such as universal enrolment and retention, started receiving attention of planners and
policy makers. It is the Quality of Education, which is at present in the focus in all programmes
relating to elementary education in general and primary education in particular.
15.1 Concept of Universalisation of Elementary Education

Education is the basic requirement for success of democracy and progress of country.
Universalization of elementary education is a provision to provide free educational opportunities
to all children of the society irrespective of caste, creed and sex.
Article 45 of the Indian Constitution directed that "The state shall endeavor to provide within a
period of ten years from - the commencement of this constitution for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years".
Since independence many steps have been taken and different commissions and committees
have given suggestions to achieve universalization of Primary Education. But it is still far from
the hope and the national target.
15.1.1 Historical Background

Compulsory provision of Universal Elementary Education is an extremely modern concept. No
solid efforts were made till the beginning of the 20th century. The earliest attempt during

Notes British Rule for enforcing compulsory primary education was undertaken by William Adam in
1838.
In 1852, Captain Wingate, the Revenue Survey Commissioner in Bombay proposed to impart
compulsory education to the children of agriculturists after realizing a less of 5 per cent for it.
Later on a similar proposal was also followed in Gujarat.
A strong consciousness for the need of compulsory Primary Education in India was effected by
enactment of the compulsory Education act in 1870 in England. A number of Indian leaders
began to stress the need for primary education. In 1906 a Committee was appointed in Bombay
Province and it arrived at a conclusion that Compulsory Education was not proper and people
were not prepared for it.
With the advent of complete independence in 1947, the advocate of Universal Primary Education
had to speak to their Indian administrators and officers. The education of the school going
children of the country now became the responsibility of the people.
In 1950 the provision of Universal Primary Education was incorporated in the Article 45 of the
Constitution of India. "The state shall Endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from
the commencement of the Constitution free and compulsory education for all children until
they complete the age of 14 years".
The provision of Universalization of Primary Education was scheduled to be achieved by 1960.
But a view of the immense difficulties such as lack of adequate resources, tremendous increases
in population, resistance to the education of girls, large number of children of the backward
classes in very low literacy region s, general poverty of the people, apathy of illiterate Parents
etc. it was not possible to make adequate progress and as such, the constitutional Directive has
remained unfulfilled.
And so, the universalization of primary education remains a national problem. The problems
from the surface over a period of more than 3 decades and with planned schemes under six Five
Year Plans looks modest but it really posses to be formidable.
An insistent demand was made that Government should fix an early deadline for its fulfillment
and should prepare a concrete programme of action for the purpose. Government decided to
achieve the goal of universalization of all children on a time-bound programme as recommended
by the Conference of State Education Ministers in 1977.
15.1.2 Position of Elementary Education in India

Significant efforts have been made in the last fifty years to universalize elementary education.
Since 1950, impressive progress has been made in every sphere of elementary education. In
1950-51, there were about 210 thousand primary and 14 thousand upper primary schools. Their
numbers are now increased to 627 thousand and 190 thousand; thus showing an average annual
growth of 2.30 and 5.58 per cent per annum. As many as 83 per cent of the total 1,061 thousand
habitations have access to primary schooling facilities within 1 km and 76 per cent habitations
to upper primary schooling facilities within a distance of 3 km. About 94 and 85 per cent of the
total rural population is accessed to primary and upper primary schools/sections. The ratio of
primary to upper primary schools over time has improved which is at present 3.3. More than 84
per cent of the total 570 thousand primary schools had school buildings. The number of single-
teacher primary schools has also considerably declined.
The number of teachers both at the primary and upper primary levels of education over time
has increased many folds. From a low of 538 thousand in 1950-51, the number of primary
school teachers increased to 1,904 thousand. Similarly, upper primary teachers during the same
period increased from 86 thousand to 1,278 thousand. The pupil-teacher ratio is at present 42:
1 at the primary and 37:1 at the upper primary level of education. Despite the significant
improvement in number of teachers, the percentage of female teachers is still low at 35 and 36
per cent respectively at the primary and upper primary level of education. However, the majority
of teachers, both at the primary (87 per cent) and upper primary (88 per cent) levels, are trained.

Over a period of time, enrolment, both at the primary and upper levels of education, has Notes
increased significantly. From a low of 19 million in 1950-51, it has increased to about 111
million in 1998-99 at the primary and from 3 to 40 million at the upper primary level till now.
At present, the enrolment ratio (gross) is 92 and 58 per cent respectively at the primary and
upper primary level of education. The percentage of girl's enrolment to the total enrolment at
the primary and upper primary level of education in 1998-99 was about 44 and 41 per cent.
Despite improvement in retention rates, the drop out rate is still high at 40 and 57 per cent
respectively at the primary and elementary level of education. The transition from primary to
upper primary and upper primary to secondary level is as high as 94 and 83 per cent. However,
the learner's achievement across the country remained unsatisfactory and far below than the
expectations. The Government of India initiated a number of programmes and projects to attain
the status of universal enrolment. Despite all these significant achievements, the goal of universal
elementary education remains elusive and far a distant dream.
15.1.3 School Structure

As mentioned above that free and compulsory education to all children up to the age fourteen
is constitutional commitment. In 1993, the Supreme Court of India declared education up to
fourteen years of age to be a fundamental right of children in India. The entire school education
can be divided in to four parts, namely, primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary
levels. The National Policy of Education (1968 & 1986) and its revised formulation (1992)
envisaged a uniform pattern of school education (10+2 pattern, 12 years of schooling) across the
states. Since education is on the concurrent list, i.e. state subject; the States & UTs are free to
evolve their own pattern of school education. Eight years of primary education is envisaged in
two stages: a junior stage covering a period of five years and a senior stage covering a period
of 3 years. It needs to be mentioned that 8 years of compulsory education was envisaged as one
integrated unit, although there were two stages in the cycle. Hence elementary education became
the compulsory component of education in India. It is this compulsory stage that has been
incorporated as a directive principle in the constitution in 1950. The official age (entry) to
obtain admission in Grade I is 6 years but a few States & UTs have 5 years as entry-age. The
Government has recently decided to re-introduce the Constitutional Amendment Bill, which
will make elementary education a fundamental right. This will be implemented as a part of the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. It may however be noted that about 10-12 states have already made
elementary education compulsory. But the situation in most of these states is not different than
other states with regards to enrolment and retention.
The National Policy on Education (1987 & 1992) recommended strengthening of

ECCE programme as an essential component of human development and UEE.
15.2 Problems of Universalization of Education and their Remedies

Universalization of Elementary Education is Constitutional directive. Education is every body's
birth-right and it is binding on any government to provide facilities for education for children
who are born and reach the school-going age.
It was stipulated to achieve Universalization within 10 years from the introduction of Constitution
and that is by 1960. But it is now more than three decades after the scheduled time. Now the
problems with certain possible remedies to solve them have been discussed as follows:
(1) Faulty Policy of Government: The constitutional directive is that states shall endeavour to
provide free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years.
But it is a matter of regret that the prescribed goal has not been reached as yet. The main cause
for this is that the policy of Government was based on idealism.
Basic education was accepted as the form of national education. Being inspired with this aim,
work started to convert the existing primary schools into basic schools. India is a vast country

Notes with a very large population. Money was too much in shortage for implementation of so
expensive a scheme of conversion of a large number of Elementary Schools.
Government has also admitted this. In such a situation, the best policy would have been to
make separate treatment for the basic schools along with the general primary and middle
schools.
(2) Political Difficulties: Education is the basis of democracy. It is necessary to educate the
citizens in order to make democracy a success. But so far the Government of India has not been
able to devote their full attention towards education.
Main reason is that since the attainment of Independence, Government had to face the problems
of food, of inimical neighbours, the problem of Kashmir, the problem of linguistic states etc.
Those problems still exist and these problems have all along forced to allocate so much money
that Government has not been able to devote their due attention for elementary education.
The Government is responsible to solve the political problems; the Government is also duty-
bound for smooth progress of public education. On no account, this indifference of Government
towards universal primary education could be justified.
(3) Faulty Administration of Education: In most of the states the responsibility of universal
primary education is on the authorities of Blocks, Municipalities and Educational Districts. The
progress of expansion of primary education gets slow because of the indifference and incapability
of these institutions.
In fact, it is the responsibility of the nation to educate its citizens. It is necessary that the
Government of India should take upon itself the sacred work of universal enrolment and
universal retention at the Elementary stage. In fact it is the responsibility of the action to
educate its citizens.
(4) Dearth of Money: Inadequacy of money is a serious problem that confronts primary schools.
Income of the local institutions responsible for primary education is so much limited that they
are totally incapable of meeting the expenditure of compulsory education.
To meet the requirements of compulsory basis education it was estimated that an annual
expenditure of Rs.269.5 crores will be required. But in the First Five Year Plan the allocation
was Rs. 93 crores and this allocation was reduced to Rs.89 crores in the Second Plan. So sincere
and honest efforts should be made to educate as many children as possible so as to banish
illiteracy to the maximum extent possible. Only after abolition of illiteracy, quality of education
as a matter of importance should come.
(5) Dearth of Trained Teachers: There is shortage of trained teachers to make Elementary
Education Universal and compulsory. Nowadays, the young teachers do not wish to work in
rural areas. But the fact remains that majority of Primary Schools are in rural areas. The chief
reason of non-availability of suitable teachers is that teaching work is not attractive for many
persons, since the salary of primary teachers is hopelessly low.
The condition of Scheduled areas is still more miserable. The hilly and impassable jungle areas
with very poor communication and transport facilities fail to attract the present day luxury-
loving young men. Teachers should be provided with proper residence in the villages of their
work. The question of Women teachers is very much special.
So the question of teacher's quarters, residential schools, especially residential Ashram Schools
in the Scheduled areas should be provided. The quality of teachers can be improved by executing
a training progrmme for the untrained teachers in service on basis of study-leave basis.
(6) Establishment and School Buildings: Even the Third and Fourth All India Educational Surveys
indicate that even now there are lakhs of villages and habitations without schools. There are
nearly 4 lakhs schoolless villages in India which are to be given schools. It is not that easy to
provide necessary funds for setting up such a large number of schools with buildings and other
equipments.

In order to meet this problem of new buildings along with the existing schools in private Notes
houses, temples, verandah of rich persons, residence of teachers etc. should be met by
construction of low cost houses of thatch or tile with local materials; looking to the weather
conditions of certain places open air stands may be taken up in the Shanti-Niketan pattern.
All the same, the Primary schools should have accommodations of their own as far as practicable.
Problem of school houses along with the problem of lack of teachers in all the primary schools
can be solved through shift system in the existing schools. In order to enrol the additional age-
group 6-14 children additional section rooms should be constructed.
(7) Unsuitable Curriculum: The curriculum for primary schools is narrow and unsuitable to the
local needs. The curriculum should be interesting for the children for its continuance. Learning
by work should replace the emphasis on monotonous bookish knowledge. Education of craft
should be given in the primary schools in accordance with the local needs and requirements.
But the schemes of craft education in the primary schools should not of highly expensive ones.
(8) Wastage and Stagnation: It is another major problem and great obstacle for universalization
of Elementary Education. Out of every 100 students enrolled in class - I more than half leave
schools by Class IV, only 32 pupils reach class V and only 26 reach class VIII. This is due to the
lack of educational atmosphere, undesirable environment, lack of devoted teachers, poor
economic condition of parents, absence of proper equipment etc.
In order to check such massive wastage and stagnation at the primary stage, existing educational
system and curriculum should be reformed, teaching method should be interesting, school
buildings should be adequate and neat and clean, and the parents should be educated. These
may help the problem of wastage and stagnation to be solved.
(9) Natural Obstacles: Natural barriers are the great obstacles in the way of expansion of
compulsory education. The village and small habitations in areas of Himalayan regions, Kashmir,
Garhwal, Almora with less population are situated in distances apart.
So also the desert areas in Rajasthan, the dense forest areas in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Assam
and many Southern States create problems for expected enrolment. These are very very difficult
areas with lack of communication and of Education and School Organization absence of transport.
It is desirable to make provision, for schooling facilities even in small habitations without
leaving much for mobility of small children in the severe cold, heat or heavy rains
(10) Social Evils: Social evils like superstition, illiteracy faith in ancient conventions and customs,
child marriages, untouchability, pardah system etc. create innumerable obstacle in the expansion
of compulsory primary education. Still man; persons get their sons and daughters married at a
very minor age against the Child Marriage Prohibition Act and deprive these school-going
children of the fruits of education.
Because of illiteracy and ignorance these social evils grow. The educated young men and women
should volunteer themselves to remove these evils of society in their neighbourhood. Against
these social evils, the work of expansion of universal enrolment should not be slackened, since
social evils flourish because of illiteracy and ignorance.
(11) Language Problem: 1961 Census reports about 826 languages and 1652 dialects in the
country. The Constitution of India, 1950 mentions 14 languages, which can be made medium of
education. Compulsory education has not been fully introduced among the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes and denotified tribes in the country. This is due to the hindrances of
languages as medium of education.
In the Five Year Plans the incentive programmes of free text-books, free uniform, stipends in
hostels, and conversion of Residential Ashram Schools etc. do not improve matters much.
The responsibility of education of these castes and tribes, who are staggering under the weight
of misery and poverty for centuries, should not be left alone on Govt. Voluntary and
philanthropic organization and people should come forward to assist the Government in this
sacred and significant work of the nation.

Notes
How do natural circumstances become obstacles in universalization of elementary

education?
Self Assessment
Choose the correct option.
(i) The provision of "Universal Elementary Education was incorporated in the article 45 of
the constitution of India in .................
(a) 1940 (b) 1950 (c) 1960 (d) 1970
(ii) The official age (entry) to obtain admission in Grade I is ................. years.
(a) 2 years (b) 4 years (c) 6 years (d) 8 years
(iii) The constitutional directive is that states shall endeavor to provide free and compulsory
education to all children until they complete the age of ....................... .
(a) 14 years (b) 15 years (c) 16 years (d) 17 years
(iv) The constitution of India, 1950 mentions, ........................ languages which can be medium
of education.
(a) 10 (b) 12 (c) 14 (d) 16
(v) The national policy of education (1986) and its revised formulation (1992) envisaged a
uniform pattern of school education .......................... pattern.
(a) 10 + 2 (b) 11 + 1 (c) 9+2 (d) 8+4
(vi) Basic education was accepted as the form of ..................... .
(a) National education (b) Commercial education
(c) State education (d) Government education
15.3 Summary
• Universal Elementary Education in the literal sense would mean everyone in a population
having a full primary school education.
• Elementary education denotes and implies that this is the first level of education leading
on to higher levels of education.
• The UNESCO organised regional conferences of the 1960's defined UEE in the context of
having all children of school age entering primary school and enrolment targets were set.
• The implementation of automatic progression and compulsory education policies probably
led to the emergence of the problem of quality.
• The comparative data presented is intended to provide a more informative and descriptive
picture rather then one from which inferences can be made on cause and effect.
15.4 Keywords
• Universalization : The process of to make anything universal, or involving all the
people in the world.
• Faulty : Not perfect, not working or made correctly.
• Administration : The activities that are done in order to plan, organize and run a
business, school or other institution.

• Dearth : A lack of something Notes

• Stagnation : The process of not developing, growing or changing.
• Obstacles : A situation, an event etc. that makes it difficult for you to do or
achieve something.

1. What is “universalisation of elementary education”?
2. Give a historical recap on provision of universal elementary education.
3. Discuss on school structure of India.
4. What are the problems in implementing of universalisation of elementary education?
5. Describe the position of elementary education in India.

1. (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (a) (iv) (c)
(iv) (a) (ii) (a)
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, JC Aggarwal, SC Shaoo, Shipra

Publications
2. Development Of Educational System In India (Hardbound) : A K Agrawal, Geoff
Doherty(Editor),Geoffrey D Doherty (Other)
Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson

Notes
Unit 16: Programmes of UEE
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
16.1 Meaning of Universalisation of Elementary Education
16.2 Significance of UEE
16.3 Programmes of UEE
16.4 Progress in UEE since Independence
16.5 Measures for the Achievement of the Goal of UEE
16.6 New Scheme Elementary Education
16.7 Strategies for Universalisation of Elementary Education: Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007)
16.8 Summary
16.9 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about meaning of universalisation of elementary education
• to describe about significance of UEE
• to explain about Programmes of UEE
• to describe about the progress in UEE since independence
• to discuss about the measures for the achievement of the goal of UEE
• to explain about New Scheme Elementary Education
• to discuss about Strategies for Universalisation of Elementary Education: Tenth Five Year
Plan (2002-2007)
Introduction
Four and a half decades ago, we in India had taken a pledge through our Constitution that within
a period of ten years from 1950, free and compulsory elementary education would be provided to
all children up to 14 years of age. Since 1950, determined efforts were made towards the achievement
of this goal. Over the years, there have been very impressive increases in the number and spread
of institutions as well as enrolment. Today, India has about 574,000 primary schools (classes I-V)
and 156,000 upper primary schools (classes VI-VIII), the number of teachers in them being 1.705
million and 1.082 million respectively. The enrolment at the primary and upper primary stages is
109 million and 40 million respectively. The Indian elementary education system in thus one of
the biggest such systems in the world, providing accessibility within 1 km to over 825,000 habitations
covering 94 per cent of the country’s population. During the past one decade the enrolment rate
has grown close to 100 per cent at the primary stage.
16.1 Meaning of Universalisation of Elementary Education

Universalisation of elementary education in India implies that all children in the age-group 6 to 14
(Class I to VIII), belonging to the rich and the poor, the male and female, the rural and the urban
and in places which are accessible with difficulty must be provided with elementary education.

Universalisation of elementary education also means free education. In some of the advanced Notes
countries free education means no fees, free books and stationery, free mid-day meals and free
school transport. But in developing countries like India, it has not been possible to provide all
these facilities free of cost. Of course, education at this stage is free of tuition fee in state run/local
bodies aided schools. Other facilities on a selective basis are also provided.
Universalisation of primary of elementary education involves the following three stages of steps:
(a) Universalisation of Provision.
(b) Universalisation of Enrolment.
(c) Universalisation of Retention.
(a) Universalisation of Provision: It means that school facilities should be provided to all the
children between the age group 6 to 14 years in the country within the walking distance of
a child. We have fairly succeeded as far as this provision is concerned.
(b) Universalisation of Enrolment: All children between the age group 6 to 14 years must be
enrolled. For this, compulsory legislation must be passed. Under legislation, parents can be
fined for not sending their children to schools. However this provision has not been fulfilled
in our country.
(c) Universalisation of Retention: By this we mean that once a child joins an elementary/
primary school, he should remain there till he completes all 8 classes. If the child leaves the
school in between, the idea of universalisation stands defeated. It gives birth to problem of
wastage. Mere enlistment of children is not enough. They have to be retained for eight years
from Classes I to VIII.
Unfortunately, in our country 55% of all the first admission leave the primary
school before completing it.
16.2 Significance of UEE

It is universally accepted that the provision of UEE is the true index of the general, economic, political
and social development of a country. Primary education contributes to national development. Various
studies have clearly demonstrated that countries which have made proper provision for UEE are far
ahead of those with inadequate provision. On account of its importance, the Constitution of India
enjoins upon the State to make provision for it. UEE assumes special significance for a developing
country like India where elementary education is the end of nearly 45 per cent of the people.
UEE education is needed on account of the following considerations:
1. Preservation and promotion of culture.
2. Enrichment of life of an individual.
3. Promotion of values like give and take, mutual appreciation and tolerance.
4. Constructive participation in political and social life.
5. Development of vocational efficiency.
6. Development of basic and upgraded skills.
7. Improvement in the quality of followership and leadership.
8. Deriving benefit from new knowledge.

Notes 16.3 Programmes of UEE

Some of the major initiatives and strategies are:
• Disaggregated target setting and decentralised microplanning, which will provide the
framework of universal access and community participation.
• Strengthening alternative channels of schooling such as the non-formal education (NFE)
system for those who cannot avail of conventional full-time schooling.
• Introduction of minimum levels of learning (MLLs) at primary and upper primary stages to
improve learner’s achievement.
• Improvement of school facilities by revamping the scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB)
and connecting it to the MLL strategy.
16.3.1 Disaggregated Target Getting and Decentralised Microplanning

There is contradiction between the educational level of our states, like. There is 100% literacy in
Kerala while very poor percentage in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh.
16.3.2 Alternative Channels of Education such as the Non-Formal Education

(NFE) System
Non-formal education has become an accepted alternative channel of education for children who
cannot attend full-time schools due to various socio-economic constraints. To reach this large
segment of marginalised children, we in India have been running, since 1979-80, a programme of
NFE for children in the 6-14 age group, who have remained outside the formal system. These
include drop-outs from formal schools, children from habitations without schools, working children,
children who have to remain at home to do domestic chores, and girls who are unable to attend
formal schools for a variety of reasons.
16.3.3 Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL)

The need to lay down minimum levels of learning (MLL) emerged from the basic concern that
irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, all children must be given access to education of a
comparable standard. The MLL strategy is an attempt to combine quality with equity. It lays
down learning outcomes in the form of competeueics or Levels of learning foreod stage of
elementary education. The Strotegy also prescribes adoption of measures that will ensure
achievement of these levels by children both in formal schools and in NFE centres.
16.3.4 Revamping the Scheme of Operation Blackboard

Recognising the unattractive school environment, unsatisfactory condition of school buildings,
inadequate physical facilities, and insufficiency of instructional materials in primary schools,
which function as demotivating factors for enrolment and retention, a scheme symbolically called
Operation Blackboard was introduced in 1987-88 to bring all existing primary schools in the country
to a minimum standard of physical facilities. Under this scheme, each school is provided with: (i)
at least two reasonably large allweather rooms along with separate toilet facilities for boys and
girls; (ii) at least two teachers (one male and one female); and (iii) essential teaching and learning
materials including blackboards, maps, charts, a small library, toys and games, and some equipment
for work experience.
16.3.5 Establishing Linkages between Programmes of Early Childhood Care

and Education (ECCE), Primary Education, Literacy and UEE
Early childhood care and education (ECCE) is viewed as a crucial input in the strategy of human
resource development, as a feeder and support programme for primary education, and as a support
service for working women of the disadvantaged sections of society. Since the age-span covered
by ECCE is from conception to 6 years, emphasis has been given to a child-centred approach and

play-way and activity-based learning in place of formal methods of teaching including introduction Notes
of the 3 Rs. Keeping in mind the role of ECCE as a support service in UEE, it is deliberately
directed to the most underprivileged groups, those who are still outside the mainstream of formal
education. The aim of ECCE is that every child should be assured access to the fulfilment of all basic
needs. It involves the total development of the child in every aspect including the physical, psychomotor,
cognitive, language, emotional, social and moral. The present ECCE programmes include:
• the integrated child development service (ICDS)
• the scheme of assistance to voluntary organisations for running early child education (ECE)
centres
• balwadis and day-care centres run by voluntary agencies with government assistance
16.3.6 Promotion of Access to Girls and Disadvantage Groups

As with all educational indicators, gender disparities are conspicuous in regard to enrolment and
retention. Over the past 25 years, enrolment of girls at the primary stage has grown from 5 million
to 47 million and at the upper primary stage, from 0.5 million to 16 million. But disparities persist.
Today girls account for only 46 per cent of the enrolment at the primary stage and 38 per cent at
the upper primary stage. The drop-out rates of girls at the primary and upper primary stages are
higher than those of boys.
Regional disparities are also conspicuous. The rural girls are doubly disadvantaged by non-
availability of educational facilities and by their domestic chores.
The very low female literacy (20 to 29 per cent) in some of the major north Indian states
causes grave concern.
16.3.7 Restructuring of Teacher Training

Teacher performance is the most crucial input in the field of education. In the ultimate analysis, the
national policies on education have to be interpreted and implemented by teachers as much through
their personal example as through teaching-learning processes. With a view to improving the quality
and competence of teachers, a centrally sponsored scheme of Restructuring and Reorganisation of
Teacher Education (RRTE) was launched in 1987.
Among the other main components of the RRTE, as far as elementary education is concerned, are:
1. setting up of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) in all districts to provide
good quality pre-service and in-service training to elementary school teachers and adult
education/nonformal education personnel and to provide resource support to these systems
2. organising Special Orientation Programmes for Primary Teachers (SOPT) with a view to
providing training to teachers in the use of OB materials and orienting them towards MLL
strategy with a focus on teaching of language, mathematics and environmental studies
(i) Availing of External Financial Support for Basic Education: As a matter of policy and
principle, India had not been seeking financial support from external agencies to implement
its programmes of basic education. This situation changed in 1991-92, when a conscious
and strategic decision was taken to avail of external assistance to achieve the goal of
Education for All (EFA).
(ii) Launching the National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM): With the objective of
mobilising all the resources – human, financial and institutional – necessary for achieving
the goal of UEE by the year 2000, a National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM) was
set up in August 1995 with the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) as its core.
This Mission will monitor and implement all the meticulously formulated strategies based
on microplanning, and will ensure that free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality
is provided to all children up to 14 years of age by the turn of the century.


(i) Universalization of ............................ means that school facilities should be provided to all
children between the age group of 6 to 14 years.
(ii) ........................ has become an accepted alternative channel of education for children who
can not attend full time school due to various socio economic problems.
(iii) .......................... was introduced in 1987-88 to bring all existing primary schools in the country
to a minimum standard of physical facilities.
(iv) ........................ is a crucial input in the strategy of human resource development as a feeder
and support programme.
16.4 Progress in UEE since Independence

The total enrolment at the primary and upper primary school levels in India has witnessed a
steady increase. Total enrolment at the primary stage (grades I-V) increased 6 times from 19.2
million in 1950-51 to about 128.3 million in 2003-2004. Total enrolment at the Upper Primary levels
(grades VI- VIII) increased by 14 times, from 3.1 million in 1950-51 to 48.7 million in 2000-2001.
The growth rate of girls’ enrolment at the elementary level was higher as compared to that of the
boys. Participation of girls at all levels of school education has improved appreciably over the
years.
The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at Primary and Upper Primary levels improved perceptibly
from 1950-51 to 2003-2004. The GER rose at the Primary level from 42.6 per cent in 1950-51 to 98.3
per cent in 2003-2004. Enrolment for girls rose from 24.8 per cent to 95.7 per cent during this
period. The boys/girls differential also declined substantially. The GER at the Upper Primary
level improved from 12.7 per cent in 1950-51 to 62.4 per cent in 2003-2004 with what that for girls
increasing from 4.6 per cent to 57.6 percent for this period. Though the participation of girls at
levels of school education has increased substantially, the proportion of girls enrolled both at the
Primary and Upper Primary levels continues to be lower than the gross enrolment of boys. Vast
disparities exist amongst the States/UTs in terms of enrolment with educationally backward states
having a lower GER than the all India average.
Use of the terms ‘Primary’ and ‘Elementary’ has not been uniform. Sometimes they are
used interchangeably. Sometimes ‘primary’ (lower Primary) class I to V and upper
Primary (classes VI to VIII) or Middle are used. Middle Schools sometimes include classes
I to VIII and mostly classes VI to VIII.
16.5 Measures for the Achievement of the Goal of UEE

1. Priority to Elementary Education: Elementary education should be developed on priority
basis and percentage of budget under this sector should be suitably raised. There has been a
decline in expenditure in this sector. From 55 percent of the total educational budget spent
on elementary education during the First Plan, it came down to 36 percent in the Sixth Plan,
34 per cent in the Seventh Plan and 47 percent in Eighth Plan.
2. Rational Use of Finance: Cost on elementary education may be rationalised by:
(a) Introducing double shift wherever possible.
(b) Harnessing community resources in men, material and monetary terms.
(c) Evolving a system of voluntary service in the form of teaching by young persons who
have completed secondary school or college.

3. Restructuring Education: The single point entry system must be replaced by multiple entry Notes
system under which it will be open for older children of 9, 11 or 14 to join primary schools
in separate classes organised for their needs. Facilities for part time education even at primary
stage should be introduced. It should also be made possible for older children to join the
prescribed courses at any time and also complete them in much shorter period.
4. Provision of Facilities to Poor Students: Facilities such as free supply of books and stationery,
free uniforms and school means can be helpful in retaining children in schools. But more
than that is the need for providing part-time educational facilities to the children from the
poor families.
16.6 New Scheme Elementary Education

Since the formulation of the National Policy on education—NPE, (1986) and the Programme of
Action—POA (1986), several new schemes for the qualitative as well as quantitative improvement of
primary education and reaching the goal of UEE, have been initiated by the Government of India,
Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Department of Education. Some of the old
schemes have also been revised and strengthened. In this regard, a brief review of the following
scheme is provided in this chapter.
1. District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
2. Elementary Education as a Fundamental Right.
3. Lok Jumbish (LJ).
4. Minimum Levels of Learning (MLLs).
5. National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM).
16.6.1 District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
DPEP launched in 1993 is a national initiative to achieve Universalisation of Elementary Education
(UEE) through district level intervention. The overall goal of the programme is the reconstruction
of primary education system to operationalise the strategy of UEE as envisaged in NPC 1986 (as
updated in 1992) and its Programme of Action—POA (1992) through decentralised planning and
management, disaggregated target setting, community mobilisation and population specific
planning. The fundamental principle of DPEP is to evolve strategy at state and district level. It
goes beyond the conventional packages such as opening of new schools and appointing new
teachers, and addresses the issues of content, process, quality and equity in education.
Objectives
The objectives of DPEP are:
(i) to reduce difference in enrolment, drop-out and learning achievement among gender and
social groups to less than 5 per cent.
(ii) to reduce overall primary drop-out rates for all students to less than 10 per cent.
(iii) to raise average achieved level.
16.6.2 National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education

(NP-NSPE) or Mid- Day Meals
Objective
A nation-wide programme of NP-NSPE launched on August 15, 1995 is intended to give a boost
to universalisation of primary education by increasing enrolment, retention and attendance and
simultaneously to make an impact on nutritional levels of students in primary classes.
The ultimate aim under the programme is the provision of wholesome cooked/processed food
having a calorific value equivalent to 100 gms. of wheat/rice per student per school day.

Notes 16.6.3 Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP)

Shiksha Karmi Project started in Rajasthan in 1987 remained in operation up to June 1998. It was a
scheme jointly sponsored by Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), Government of
India and the State of Rajasthan.
Aims of the Project .
1. Universalisation of education.
2. Checking drop-out.
3. Qualitative improvement of primary education.
Target Area. Socio-economically backward villages in Rajasthan.
Target Group. Specially girls
Teachers: Replacement of regular teachers by local teachers who were less qualified but specially
trained. A ‘Shiksha Karmi’ (SK) was a local person with minimum educational qualifications of
class VIII for men and class V’ for women. To overcome the basic lack of qualification, special
training was given to these teachers.
Role of the Community: Active involvement of the Non-Government Organisations(NGOs) and
the Village Education Committees (VECs).
Prehar Pathshalas (PPs): (School of Convenient Timings) providing educational programmes for
out of school children who cannot attend regular day schools. About 22,000 girls who constituted
71% of learners in PPs have been benefited.
Coverage: About 2 lakh children (1.18 lakh boys and 0.82 lakh girls) in 32 districts, 146 blocks
attending 2,697 day schools and 4, 335 Prehar Pathshalas. Number of Shiksha Karmis: 6,285.
Evaluation: A unique successful experiment. Positive results with minimum costs.
16.6.4 Teacher Education Restructuring and Reorganisation

Objectives: As envisaged in the NPE and Programme of Action (POA), 1996, a Central Scheme of
Restructuring and Reorganisation of Teachers Education was taken up in 1987 for the following
purposes:
(i) Creating a viable institutional infrastructure of teacher education.
(ii) Building up an academic and technical base for orientation, training and continuous
upgrading of knowledge, competence and pedagogical skills of elementary school teachers
in the country.
16.6.5 Operation Blackboard (OBB)

Objective: The scheme of Operation Blackboard started in 1987, is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme
for bringing about improvement in primary education by providing additional facilities to the
schools already established.
Use of the Word ‘Operation’ indicates that there is an urgency in this programme. Its goals are
clear and well-defined and the government is determined to achieve these goals with the cooperation
of the people within a pre-determined time frame.
Components of the Scheme: There are three components of Operation Blackboard:
1. Provision of at least two reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weathers, with a
deep veranda along with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls.
2. Provision of at least two teachers, as far as possible, one of them a woman, in every primary
school.
3. Provision of essential teaching and learning materials.
Responsibility: For the operation of the Scheme, responsibility is shared by the Central Government,
State Government and the local community. Role of the community in OBB scheme is as under:

(a) Necessary land for the construction of school building including land for games and sports Notes
has to be provided by the local community.
(b) The local community, preferably Village Education Committees, have to give a formal
undertaking that they will accept responsibility for repair and maintenance of the building.
(c) The local community has also to accept responsibility for an appropriate fencing around
the school compound.
Hundred per cent Central assistance is provided for appointment of an additional teacher in the
single teacher schools.
Problems: Financial sanctions for the programme reach towards the fag end of the year resulting
in purchase of material which sometimes is substandard. Sometimes locally made material is not
included in the list of approved articles.
Suggestions 1: Demands for the required material must come from the grass roots level.
2. Necessary timely sanctions for the equipment needed for storage of material should also
be made.
3. It must be ensured that the teachers selected join the institutions immediately after their
selection. At the same time, sanctioned posts of teachers may not exist on paper only.
Write the Components of the scheme of operation Blackboard.
16.6.6 Lok Jumbish (People’s Mobilisation)

An innovative project called “Lok Jumbish”—People’s movement for Education of All—with
assistance from Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) has been undertaken in
Rajasthan. The basis objective of the project is to achieve education for all by the year 2000 through
people’s mobilisation and their participation. Government of India approved the first phase of the
project for a period of two years, 1992-94 to cover 25 blocks spread over several districts with an
estimated cost of Rs. 18 crores to be shared by SIDA, Government of India and Government of
Rajasthan in the ratio 3: 2: 1. The Phase-I concluded on 30th June, 1994. The Second Phase of the
project was taken up for implementation during 1994-98. The project covered 75 blocks
16.6.7 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan at the Elementary Stage

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was launched towards the end of the Ninth Plan to achieve the goal of
UEE through a time-bound integrated approach, in partnership with states. The medium-term
goals for the scheme are given in the Box. The programme, which aims to provide elementary
education to all children in the 6-14 age group by 2010, is an effort to improve the performance of
the school system and provide community-owned quality elementary education in the mission
mode. It also envisages bridging of gender and social disparities at the elementary level. The
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan has a special focus on the educational needs of girls, SCs and STs and other
children in difficult circumstances.
16.6.8 Drop-outs at the Elementary Stage of Education–A Major Issue in UEE

Whereas the rising enrolment in elementary schools is a source of satisfaction, there is concern
about the percentage of students actually attending school and those dropping out of the education
system altogether. Nearly 82.5 percent of the 6-14 age group were attending school that is, of the
population of 205 million in this age group in the year 2002, the number of children attending
school was about 158 million. The student retention rate at the primary school stage was about 59
per cent (1992-97). Drop-out rates at the primary and upper primary level have decreased over the
years.

Notes Strategies Planned by the Government Towards UEE and Checking Dropouts, Stagnation and
Wastage
Following are the salient features of the strategies:
1. Laying emphasis on retention rather than on merely enrolment.
2. Strengthening the alternatives of schooling, particularly, the Non-Formal Education System
for working children, girls and children from other disadvantaged or marginalized sections
of the society.
3. Shifting focus from educationally backward states to educationally backward districts.
4. Preparing and implementing district specific and population-specific plans.
5. Providing more facilities to girls.
16.7 Strategies for Universalisation of Elementary Education: Tenth

Five Year Plan (2002-2007)
The strategies and interventions during the Tenth Plan will mainly be guided by three major
considerations: (a) magnitude of the task; (b) present challenges; and (c) the existing administrative
and policy framework and the one that will be in the place during the Plan period.
Present Challenges: Achieving the goal of UEE poses three main challenges: (i) access to basis
education for the unreached segments and social groups; (ii) qualitative improvement in content
and processes so as to raise learning achievements; and (iii) tackling high drop-out and low retention
rates in primary and upper primary schools.
16.7.1 Universal Access

• All children in the 6-14 gae group should have access to primary schools, upper primary
schools or their alternatives within a walking distance of one km. and three km. respectively.
• All children in the 3-6 age group must have universal access to early childhood care and
education centres.
• Need-based expansion of upper primary education facilities, particularly for the
disadvantaged sections. There should be one upper primary school for every two primary
schools.
• All schools should have buildings, toilets, drinking water, electricity playground, blackboards
and other basic facilities. There must be provision of one classroom for every teacher at the
elementary stage.
16.7.2 Universal Enrolment

• Enrolment of all children in schools or alternative arrangements by 2003.
• All children to complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
16.7.3 Universal Retention

• Universal retention in the primary stage by 2007.
• Drop-out rate to be reduced to less than 10 per cent for grades VI-VIII by 2007.
16.7.4 Universal Achievement

• Improve the quality of education in all respects (content and process) to ensure reasonable
learning outcomes at the elementary level, especially in literacy, numerics and in life skills.
16.7.5 Strategies for Quality Improvement

A qualitative improvement in the content and processes of basic education, in order to make them
more responsive to the learning needs of individuals and the development needs of different
socio-economic sectors, continues to be a major challenge. The challenge for providing quality
education at the elementary level involves: (i) improvements in the preparation, motivation and

deployment of teachers, (ii) the quality of textbooks and of infrastructural facilities, (iii) making Notes
education relevant to society's needs, (iv) strengthening the management and institutional capacity
of educational institutions especially at the state, district and local levels.
Self Assessment:
(i) District Primary Education programme is launched in 1980 is a national initiative to achieve
universalization of elementary education.
(ii) Use of the word ‘Operation’ in operation Blackboard indicates that there is an urgency in
this programme.
(iii) “Lok Jumbish” is an innovative educational project has been undertaken in Rajasthan with
the assistance from Swedish International Development authority.
(iv) The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was launched towards the end of tenth plan to achieve the
goal of UEE.
16.8 Summary
• Universalisation of elementary education in India implies that all children in the age-group 6
to 14 (Class I to VIII), belonging to the rich and the poor, the male and female, the rural and
the urban and in places which are accessible with difficulty must be provided with elementary
education.
• UEE assumes special significance for a developing country like India where elementary
education is the end of nearly 45 per cent of the people.
• Some of the major initiatives and strategies are:
(i) Disaggregated target setting and decentralised microplanning, which will provide the
framework of universal access and community participation.
(ii) Strengthening alternative channels of schooling such as the non-formal education (NFE)
system for those who cannot avail of conventional full-time schooling.
(iii) Introduction of minimum levels of learning (MLLs) at primary and upper primary stages to
improve learner’s achievement.
(iv) Improvement of school facilities by revamping the scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB)
and connecting it to the MLL strategy.
• Non-formal education has become an accepted alternative channel of education for children
who cannot attend full-time schools due to various socio-economic constraints. To reach this
large segment of marginalised children, we in India have been running, since 1979-80, a
programme of NFE for children in the 6-14 age group, who have remained outside the formal
system.
• The MLL strategy is an attempt to combine quality with equity. It lays down learning outcomes
in the form of competeueics or Levels of learning foreod stage of elementary education.
• Operation Blackboard was introduced in 1987-88 to bring all existing primary schools in the
country to a minimum standard of physical facilities. Under this scheme, each school is
provided with: (i) at least two reasonably large allweather rooms along with separate toilet
facilities for boys and girls; (ii) at least two teachers (one male and one female); and (iii)
essential teaching and learning materials including blackboards, maps, charts, a small library,
toys and games, and some equipment for work experience.
• Early childhood care and education (ECCE) is viewed as a crucial input in the strategy of
human resource development, as a feeder and support programme for primary education,
and as a support service for working women of the disadvantaged sections of society.
• Teacher performance is the most crucial input in the field of education. In the ultimate analysis,
the national policies on education have to be interpreted and implemented by teachers as
much through their personal.

Notes • India had not been seeking financial support from external agencies to implement its
programmes of basic education.
• With the objective of mobilising all the resources – human, financial and institutional –
necessary for achieving the goal of UEE by the year 2000, a National Elementary Education
Mission (NEEM) was set up in August 1995 with the District Primary Education Programme
(DPEP) as its core. This Mission will monitor and implement all the meticulously formulated
strategies based on microplanning
• The total enrolment at the primary and upper primary school levels in India has witnessed
a steady increase. Total enrolment at the primary stage (grades I-V) increased 6 times from
19.2 million in 1950-51 to about 128.3 million in 2003-2004. Total enrolment at the Upper
Primary levels (grades VI- VIII) increased by 14 times, from 3.1 million in 1950-51 to 48.7
million in 2000-2001.
• Elementary education should be developed on priority basis and percentage of budget under
this sector should be suitably raised. There has been a decline in expenditure in this sector.
From 55 percent of the total educational budget
• Cost on elementary education may be rationalised by:
(a) Introducing double shift wherever possible.
(b) Harnessing community resources in men, material and monetary terms.
• The single point entry system must be replaced by multiple entry system under which it will
be open for older children of 9, 11 or 14 to join primary schools in separate classes organised
for their needs.
• Facilities such as free supply of books and stationery, free uniforms and school means can be
helpful in retaining children in schools.
• Since the formulation of the National Policy on education—NPE, (1986) and the Programme
of Action—POA (1986), several new schemes for the qualitative as well as quantitative
improvement of primary education and reaching the goal of UEE.
• DPEP launched in 1993 is a national initiative to achieve Universalisation of Elementary
Education (UEE) through district level intervention. The overall goal of the programme is
the reconstruction of primary education system to operationalise the strategy of UEE as
envisaged in NPC 1986 (as updated in 1992) and its Programme of Action—POA (1992)
through decentralised planning and management, disaggregated target setting.
• The objectives of DPEP are:
(i) to reduce difference in enrolment, drop-out and learning achievement among gender and
social groups to less than 5 per cent.
• A nation-wide programme of NP-NSPE launched on August 15, 1995 is intended to give a
boost to universalisation of primary education by increasing enrolment, retention and
attendance.
• Shiksha Karmi Project started in Rajasthan in 1987 remained in operation up to June 1998. It
was a scheme jointly sponsored by Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA),
Government of India and the State of Rajasthan
• The scheme of Operation Blackboard started in 1987, is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for
bringing about improvement in primary education by providing additional facilities to the
schools already established.
• There are three components of Operation Blackboard:
1. Provision of at least two reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weathers, with
a deep veranda along with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls.
2. Provision of at least two teachers, as far as possible, one of them a woman, in every
primary school.
3. Provision of essential teaching and learning materials.

• An innovative project called “Lok Jumbish”—People’s movement for Education of All— Notes
with assistance from Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) has been
undertaken in Rajasthan.
• The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was launched towards the end of the Ninth Plan to achieve the
goal of UEE through a time-bound integrated approach, in partnership with states.
• The programme, which aims to provide elementary education to all children in the 6-14 age
group by 2010, is an effort to improve the performance of the school system and provide
community-owned quality elementary education in the mission mode.
• The strategies and interventions during the Tenth Plan will mainly be guided by three major
considerations: (a) magnitude of the task; (b) present challenges; and (c) the existing
administrative and policy framework and the one that will be in the place during the Plan
period.
• All children in the 6-14 gae group should have access to primary schools, upper primary
schools or their alternatives within a walking distance of one km. and three km. respectively.
• All children in the 3-6 age group must have universal access to early childhood care and
education centres.
• A qualitative improvement in the content and processes of basic education, in order to make
them more responsive to the learning needs of individuals and the development needs of
different socio-economic sectors, continues to be a major challenge.
16.9 Keywords
• Alternative : A thin or method that you can choose to do or have out of two or more
possibilities
• Innovation : A new idea, way of doing something
• Revamp : To make changes to the form of something usually to improve its appearance
• Restructure : To oranise something such as a system in a new and different way

1. What do you mean by Universalisation of Elementary Education?
2. Explain Significance of UEE.
3. Write about progress in UEE since Independence.
4. What are the main programmes under UEE?
5. Write short notes on DPEP, Mid-Day Meal.

1. (i) provision (ii) Non-formal education
(iii) Operation blackboard (iv) Early childhood care and education
2. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) True

2. Development of Educational System in India : Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson , Susan
Goldrick

Notes
Unit 17: District Primary Education Programme
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
17.1 District Primary Education Programme
17.2 Objectives of DPEP
17.3 Features of DPEP
17.4 Management Structure of DPEP
17.5 Major Achievements of DPEP
17.6 Summary
17.7 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the district primary education programme (DPEP).
• to discuss about the objectives of DPEP.
• to describe about Features of DPEP.
• to explain about Management structure of DPEP.
• to discuss about Major achievements of DPEP.
Introduction
DPEP is a programme conceptualized and evolved on the basis of varied experiences the country
possesses and supplemented by the experiences of various international agencies directly
involved in the funding of primary education projects in the developing countries. Over a
period of time, the sources of funding got diversified and the approaches to plan primary
education and to the DPEP became more specific concrete and unified.
The DPEP is an attempt to initiate a process of planning from below. The framework of the
programme envisages initiating and completing the process of planning first at the district
level. The state level intervention strategies and plans are meant to facilitate the successful
implementation of the district plans. It can be seen that looking at linkages between state and
district plans in this framework changes the relative roles to be played by agencies at different
levels. This process of planning ensures that state plans cannot be prepared unless and until the
district plans are complete and the state level plans are nothing but efforts to achieve district
level targets.
17.1 District Primary Education Programme

Right to Education provide the Centrally-Sponsored Scheme of District Primary Education
Programme (DPEP) was launched in 1994 as a major initiative to revitalise the primary education
system and to achieve the objective of universalisation of primary education.
DPEP is an externally aided project. 85 per cent of the project cost is met by the Central
Government and the remaining 15 per cent is shared by the concerned State Government. The
Central Government share is resourced through external assistance.

At present external assistance of about Rs.6,938 crore composing Rs.5,137 as credit from IDA Notes
and Rs.1,801 crore as grant from EC/DFID/UNICEF/Netherlands has been tied-up for DPEP.
Under the Programme parameters, investment per district is limited to Rs.40 crore
over a project period of 5-7 years. There is a ceiling of 33.3 per cent on civil works
component and 6 per cent on management cost. The remaining amount is required to
be spent on quality improvement activities.
17.2 Objectives of DPEP

However, DPEP is not an effort to develop uniform plans. In fact, this goes against the very
premise of the programme. DPEP considers that what is to be done at the district level need to
be decided by those at the district level itself. It is envisaged as a centrally sponsored scheme
with flexible parameters (Department of Education: 1994). These parameters are meant to ensure
that the plan is within the framework of national concerns and priorities.
The objectives of the programme are: (i) to provide access to all children to primary education
through formal primary schools or its equivalent through alternatives; (ii) to reduce overall
dropouts at the primary level less than 10 percent; (iii) to increase achievement levels by 25
percentage points over and above the measured baseline levels; (iv) to reduce disparities of all
types to less than 5 percent.
The focus of each plan may vary depending upon the level of development of primary education
in the selected district. In some districts, the priority may be more on access; in certain cases the
focus may be on retention; and in still other cases the focus may be on achievement. Only a
close scrutiny of the districts in a moe disaggregated fashion can provide us a clue regarding
the areas of emphasis.
The criteria to identify districts under the programme are : i) educationally ward districts with
female literacy below the national average; and ii) districts where have been successful leading
to enhanced demand for primary education. It is quite possible that these two categories of
districts can be from the same state. The priorities and planning concerns may be different in
these two category of the districts.
The problematic of multilevel planning in general and district planning in particular lies in the
satellite imagery view i.e. looking at the people and their problems from above (Misra: 1991).
The common practice of decentralized planning in India confirms to this pattern. The usual
practice is preparing plans for the district at the state level. The district plans are generally seen
as a process of regionalisation of national and state plans. And the effort invariably is to work
out the implementation implications of the state plan.
17.3 Features of DPEP

The success of planning and implementing plans at the district level depends on the freedom to
allocate and reallocate funds by the district level authorities. In India, very often, the funding
decisions are decided at higher levels and hence planning at the local levels becomes an exercise
in dovetailing the priorities set at the state level. The idea of untied funds is seldom effected in
practice. The DPEP envisages providing a lump-sum amount at the disposal of the district to
allocate as per the requirements detailed out in the plans. A maximum of Rs.40 crores (Rs. 400
million) is envisaged for each district. This amount is to be seen as indicative and the actual
allocation depends on the type of programmes envisaged to be carried out in the district plans.
It is to be noted that the planning exercise is not oriented to draw an expenditure plan for the
amount indicated. An indication of the extent of allocation provides an opportunity to the
planners to draw the plan more realistically and an encouragement and confidence that the
amount will be available if plans are drawn logically and consistently.

Notes One of the features of DPEP is its funding source. A substantial share of the funds is drawn from
the external sources. And the funding sources are getting diversified over a period of time. It is
a centrally sponsored scheme and hence the sources of funding are less important for the
districts. The more crucial point is a guarantee from the Union government that the funds will
be made available as and when needed as per the requirements projected in the district plans.
These funds are to be seen as additionalities and are not substitutable for the existing
programmes. In other words, it means that the DPEP funds are over and above the normal
developmental expenditure the state and district would otherwise incurred. This in more concrete
terms means that: (i) DPEP may not fund any of the ongoing regular programmes which the
state governments are supposed to fund to maintain the existing levels of efficiency of the
system; and (ii) the state government is expected to maintain the budgetary provision for
primary education.
This has considerable implications for planning. While the district plans are drawn to achieve
the goals of universal primary education, the funds under the DPEP may not be sufficient to
meet all the requirements. At the same time, the districts are supposed to achieve the plan
targets. The gap between what is actually required and what is actually allocated by the
programme is to be funded by the state. In this sense, the DPEP funding needs to seen more as
a mechanism to reduce the financial pressure on the district and state than as sufficient allocations
to achieve the targets.
Other financial considerations clearly indicate the priorities within the primary education sector.
The civil works cost is to be restricted to a maximum ceiling of 24% and the management cost
to a maximum limit of around 6%. Therefore, the districts are left with 70% of the DPEP
allocations to be devoted to programmes to improve the educational system.
Self Assessment
(i) District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) is the ....................... .
(ii) One of the main features of DPEP is .......................... .
(iii) The DPEP envisages providing a lump sum amount of the disposal of the ..................... to
allocate as per the requirements detailed out in plans.
17.4 Management Structure of DPEP

DPEP envisages distinct management structures to facilitate better implementation of the
programme, to closely monitor the activities and to facilitate faster flow of funds. These structures
are envisaged at the national, state and district levels (for details see Department of Education:
1994). The focus of all these new structures is to facilitate implementation of district plans. In
other words, the new structures are supportive to the district plans.
Developing a Management Information System (MIS) to collect information to monitor DPEP
activities is an essential element in the programme. Similarly, the structure at the national level
envisages setting up programme evaluation and research unit to facilitate studies in the area of
primary education. All these structures are supposed to get merged with the existing
organizational arrangements by the end of the project period. In the first phase of the programme,
it is implemented only in selected districts that too in some of the states. Even in the selected
states, all the districts are not covered under this programme. At present the programme covers
42 districts - 19 districts of Madhya Pradesh, 5 districts of Maharashtra, 4 districts of Assam,
Haryana and Karnataka, 3 districts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The planning process is complete
in these districts. The programme is extended to 5 districts of West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh
where the planning process has been initiated. It is expected that 110 districts will be covered
under this programme by the end of the Eighth Five Year Plan.

Many of the components of the programme are equally applicable to other districts, which are Notes
not now covered under this programme. More over the lessons learned from planning and
implementing this programme can be extended to other districts. The efforts is to improve
system level efficiency to manage the educational initiatives. Mobilization, participation and
school effectiveness are cardinal elements of the programme. It envisages to revive the initiatives
within the school to make it more effective. All activities are centred to promote this initiative
of the schools.
Finally, DPEP is not an exercise for finding unique solutions. The effort, on the other hand, is to
experiment ideas and innovations, which may have wider applicability. Its success and
sustainability depend on how realistic are we in designing the programmes and how careful
are we in implementing them. The focus is essentially on the process dimension. Funds provide
only a necessary condition for the success. The sufficient condition is provided by our own
capacity to plan and implement programmes. Even though plans are prepared at the district
level, they are to be finally implemented in the schools and classrooms. How effectively this
linkage is established will determine the success of the programme.
What is the criterias to select a district under the DPEP programme?
17.4.1 Strategies under DPEP

Each district is expected to undertake and complete studies specific to the areas, which are to be
emphasized in the plans. Such district studies help evolving strategies, which are applicable in
the specific context of the district. The problems of the district may vary. Some of them can be
resolved at the district level while others require interventions at the state level. The basis for
evolving such intervention strategies is the studies. In the previous year all the DPEP districts
have initiated several studies in the areas of learner achievement, teacher motivations, problems
specific to deprived groups, textbook and curriculum issues, gender issues and state finances.
These studies have come out with a number of intervention strategies to improve the efficiency
of the system. The district plans are expected to incorporate these findings while detailing out
the annual plans.
(i) Planning and Classroom Practices: DPEP envisages linking district plans with school
processes and classroom practices. It is an effort to bring together the pedagogical necessities
and broader educational concerns. The ultimate objective is to improve the school processes
and outcomes.
To many a planner, the operational efficiency of the units (schools) is an assumption and
hence the action lies outside the classrooms. The conventional educational planner never
enters into the classrooms and the typical pedagogue never gets out of the classrooms.
While the vision of the former is to wide and broad to be understood and appreciated by the
pedagogue, the vision of the pedagogue is too narrow and myopic to be considered seriously
by the planner. Resultantly, the planner is isolated from the action and the actions are
isolated from the plans. To build bridge between them is difficult, if not impossible. The
programme makes a serious effort to link these two sets of actors.
Improving classroom practices and school management, no doubt, form the core to the
success of educational programmes. The programme envisages create local specific
facilitating conditions to improve teacher competencies through frequent in-service training
programmes, improving school management through training in planning and
management of educational functionaries. The efforts to strengthen state level resource
organizations like SCERT; district level institutions like DIET and to create new structures

Notes at block and cluster levels and management training institutions like SIEMT provide the
facilitating conditions.
(ii) Planning Competencies: DPEP envisages the planning responsibility to be undertaken
entirely by the people at the district level. This necessitates developing planning
competencies at the district level. The best way to develop competencies is to initiate
planning exercise in a realistic fashion. The planning methodologies are simplified and
are easily understandable by the people at the district level.
The national and state resource organizations help in developing planning competencies.
This help was of two kinds: (i) in developing basic framework for planning education at
the district level; and (ii) organizing programmes to train the local level people. In the
context of DPEP, NIEPA developed a document detailing the methodology of district
planning (Varghese: 1993) and organized and participated in several workshops. But they
do not directly and actively intervene in the planning exercise. The experience in the last
one-year has shown that such competencies can be developed at the local level itself.
While the broad parameters are decided through a consultative process, the districts have
the full freedom to put targets, to evolve strategies and to schedule activities. In short the
planning exercise takes into account local requirements and prioritizes them and thus it
becomes an exercise in developing local level competencies in planning. Moreover, financial
outlays are ensured to achieve the thus set targets.
The district plans under the DPEP envisage first to achieve the horizontal
integration of the district level programmes and then to vertically integrate them
with the state level and national level initiatives. This helps in ensuring local
autonomy, competency and administrative capability. The process of capacity
building is a part and parcel of the planning exercise.
The district plans are drawn for a period of 6 to 7 years with detailed schedules and
activities for each year. The allocations are made each year based on the performance in
the previous year and evaluation of the proposals for the coming year.
(iii) Participatory Process of Planning: The district level plans are developed by those people
who are the direct beneficiaries of the programme. This necessitates a consultative process
to arrive at areas of convergence to set priorities.
The consultative process under the DPEP is not confined to any committee approach. On
the other hand, the emphasis is on consulting the public. The local level bodies like the
panchayat, parent-teacher associations, teacher unions village education committees,
educational functionaries at the local level are to be consulted to evolve a plan that can be
owned by the local people.
Participation in the planning process takes place at different levels. First, participation by
the different departments involved with the delivery of educational and related services
in a district. Second participation by the people who have to own and operationalize the
programme. This has taken place in a very successful fashion in many of the districts. This
consultative process has indeed raised the expectation levels of people from the programme
and has created urgency in implementing the programme.
The major thrust of the plans is not only to develop education but also to create conditions
for initiating development efforts at the local level. DPEP, in this sense, is an exercise in
expanding capabilities of people to enable them to take responsibilities of their own
development within the broad contours drawn by the national and state priorities. The
necessary shift is from the sophisticated process of model building to a simple and down
to earth expression of felt needs in a systematic way. This liberates the plans and planning
process from the bureaucratic controls technocratic approach. The TLC experience in the
participatory process may be an asset to redefine the roles of different actors in the process.

17.5 Major Achievements of DPEP Notes
(i) DPEP has so far opened more than 1,60,000 new schools, including almost 84,000 alternative
schooling (AS) centres. The AS centres cover nearly 3.5 million children, while another
two lakh children are covered by Bridge Courses of different types;
(ii) The school infrastructure created under DPEP has been remarkable. Works either complete
or in progress include 52758 school buildings, 58,604 additional classrooms, 16,619 resource
centers, 29,307 repair works, 64,592 toilets, and 24,909 drinking water facilities,
(iii) The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Phase-I states was around 93 to 95 per cent for the
last three years. After the adjustment for the Alternative Schools/Education Guarantee
Centers enrolment, the GER in the 2001-02 works out above 100 per cent. In the districts
covered under subsequent phases of DPEP, the GER including enrolment of AS/EGS was
above 85 per cent;
(iv) The enrolment of girls has shown significant improvement. In DPEP-I districts, the share
of girls enrolment in relation to total enrolment has increased from 48 per cent to 49 per
cent, while this increase in the subsequent phases of DPEP districts has been from 46 per
cent to 47 per cent;
(v) The total number of differently bled children enrolled is now more than 4,20,203 which
represents almost 76 per cent of the nearly 5,53,844 differently-abled children identified in
the DPEP States;
(vi) Village Education Committees/School Management Committees have been setup in almost
all project villages/habitations/schools,
(vii) About 1,77,000 teachers, including para-teachers/Shiksha Karmis have been appointed;
(viii) About 3,380 resource centers at block level and 29,725 centers at cluster level have been
set-up for providing academic support and teacher training facilities.
Self Assessment
(i) Mobilization, participation and school effectiveness are cardinal elements of the
programme.
(ii) The framework of the DPEP programme envisages initiating and completing the process
of planning first at the state level.
(iii) The district plans are generally seen as a process of region alisation of national and state
plans.
(iv) Village education committees/school management committees have not been setup in
all project villages/habitations schools.
(v) Grad completion rate (GCR) is an indicator of school efficiency.
17.6 Summary
• In this unit we have discussed about District Primary Education Programme in wide
aspect. We will look the whole unit in a quick glance. Distric Primary Education Programme
was launched in 1994 as a major initiative to revitalise the primary education system and
to achieve the objective of universalisation of primary education.
• DPEP is an externally aided project. 85 per cent of the project cost is met by the Central
Government and the remaining 15 per cent is shared by the concerned State Government.
The Central Government share is resourced through external assistance.
• The objectives of the programme are: (i) to provide access to all children to primary
education through formal primary schools or its equivalent through alternatives; (ii) to
reduce overall dropouts at the primary level less than 10 percent; (iii) to increase

Notes achievement levels by 25 percentage points over and above the measured baseline levels;
(iv) to reduce disparities of all types to less than 5 percent.
• The focus of each plan may vary depending upon the level of development of primary
education in the selected district.
• The criteria to identify districts under the programme are : i) educationally ward districts
with female literacy below the national average; and ii) districts where have been successful
leading to enhanced demand for primary education.
• The success of planning and implementing plans at the district level depends on the
freedom to allocate and reallocate funds by the district level authorities. In India, very
often, the funding decisions are decided at higher levels and hence planning at the local
levels becomes an exercise in dovetailing the priorities set at the state level.
• One of the features of DPEP is its funding source. A substantial share of the funds is drawn
from the external sources. And the funding sources are getting diversified over a period of
time. It is a centrally sponsored scheme and hence the sources of funding are less important
for the districts. The more crucial point is a guarantee from the Union government that
the funds will be made available as and when needed as per the requirements projected in
the district plans.
• These funds are to be seen as additionalities and are not substitutable for the existing
programmes.
• DPEP envisages distinct management structures to facilitate better implementation of the
programme, to closely monitor the activities and to facilitate faster flow of funds. These
structures are envisaged at the national, state and district levels (for details see Department
of Education: 1994). The focus of all these new structures is to facilitate implementation of
district plans.
• Developing a Management Information System (MIS) to collect information to monitor
DPEP activities is an essential element in the programme.
• Even in the selected states, all the districts are not covered under this programme. At
present the programme covers 42 districts - 19 districts of Madhya Pradesh, 5 districts of
Maharashtra, 4 districts of Assam, Haryana and Karnataka, 3 districts of Kerala and Tamil
Nadu. The planning process is complete in these districts. The programme is extended to
5 districts of West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh where the planning process has been initiated.
• Each district is expected to undertake and complete studies specific to the areas, which are
to be emphasized in the plans. Such district studies help evolving strategies, which are
applicable in the specific context of the district. The problems of the district may vary.
Some of them can be resolved at the district level while others require interventions at the
state level. The basis for evolving such intervention strategies is the studies.
• DPEP envisages linking district plans with school processes and classroom practices. It is
an effort to bring together the pedagogical necessities and broader educational concerns.
The ultimate objective is to improve the school processes and outcomes.
• Improving classroom practices and school management, no doubt, form the core to the
success of educational programmes. The programme envisages create local specific
facilitating conditions to improve teacher competencies through frequent in-service training
programmes, improving school management through training in planning and
management of educational functionaries.
• DPEP envisages the planning responsibility to be undertaken entirely by the people at the
district level. This necessitates developing planning competencies at the district level. The
best way to develop competencies is to initiate planning exercise in a realistic fashion. The
planning methodologies are simplified and are easily understandable by the people at the
district level.
• The district level plans are developed by those people who are the direct beneficiaries of
the programme. This necessitates a consultative process to arrive at areas of convergence
to set priorities.

• DPEP has so far opened more than 1,60,000 new schools, including almost 84,000 alternative Notes
schooling (AS) centres. The AS centres cover nearly 3.5 million children, while another
two lakh children are covered by Bridge Courses of different types.
• The school infrastructure created under DPEP has been remarkable. Works either complete
or in progress include 52758 school buildings, 58,604 additional classrooms, 16,619 resource
centers, 29,307 repair works, 64,592 toilets, and 24,909 drinking water facilities,
• The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Phase-I states was around 93 to 95 per cent for the
last three years.
• The total number of differently bled children enrolled is now more than 4,20,203 which
represents almost 76 per cent of the nearly 5,53,844 differently-abled children identified in
the DPEP States.
17.7 Keywords
• Initiative : A new plan for dealing with a particular problem.
• Centrally : Most important or having power or control over other parts.
• Sponsored : A person or company that supports a proposal for a new law.
• Conceptualize : To form an idea of something in your mind.
• Envisage : To imaging what a situation will be like in future specially a situation
you intend to work towards.

1. Explain about district primary education programme.
2. Give main objectives of DPEP.
3. Discuss the salient features of DPEP.
4. Explain the management structure of DPEP.
5. What are the planning competencies adopted by DPEP?

1. (i) Centrally sponsored (ii) funding source
(iii) district

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 18: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
18.1 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
18.2 Basic Features of SSA
18.3 Major Characteristics of SSA
18.4 Aims and Objectives of SSA
18.5 Major Areas of Interventions in SSA
18.6 Types of Plans
18.7 Summary
18.8 Keywords
Objective
• to discuss about Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
• to explain about Major characteristics of SSA
• to discuss about aims and objectives of SSA
• to discuss about Major Areas of Interventions in SSA
• to explain the types of plan of SSA
Introduction
India has made long strides in the last 50 years in the field of education. The National Policy on
Education 1986 and Programme Of Action 1992 also accorded top priority for achieving the
goals of Universal Elementary Education. A number of programmes / schemes were launched
during the last four decades for Universalisation of elementary education. Some of these efforts
have been in the field of primary education and a few also covering upper primary sector. Due
to these interventions, initiated by Government of India and the respective state Governments,
there has been considerable progress in providing access, improving retention and the quality
improvement in primary education sector. However, much needs to be done for the special
focus groups, and the upper primary sector. Quality improvement still remains a major concern,
especially for upper primary sector. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is an attempt to fill this vacuum
and covers all the districts in the country unlike the earlier programmes on elementary education.
The programme covers the whole gamut of elementary education sector and is flexible enough
to incorporate new interventions like specific interventions for girls, e.g., NPEGEL, Kasturba
Gandhi Programme.
18.1 Sarav Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a comprehensive and integrated flagship programme of
Government of India to attain Universal Elementary Education (UEE), covering the entire country
in a mission mode. SSA has been launched in 2001-2002 in partnership with the State

Governments and Local Self Governments. The programme aims to provide useful and relevant, Notes
elementary education to all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. It is an initiative to
universalize and improve quality of education through decentralized and context specific
planning and a process based, time bound implementation strategy. The programme lays
emphasis on bridging all gender and social category gaps at elementary education level with
time bound objectives. On one hand, SSA is a programme with its own targets, norms and
processes and on the other it is an umbrella programme covering other programmes like
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), Lok Jumbish, Operational Blackboard, etc. The
gigantic dimensions of the programme and the financial implications call for a meticulous
planning and a rigorous appraisal.
SSA adopts, “the bottom-up” process of planning, wherein the felt needs of the served
communities and educational needs of learners are well taken care of and the plan fits into the
broad framework of SSA. In view of the fact that the desired improvement and sustenance of
the improved efficiency level can not be achieved without the active involvement of the
community in the schooling system, SSA has emphasized the involvement of local people &
stakeholders in planning. This also ensures reflection of local specificity, which is essential for
achieving the goals of the programme.
It is an established fact that basic education improves the level of human well-being
especially with regard to life expectancy, infant mortality, nutritional status of children
etc.
18.2 Basic Features of SSA

• Institutional reforms in states.
• Sustainable financing in partnership with states (IX Plan 85:15, X Plan 75:25, After X plan
50:50).
• Community ownership of school based interventions through effective decentralization.
• Institutional capacity building for improvement in quality.
• Community based monitoring with full transparency in all aspects of implementation.
• Community based approach to planning with a habitation as a unit of planning.
• A mainstreaming gender approach.
• Focus on the educational participation of children from the SC/ST, religious and linguistic
minorities, etc.
• Thrust on quality and making education relevant.
• Recognition of critical role of teacher and focus on the human resource development
needs of teachers
• Preparation of District Elementary Education Plans reflecting all governmental and non-
governmental investments.
18.3 Major Characteristics of SSA

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is an attempt to provide quality education to all children through active
participation of community in a mission mode.
• A programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
• A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
• An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.

Notes • An effort at effectively involving the Panchayati Raj Institutions, School Management
Committees, Village and Urban Slum Level Education Committees, Parents' Teachers'
Associations, Mother Teacher Associations, Tribal Autonomous Councils and other grass
roots level structures in the management of elementary schools.
• An expression of political will for universal elementary education across the country.
• A partnership between the Central, State and local government
• An opportunity for States to develop their own vision of elementary education.
Self Assessment
(i) .................... has been launched in 2001-2002 in partnership with the state governments
and local self governments.
(ii) ..................... is a girl oriented programme under Sarava Shiksha Abhiyan.
(iii) SSA is a partnership between the central state and ..................... government.
(iv) According to constitutional commitment to ensure free and compulsory education for
the children up to the age of ............................. .
18.4 Aims and Objectives of SSA

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan aims to provide useful and relevant elementary education for all
children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. There is also another goal to bridge social, regional
and gender gaps, with the active participation of the community in the management of schools.
Following are the main objectives of SSA:
• All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, 'Back-to-School'
camp by 2003.
• All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
• All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
• Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life.
• Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary
education level by 2010.
• Universal retention by 2010.
What is the main objective of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan?
18.5 Major Areas of Interventions in SSA

• Education of out-of-school children (Educational Guarantee Scheme and Alternative &
Innovative Education)
• Quality Improvement
• Special Focus Groups
• Research and Evaluation
• Management Structure and Institutional Capacity Building
• Community Mobilization
• Civil Works
• Monitoring and MIS
• Financial Management and Procurement

18.6 Types of Plans Notes
Sarva Shiksha Abhhiyan has time bound objectives. It means that the goals and the objectives of
the programme are to be achieved within stipulated period. Thus, planning under SSA is to
review the present scenario in a state, district, block or village, to identify the needs and
propose interventions to fill the gaps in order to achieve the goals of the programme.
SSA envisages the preparation of District Elementary Education Plan (DEEP) – a comprehensive
Plan of Action for the educational improvement of the whole district.
(i) SSA requires two types of plans-annual and perspective. An annual plan proposes the
interventions for a year and the perspective those over a longer period. A perspective
plan shows the perspective of the state. It provides the long term strategies of the state
with a vision to accomplish the goals of the programme. The perspective plan provides
estimates of the fund requirement alongwith phased out interventions over the period for
achieving the goals. On the other hand, an annual plan prioritizes the activities to be
undertaken in a particular year in the context of the targets provided in the perspective
plans. SSA framework clearly provides the difference between the two plans as “while the
objective of the perspective is to assess and plan for unfinished UEE agenda in a particular
district, the annual plan is an exercise in prioritization”. While, the perspective plans are
to be prepared upto year 2010, the financial component should be prepared only for 10th
plan period.
(ii) An annual plan or perspective plan in SSA is not merely a statement of interventions and
the financial implications thereof. It provides a picture of present educational scenario and
a number of interventions to achieve the goal of Universalisation. However, much more
important than providing this information is the process through which the plans have
been formulated. The plans have to be developed through a participatory planning process
and the interventions proposed therein should help to achieve the objectives of the
programme. An attempt has been made in the following paragraphs to provide an overview
of the planning process, how the plans should be developed, what should be in the plans,
how interventions are to be proposed and what data is required at each level.
18.6.1 Identifications of Issues and Interventions

Once the consulting process has taken place at various levels highlighting the problems and
issues, the next step is to identify the problems and needs in the light of educational and
general information and studies that have been conducted earlier. The assessment of the
educational situation will lead to the identification of problems, needs and constraints of
elementary education in the district. The problems related to access, enrolment, retention
and quality of education need to be identified and reflected in the District Elementary
Education Plan.
18.6.2 Target setting

In order to meet the SSA goal of UEE, it is important to achieve the basic objectives of universal
access, universal enrolment, universal retention and universal achievement within the stipulated
time period.
Various states are at various levels in the field of education. Thus, it may be possible for some
states or districts to achieve the SSA goals before the target dates. It may, therefore, be essential
for districts to set their own targets within the overall time frame of the programme. The
targets have to be set realistically in a phased manner. There is a need to set dis-aggregated
targets (preferably block wise) for disadvantageous and other groups on the basis of gender.
Targets can vary from district to district and within a district, from block to block.


(i) SSA requires three types of plans.
(ii) A perspective plan shows the perspective of the state.
(iii) An annual plan provides a picture of present educational scenario and a number of
interventions to achieve the goal of universalisation.
(iv) Various states are at some levels in the field of education.
18.7 Summary
• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a comprehensive and integrated flagship programme of
Government of India to attain Universal Elementary Education (UEE), covering the entire
country in a mission mode. SSA has been launched in 2001-2002 in partnership with the
State Governments and Local Self Governments.
• On one hand, SSA is a programme with its own targets, norms and processes and on the
other it is an umbrella programme covering other programmes like District Primary
Education Programme (DPEP), Lok Jumbish, Operational Blackboard, etc. The gigantic
dimensions of the programme and the financial implications call for a meticulous planning
and a rigorous appraisal.
• SSA adopts, “the bottom-up” process of planning, wherein the felt needs of the served
communities and educational needs of learners are well taken care of and the plan fits into
the broad framework of SSA.
• A programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
• A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
• An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
• An effort at effectively involving the Panchayati Raj Institutions, School Management
Committees, Village and Urban Slum Level Education Committees.
• The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan aims to provide useful and relevant elementary education for
all children in the 6 to 14 age group by 2010. Following are the main objectives of SSA:
(i) All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, 'Back-to-School'
camp by 2003.
(ii) All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
(iii) All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
(iv) Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for
life.
• Institutional reforms in states.
• Sustainable financing in partnership with states (IX Plan 85:15, X Plan 75:25, After X plan
50:50).
• Community ownership of school based interventions through effective decentralization.
• Institutional capacity building for improvement in quality.
• Community based monitoring with full transparency in all aspects of implementation.
• Community based approach to planning with a habitation as a unit of planning.
• Major Areas of Interventions in SSA: (1) Education of out-of-school children (Educational
Guarantee Scheme and Alternative & Innovative Education); (2) Quality Improvement
(3) Special Focus Groups; (4) Research and Evaluation; (5) Management Structure and
Institutional Capacity Building; (6) Community Mobilization.
• SSA envisages the preparation of District Elementary Education Plan (DEEP) – a
comprehensive Plan of Action for the educational improvement of the whole district.

• SSA requires two types of plans-annual and perspective. An annual plan proposes the Notes
interventions for a year and the perspective those over a longer period. A perspective
plan shows the perspective of the state. It provides the long term strategies of the state
with a vision to accomplish the goals of the programme. The perspective plan provides
estimates of the fund requirement alongwith phased out interventions over the period for
achieving the goals.
• Once the consulting process has taken place at various levels highlighting the problems
and issues, the next step is to identify the problems and needs in the light of educational
and general information and studies that have been conducted earlier. The assessment of
the educational situation will lead to the identification of problems, needs and constraints
of elementary education in the district.
• In order to meet the SSA goal of UEE, it is important to achieve the basic objectives of
universal access, universal enrolment, universal retention and universal achievement within
the stipulated time period.
18.8 Keywords
• Comprehensive : Including all or almost the items, details, facts unfortunate etc.
• Framework : A set of beliefs, ideas or rules that is used as the basis for making
judgments, decisions.
• Institutional : Connected with an institution.
• Perspective : A particular attitude towards something, a way of thinking about
something.

1. Give an introduction of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
2. What are the aims and objectives of SSA?
3. Give the major areas of interventions in SSA.
4. What are the basic features of SSA?
5. What are the ‘types of plans’ of SSA?

1. (i) Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (ii) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
(iii) local (iv) 14 years
2. (i) False (ii) True (iii) True (iv) False
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, Khatia K., Briykithore

Dayal, Dominant Publishers & Distributer.
Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 19: Right to Education Act (2009)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
19.1 Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009
19.2 Features of Right to Education Act, 2009
19.3 Goals and Objectives of Right to Education, 2009
19.4 Situation after RTE Act, 2009
19.5 Summary
19.6 Keywords
Objective
• to discuss about right to education (RTE) act, 2009
• to discuss about features of right to education act, 2009
• to describe about goals and objectives of riht to education, 2009
• to explain about situation after RTE act, 2009
Introduction
India's education system over the past few decades has made significant progress. According to
India's Education For All Mid Decade Assessment, in just five years between 2000 and 2005,
India increased primary school enrolment overall by 13.7 per cent and by 19.8 per cent for girls,
reaching close to universal enrolment in Grade 1.
Even with these commendable efforts, one in four children left school before reaching Grade 5
and almost half before reaching Grade 8 in 2005. Learning assessments show the children who
do remain in school are not learning the basics of literacy and numeracy or the additional skills
necessary for their overall development.
The landmark passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act
2009 marks a historic moment for the children of India. For the first time in India's history,
children will be guaranteed their right to quality elementary education by the state with the
help of families and communities.
The world cannot reach its goal to have every child complete primary school by 2015 without
India. We will discuss about the Right to Education in this unit.
19.1 Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009

Right to Education provides for free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six
to fourteen years. The Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act came into force
from April 1, 2010. This was a historic day for the people of India as from this day the right to
education will be accorded the same legal status as the right to life as provided by Article 21A
of the Indian Constitution. Every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years
of elementary education in an age appropriate classroom in the vicinity of his/her
neighbourhood.

Any cost that prevents a child from accessing school will be borne by the State which shall have Notes
the responsibility of enrolling the child as well as ensuring attendance and completion of 8
years of schooling. No child shall be denied admission for want of documents; no child shall be
turned away if the admission cycle in the school is over and no child shall be asked to take an
admission test. Children with disabilities will also be educated in the mainstream schools. The
Prime Minister has emphasized that it is important for the country that if we nurture our
children and young people with the right education, India's future as a strong and prosperous
country is secure.
RTE has been a part of the directive principles of the State Policy under Article 45 of
the Constitution, which is part of Chapter 4 of the Constitution.
19.2 Features of Right to Education Act, 2009

The salient features of the Right of Children for Free and Compulsory Education act are -
• Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the six to 14 age group;
• No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until
completion of elementary education;
• A child above six years of age has not been admitted in any school or though admitted,
could not complete his or her elementary education, then, he or she shall be admitted in
a class appropriate to his or her age; Provided that where a child is directly admitted in a
class appropriate to his or her age, then, he or she shall, in order to be at par with others,
have a right to receive special training, in such manner, and within such timelimits, as
may be prescribed: Provided further that a child so admitted to elementary education
shall be entitled to free education till completion of elementary education even after
fourteen years.
• Proof of age for admission: For the purposes of admission to elementary education. the
age of a child shall be determined on the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance
with the provisions of the Births. Deaths and Marriages Registration Act, 1856 or on the
basis of such other document, as may be prescribed. No child shall be denied admission in
a school for lack of age proof
• A child who completes elementary education shall be awarded a certificate;
• Calls for a fixed student-teacher ratio;
• Will apply to all of India except Jammu and Kashmir;
• Provides for 25 percent reservation for economically disadvantaged communities in
admission to Class One in all private schools;
• Mandates improvement in quality of education;
• School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or else will lose job;
• School infrastructure (where there is problem) to be improved in three years, else
recognition cancelled;
• Financial burden will be shared between state and central government
What is the work of National Commission for protection of child riht?

Notes The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) has been mandated to
monitor the implementation of this historic Right. A special Division within NCPCR will
undertake this huge and important task in the coming months and years. A special toll free
helpline to register complaints will be set up by NCPCR for this purpose. NCPCR welcomes
the formal notification of this Act and looks forward to playing an active role in ensuring its
successful implementation.
NCPCR also invites all civil society groups, students, teachers, administrators, artists, writers,
government personnel, legislators, members of the judiciary and all other stakeholders to join
hands and work together to build a movement to ensure that every child of this country is in
school and enabled to get at least 8 years of quality education.
Benefits of Right to Education Act, 2009
RTE has been a part of the directive principles of the State Policy under Article 45 of the
Constitution, which is part of Chapter 4 of the Constitution. And rights in Chapter 4 are not
enforceable. For the first time in the history of India we have made this right enforceable by
putting it in Chapter 3 of the Constitution as Article 21. This entitles children to have the right
to education enforced as a fundamental right.
Self Assessment
(i) ...................... provides for free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six
to fourteen years.
(ii) The RTE act provides for .................. reservation for economically disadvantaged
communities in admission to class one in all private schools.
(iii) According to RTE act, a child who completes elementary education shall be awarded
a .................... .
(iv) No child shall be denied admission for want of .................... under this act.
19.3 Goals and Objectives of Right to Education, 2009

Objectives of Right to Education Act, 2009:
(i) Access: Universal enrolment of all children, including girls and persons belonging to
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes; Provision of primary school for all children within
one kilometer of walking distance and of facility of non-formal education; and
Improvement of ratio of primary to upper primary school to at least 1:2.
(ii) Retention: Reduction of dropout rates between Classes I to V and I to VIII to 20 and 40 per
cent respectively; and Improvement of school facilities by revamped Operation Blackboard,
to be extended to upper primary level also.
(iii) Achievement: Achievement of minimum levels of learning by approximately all children
at the primary level, and introduction of this concept at the middle stage on a large scale.
(iv) Monitoring: Local level committee, with due representation to women and teachers, to
assist in the working of primary education to oversee its functioning; and Improvement of
the monitoring system for universalisation of elementary education.
19.4 Situation after RTE Act, 2009

Out-of-School Children: The number of out-of-school children has declined from 25 million in
2003 to 8.1 million in mid-2009. The most significant improvements have been in Bihar,
Jharkhand, Manipur and Chhattisgarh. The percentage of out-of-school children in highly
populated states like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa and Bihar remains a cause of concern.
Social Inclusion: Although there have been significant improvements in the proportion of children
from socially disadvantaged groups in school, persistence gaps remain. Girls are still less likely

to enroll in school than boys; in 2005, for upper primary school (Grades 6-8) girls' enrolment Notes
was still 8.8 points lower than boys, for Scheduled Tribes (ST) the gender gap was 12.6 points
and 16 points for Scheduled Castes (SC).
In addition, ST and SC children are less likely to access their right to 8 years of schooling; the
drop-out rate for ST children being 62.9% and 55.2% for SC children compared to a national
average of 48.8% leaving school before completing Grade 8.
Teachers: Children have the right to have at least 1 qualified and trained teacher for every 30
pupils. Currently, the national average is about 1 teacher to every 34 students, but in states such
as Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal 1 teacher works with more than 60 students.
Approximately 1.2 million additional teachers need to be recruited to fill this gap. Currently,
about 1 in 5 primary school teachers do not have the requisite minimum academic qualification
to ensure children's right to quality learning.
Sanitation: 84 out of 100 schools have drinking water facilities overall in India. But nearly half
the schools in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya do not. Sixty-five out of 100 schools
have common toilets in India; however only one out of four schools in Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand, Orissa and Rajasthan have this facility.
Fifty-four out of 100 schools have separate toilets for girls. On average, only one in nine
schools in Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur have separate toilets and one in four schools in Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand and Orissa.
The RTE Act will be in force from 1 April. Draft Model Rules have been shared with states,
which are required to formulate their state rules and have them notified as early as possible.
RTE provides a ripe platform to reach the unreached, with specific provisions for disadvantaged
groups, such as child labourers, migrant children, children with special needs, or those who
have a "disadvantage owing to social, cultural economical, geographical, linguistic, gender or
such other factor."
RTE focuses on the quality of teaching and learning, which requires accelerated efforts and
substantial reforms.
Creative and sustained initiatives are crucial to train more than one million new and untrained
teachers within the next five years and to reinforce the skills of existing teachers to ensure
child-friendly education.
Bringing eight million out-of-school children into classes at the age appropriate level with the
support to stay in school and succeed poses a major challenge. Substantial efforts are essential
to eliminate disparities and ensure quality with equity. For example, investing in preschool is
a key strategy.
Families and communities also have a large role to play to ensure child-friendly education for
each and every one of the estimated 190 million girls and boys in India who should be in
elementary school today.
School Management Committees, made up of parents, local authorities, teachers and children
themselves, will need support to form School Development Plans and monitoring. The inclusion
of 50 per cent women and parents of children from disadvantaged groups in these committees
should help overcome past disparities.
Self Assessment
(i) Under the RTE act, there is right to take admission of children including girls and
persons belonging to scheduled castes and schedules tribes.
(ii) Children have the right to have atleast qualified and trained teacher for every 50 pupils.
(iii) RTE provides a platform to reach the unreached, with specific provisions for
disadvantaged groups, such as child laborers, migrant children, children with special
needs.
(iv) There is 100% girls enrolled in 8 year schooling under RTE act, 2009.

Notes 19.5 Summary

• We will discuss entire unit in a quick glance. Right to Eduation provides for free and
compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years. The Right of
children to Free and Compulsory Education Act came into force from April 1, 2010. This
was a historic day for the people of India as from this day the right to education will be
accorded the same legal status as the right to life as provided by Article 21A of the Indian
Constitution. Every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years of
elementary education in an age appropriate classroom in the vicinity of his/her
neighbourhood.
• The Right to Education Act (RTE), which was passed by the Parliament of India on 4th of
August 2009, Act describes the modalities of the provision of free education and compulsory
education for all Indian children between 6 to 14 years under Article 21A of the Constitution
of India.
• The RTE Act 2009 guarantees all Indian children with disabilities to the fundamental right
to education.
• According to the RTE every Indian child in the age group of 6-14 years has the right to free
education. The government has to compulsorily make arrangements to see to it that every
child gets complete primary schooling (till class 8).
• The schools which fall fully under government regulations are to be managed by the SMC
(School Management Committee) set up by the central authority.
• The passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act 2009
marks a historic moment for the children of India.
• All children between the ages of 6 and 14 shall have the right to free and compulsory
elementary education at a neighborhood school.
• The landmark passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE)
Act 2009 marks a historic moment for the children of India.
• The Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act has come into force from
today, April 1, 2010. This is a historic day for the people of India as from this day the right
to education will be accorded the same legal status as the right to life as provided by
Article 21A of the Indian Constitution.
• The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) has been mandated to
monitor the implementation of this historic Right.
• The Model Rules, 2009 on the Right to Education Act have been formulated to help
operationalize the Act.
19.6 Keywords
• Compulsory : That must be done because of a law or a rule.
• Access : A way of entering or reaching a place.
• Mandatory : Required by law
• Retention : The action of keeping something rather than losing it or stopping it.
• Monitoring : To watch and check something over a period of time.

1 Explain the right to education act, 2009.

2 What are the features of the RTE act?
3 Give the objectives of RTE act.
4 Discuss the present situation of educational framework of elementary education after RTE
act.

1. (i) Right to education act, 2009 (ii) 25%
(iii) certificate (iv) document

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 20: Secondary Education: Concept and Need
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
20.1 Universal Secondary Education
20.2 Need for Secondary Education in India
20.3 Summary
20.4 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the concept of secondary education.
• to explain about the need of secondary education in India.
Introduction
The Constitution of India, under the original Article 45, directed the State to “endeavor to
provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and
compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.” This
provision implicitly covered Early Childhood Care and Education (including pre-primary
education) for children below six years of age and eight years of elementary education (Class I
to VIII) for the 6-14 year age group. The priority given by the Constitution to this provision
was clearly evident from the time-frame specified therein; no other clause in the Constitution
carries this sense of urgency.
20.1 Universal Secondary Education

Technically speaking secondary education definition is the formal education for children between
ages 13 to 18. It is after middle school, during junior high and high school or can also be
referred to as grade 9 to 12. In other countries secondary education commences on high school
which is between the ages of 13 to 16.
The concept of secondary education is not to only depart the knowledge or not to complete the
text book and become the most intelligent people. It is all about the complete training as a
human being the values which the person has imbibed during their lifetime. It is such a phase
in the life when the person is not completely an adult nor is the person can be put in the
category of children. This is the time, teenage when the students are the most delicate and also
the most difficult to handle because it becomes very difficult to handle them. At this phase
nobody tends to listen but they want to have their own say and prove whatever they think or
say is right but that is not the case. Advices by elders are always needed in all the phases of life
and that should always be remembered. From the knowledge point of view, the number of
subjects increases as in comparison to the primary education. The knowledge of each subject
increases as each subject goes in the depth. Vocational education or any other education such as
studying a foreign language or arts are also important and can be chosen according to the
choice of the student and the option that the school offers and then the best combination can be
selected. The better the grades in the exams the better it is for the students as it becomes easy

to have their own choice in the graduation schools and make their path of life special by their Notes
own dedication.

Secondary education became important when in the 20th century businesses started to thrive.
More and more people are required to perform jobs due to a high demand from consumers. In
order to get a good paying job certain requirements were set and one of them is for an individual
to have attained secondary education. Further training and knowledge is provided in secondary
education hence employers are confident the individual has enough skills to perform the task.
20.1.2 Secondary Education and Adolescence

During the years of secondary education while children go through adolescence, there are more
problems encountered. While struggling so hard to belong, they also have to contend with the
demands to excel plus the added pressure of having to live-up to the expectations of their
parents to behave morally. With this perspective secondary education definition takes on a
different meaning. It now stands to symbolize a right of passage to adulthood.
We are all aware that society sets a very high standard on what is acceptable or not. Keeping up
is never easy, much so for children, but with secondary education they are trained to prepare
for such demands. They learn the importance of owning up to responsibilities. Through
secondary education children discover their strengths and weaknesses through different activities
and assimilation. The training in secondary education will also help shape their dreams and
build their character to become a responsible citizen of our society.
The period of adolescence is very confusing; the adolescent is very emotional and high-strung
which often leads to rebellion against figures of authority. Teachers and parents must work
hand in hand to guide these children to the right path. While secondary education definition
may not be more than just a ladder that children has to climb in order to reach the top, a
personality development program should also be recognized as another added bonus. Recently
due to the failing economy more and more children are deprived of higher education. And if
this is the case, then secondary education should be able to provide enough opportunities to
these children to be enable them to support themselves, their families and at the same time
contribute to community to which they belongs.
20.2 Need for Secondary Education in India

Since Independence India has invested huge resources into the expansion and improvement of
education in the country, in an effort to extend access from the elites to the masses. The first
priority for the country has been the struggle to achieve Education For All at the elementary
level, and rightly so; great strides have been made in this area over the past twenty years (and
particularly over the last five years). The second priority has been to develop an elite higher
education system, part of which is competitive at the global level, although much remains to be
done at this level to improve access and quality. High-caliber graduates from the Indian Institutes
of Technology (IITs) and Management (IIMs) have succeeded in generating jobs, economic growth
and new knowledge, and enabled India’s integration into the global knowledge economy.
Studies in other countries have repeatedly showed that expansion of secondary education is
critical for sustained inclusive growth and poverty reduction. This first chapter provides the
institutional context which affects access to, and quality of, secondary education, and establishes
the rationale for public funding and, under certain conditions, public provision, of secondary
education.
There is attention needs to shift to secondary education, to respond to rapidly increasing

household and labor market demand for graduates with higher levels of knowledge
and skills after universalisation of lementary education.

Notes (i) Secondary Education Contributes to Economic Growth: In India, technological innovations,
openness to world trade, and rapid economic growth have fuelled the demand for skilled
workers. Recent analysis confirms that most of the employment growth over the past ten
years has taken place in skilled services (information technology, financial services,
telecommunications, tourism and retail) and skillintensive manufacturing, all of which
require, at a minimum, a secondary education degree. Meanwhile, employment declined
in low-skilled occupations, and stagnated in agriculture as agricultural value-added growth
decelerated sharply in the second half of the 1990s. Even in rural areas, job prospects are
better for the more qualified. Further, there is a rising overseas demand for highly skilled
and semiskilled workers from India, most notably in the USA, UK, Southeast Asia, and the
Gulf states.
However, employer surveys increasingly indicate that shortages of skilled workers
constitute constraints to new private sector investment and growth. The Federation of
Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) conducted a survey of Indian industry
in July 2007, whose results clearly showed that “the shortage of skilled and semi-skilled…
workers has emerged as a critical factor impacting the competitiveness of Indian industry”.
The skills shortages appear when trying to expand production (fill new vacancies), upgrade
existing employees to more technology-intensive production processes, or replace loss of
employees to higher paying employers. Shortages were reported across many segments
of industry, including oil and gas, biotechnology, food processing, IT, aviation, health
care, construction, automotive, mining, textiles, plastics, finance, insurance, chemicals and
pharmaceuticals. From industry’s perspective, a more skilled workforce (meaning workers
with at least secondary education) is critical for increasing technical absorption, reducing
rejection levels and enhancing the quality of products for both domestic and international
markets.
Furthermore, a 2008 survey of 600 companies – both Indian and foreign - conducted by a
human resources consulting firm10 showed double-digit salary increases in both 2007 and
2008 in real estate, energy, retail, telecommunications, banking/finance, accounting/legal,
IT and back-office processing (all of which require at least a secondary education), which
suggests employers are having to compete more for scarce skilled personnel. Interestingly,
staff at the junior manager and professional levels received the largest pay increases,
rather than senior/top management. In summary, all of the trends discussed above led a
recent study of the Indian labor market to conclude: “This highlights the importance of
enhancing secondary education, an area where India is still lagging.”11 Quantitative
economic analysis supports this conclusion - the marginal private returns to additional
education have been highest in secondary education, although in recent years the increases
have been greatest at the senior secondary and tertiary levels. Given that skilled workers
and professionals can migrate abroad much more easily to search for greater opportunities,
if the earnings of Indian overseas workers were taken into account, the returns to secondary
and higher education would be even greater12. The marginal returns to girls’ education
have consistently been higher than those for boys and, comparing 1999 and 2004 calculations,
the returns to girls’ senior secondary and tertiary education increased much faster than the
returns to boys’ education.
The extraordinarily high rates of return for girls compared to boys are caused by the size
of the earnings differentials between males and females at different levels of education.
Females earn less than men at all levels of education, but the relative disadvantage is less
for female secondary education graduates than at the elementary education level. The
difference in earnings between girls with a secondary education and those with an upper
primary degree is much greater than the difference between boys at these two levels.
High returns for girls also reflect a selection bias, as girls who complete secondary education
tend to be more able and motivated, and come from better socio-economic backgrounds,
than the general population of girls.13 As a result, girls realize a much higher rate of
return on secondary education investments than boys (World Bank, 2002b). This selectivity
bias will decrease as more girls attend secondary schooling.

The earning differentials between workers with high levels of education and those with Notes
less have widened, despite the expansion of the education system and an increase in the
supply of educated workers at all levels. Since the early 1980s, the relative wages and
relative supply of workers with secondary education have risen steadily in comparison
with those of workers with only primary education. In recent years, the rise in demand
for workers with senior secondary and tertiary education has been large enough to
outweigh any downward pressure on wages resulting from the increased supply of such
workers. This growth in demand for skilled workers is expected to continue, making the
expansion of secondary education and improvement of quality a matter of some urgency.
India’s trend of increasing returns to higher levels of education is consistent with worldwide
trends in East Asia (including China), Latin America and Africa. These trends are likely to
be associated with market liberalization and free trade (Lam and Leibbrandt, 2003; Schultz,
2003; Behrman, Birdsall and Szekely, 2003; Lloyd, 2005).
(ii) Social Benefits of Secondary Education: In addition to the private benefits of secondary
education which accrue to households (which link to overall 13 This selectivity will likely
evaporate as the secondary enrollment rate of girls increases, reducing returns. productivity
and contribute to growth), the social benefits of secondary education must be considered.
Social benefits go beyond the wages of workers and consider other factors important to
society. It is worth pointing out that the positive externalities of secondary education on
health, gender equality, and poverty reduction are even stronger than those of primary
education (World Bank, 2005a), although these are difficult to quantify in economic terms.
Through its impact on young people’s age at marriage, and its propensity to reduce fertility
and improve birth practices and childrearing, expanded secondary education of girls leads
to significantly lower maternal and child mortality, slower population growth and
improved education of children, all of which are important Government of India.
Below shows recently released data from the Third National Family Health Survey (2007),
and compares the education level of females with a range of reproductive health indicators.
The positive effects of upper primary and secondary education, as opposed to primary
education or less, are strikingly clear.
(iii) Social Equality: Social inequality has resulted in differential access to quality education
by young people from different household consumption quintiles, affecting their skills
and earnings later in life. This, plus the fact that social networking affects access to good
jobs, has resulted in inequality in earnings, even among workers with the same level of
education. Workers from the poorest quintile have tended to earn less per hour than
workers in the top quintile, even though they have the same level of education, if not the
same quality (Figure 1.3). This has also been seen in Latin America where socioeconomic
segmentation results in the poor attending schools of lower quality compared to their
wealthier peers, which translates into lower future earnings. This situation has begun to
change, however, as hourly wages have increased faster for those workers in the poorest
quintile who have senior secondary and tertiary education. This shows that education is a
promising avenue for upward mobility for the poor, particularly in a rapidly growing
economy. Government has an important role to play in encouraging this process.
After India passed a Constitutional Amendment in 1976 which made education a joint
responsibility of the central and state governments, there was much national debate
regarding how to achieve education for all, and many state-level experiments with
community-based primary education.14 These contributed to the launching of the landmark
National Policy on Education (NPE) in 1986, operationalized by the Plan of Action of 1992.
The NPE laid the groundwork for a series of centrally sponsored schemes to support the
universalization of primary education and gender and social equity.15 In the 1990s, multi-
state interventions, supported through the District Primary Education Program (DPEP) in
half of the districts with low female literacy, built the foundation for the government’s
flagship National Program for Universal Elementary Education, Sarva Shiksha Ahbiyan
(SSA). Huge progress has been made in addressing inequality at the elementary level

Notes across all income and social groups through these programs, although the task is not yet
finished. By contrast, as will be seen in the following chapter, secondary level enrollment
rates are far more unequal than those at the primary education level. There is a 40
percentage point gap between secondary enrollment in the highest (70 percent) and lowest
(30 percent) quintiles, a 20 percentage point gap between urban and rural enrollment, and
a 10 percentage point gap between enrollment of boys and girls. This raises significant
equity (and political) issues for the State.
(iv) Democratic Citizenship and Social Cohesion: Given India’s diversity, education has been
a central force for social cohesion, and for fostering a national identity and democratic
citizenship.16 India is the world’s biggest democracy, and is among the most diverse
nations in terms of languages, ethnicities, and religions. It has 14 official languages and
some 300 effectively spoken languages. Eighty-one percent of its population is Hindu; 13.4
percent Muslim; 2.3 percent Christian; 2 percent, Sikh; and 2 percent, other religions,
according to the Population Census of 2001. Scheduled tribes (ST) account for 8 percent of
its population and scheduled castes (SC), who are the most disadvantaged group in the
caste system, for 16 percent. Extending opportunity to secondary education for all would
level the playing field for individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds (World
Bank, 2005a), and strengthen effective democratic participation.
Indeed, soon after Independence, India’s Secondary Education Commission (1952) stated,
“…in a democracy… (the) individual must form his own independent judgment on all
kinds of complicated social, economic and political issues and, to a large extent, decide his
own course of action… a democratic citizen should have the understanding and the
intellectual integrity to sift truth from falsehood, facts from propaganda and to reject the
dangerous appeal of fanaticism and prejudice. He must develop a scientific attitude of
mind to think objectively and base his conclusions on tested data… (and he must)
dispassionately examine… and courageously reject whatever arrests the forces of justice
and progress.” Seen in this way, “universal secondary education is no more a luxury but
a pre-condition for equitable social development, widening participation in India’s
democratic functioning” (Government of India, CABE Report, 2005).
Obviously, education per se does not contribute to democracy; education can be used for
indoctrination. However, education that emphasizes reasoning, tolerance, and respect for
diversity and social equity can build the essential foundation for democratic citizenship.
The experience of post-World War II Germany and Japan in advancing democracy and
peace testifies to the constructive and transformational power of education. Secondary
education in the humanities and social sciences raises an individual’s capacity for social
and political discourse and enhances participation in political and civic affairs (World
Bank, 2005a). Finally, while primary education takes place within relatively homogenous
communities, secondary schools typically enroll more students with greater diversity
given their larger catchment areas, which creates greater opportunities to foster citizenship
and communal tolerance.
Compared to India, East Asia and Latin America have much higher secondary
enrollment rates (70 and 82 percent, respectively). On average, these countries
have higher per capita incomes, a
(v) International Competitiveness: Beyond the purely domestic rationales for public investment
in secondary education, it is important to consider whether India’s development of
secondary education compared to other countries justifies additional public investment at
this level. Such a comparison is worthwhile as it highlights relative human capital
formation. The supply of skilled human capital is consistently cited as one of the key
variables in determining foreign direct investment in both manufacturing and services,
which in turn is a key factor in economic growth.

As well. But as Table 1.2 below indicates, countries such as Vietnam and Moldova have Notes
lower per capita income than India and much higher gross enrollment rates. Bangladesh,
with a far lower per capita income than India, has roughly the same enrollment rate at the
secondary level. The relative success of these countries suggests that India is
underperforming at the secondary level, and has scope for significantly increasing secondary
enrollment given its current (and projected) GDP per capita. It also suggests that India
may lose some private sector investment to these other countries which have much higher
secondary enrollment rates.
Table 20.1
Secondary Gross Enrollment Rates by Country
Country DP/Capita (US$) Secondary GER (%)
India 720 52
Bangladesh 470 52
Brazil 3,460 110
China 1,740 81
Indonesia 1,280 61
Kenya 530 48
Moldova 690 74
Mexico 7,310 79
Nicaragua 910 61
Pakistan 690 44
Peru 2,610 90
Philippines 1,300 84
Sri Lanka 1,160 83
Vietnam 620 72
Given their similar sizes and recent strong economic growth rates, it is worthwhile to compare
India with China, from the perspective of the stock of skills in the labor force (educational
attainment among the share of the population aged 15 and older). The figures below, from the
World Bank’s recent publication, “The Knowledge Economy and Education and Training in
South Asia” (2007), show that despite the increasing secondary enrollment, India lags far behind
China. In fact, the share of the population which had completed secondary education in China
in 1975 (31 percent) was twice the figure for the same indicator in India in 2004 (16 percent). The
current speed of secondary enrollment expansion in India is insufficient to catch up with other
parts of the world, especially East Asia (a major global competitor).
Larger proportion of the population aged 15 and older have completed higher education in
India compared to China. But over the last 10 years, China has aggressively expanded its higher
education system such that its enrollment rate (21 percent) is now twice that of India’s. This has
triggered concern in India and the current draft of the 11th Five-Year Plan calls for massive
investments in the expansion of higher education over the next ten years, with the goal of
doubling its size. Obviously, such an expansion will only be possible if secondary education
expands first.
Conclusion: The rationale for public investment in secondary education lies in its contribution
to economic growth, demonstrated high social benefits, positive impact on equity, ability to
overcome education market failures and household misperceptions of the value of secondary
education, preparation for higher education and generation of knowledge, and, finally, its
contribution to democratic citizenship and social cohesion.

Notes
What is the importance of secondary education in international competitiveness?
Self Assessment
(i) Secondary education is the formal education for children between ages....................... .
(ii) ..................... is very emotional and high-strung which often leads to anger and frustration
against figures of society.
(iii) Secondary education contributes to ...................... by fulfill the demand of skilled workers.
(iv) ..................... has been a central force for social cohesion and for fostering a national
identify and democratic citizenship.
(v) The supply of .................... is one of the key variables in determining foreign direct
investment in both manufacturing and services.
(vi) Children discover their ................... and ................ using different activities and assimilation
through secondary education.
20.3 Summary
• Technically speaking secondary education definition is the formal education for children
between ages 13 to 18. It is after middle school, during junior high and high school or can
also be referred to as grade 9 to 12.
• In order to get a good paying job certain requirements were set and one of them is for an
individual to have attained secondary education. Further training and knowledge is
provided in secondary education hence employers are confident the individual has enough
skills to perform the task.
• The period of adolescence is very confusing; the adolescent is very emotional and high-
strung which often leads to rebellion against figures of authority. Teachers and parents
must work hand in hand to guide these children to the right path.
• Since Independence India has invested huge resources into the expansion and improvement
of education in the country, in an effort to extend access from the elites to the masses.
• In India, technological innovations, openness to world trade, and rapid economic growth
have fuelled the demand for skilled workers. Recent analysis confirms that most of the
employment growth over the past ten years has taken place in skilled services (information
technology, financial services, telecommunications, tourism and retail) and skillintensive
manufacturing, all of which require, at a minimum, a secondary education degree.
• In addition to the private benefits of secondary education which accrue to households
(which link to overall 13 This selectivity will likely evaporate as the secondary enrollment
rate of girls increases, reducing returns. productivity and contribute to growth), the social
benefits of secondary education must be considered. Social benefits go beyond the wages
of workers and consider other factors important to society. It is worth pointing out that
the positive externalities of secondary education on health, gender equality, and poverty
reduction are even stronger than those of primary education
• Social inequality has resulted in differential access to quality education by young people
from different household consumption quintiles, affecting their skills and earnings later
in life. This, plus the fact that social networking affects access to good jobs, has resulted in
inequality in earnings, even among workers with the same level of education.

• Given India’s diversity, education has been a central force for social cohesion, and for Notes
fostering a national identity and democratic citizenship.16 India is the world’s biggest
democracy, and is among the most diverse nations in terms of languages, ethnicities, and
religions. It has 14 official languages and some 300 effectively spoken languages. Eighty-
one percent of its population is Hindu; 13.4 percent Muslim; 2.3 percent Christian; 2 percent,
Sikh; and 2 percent, other religions, according to the Population Census of 2001. Scheduled
tribes (ST) account for 8 percent of its population and scheduled castes (SC), who are the
most disadvantaged group in the caste system, for 16 percent.
• Beyond the purely domestic rationales for public investment in secondary education, it is
important to consider whether India’s development of secondary education compared to
other countries justifies additional public investment at this level. Such a comparison is
worthwhile as it highlights relative human capital formation.
• The rationale for public investment in secondary education lies in its contribution to
economic growth, demonstrated high social benefits, positive impact on equity, ability to
overcome education market failures and household misperceptions of the value of
secondary education, preparation for higher education and generation of knowledge, and,
finally, its contribution to democratic citizenship and social cohesion.
20.4 Keywords
• Secondary : Connected with teaching children of 11-18 years.
• Adolescence : The time in a person's life when he or she develops from a child into an
adult.
• Economic : Connected with the trade, industry and development.
• Equality : The fact of being equal in rights.
• Democratic : Based on the principle that all members have an equal right to be
involved in an organisation.
• Competitiveness : A feeling to trying very hard to be better than others.

1. Explain the meaning and historical background of secondary education.
2. Discuss about the adolescence during secondary education.
3. Why is the need for secondary education in India?
4. Explain the social benefits of secondary education.

1. (i) 13 to 18 (ii) adolescence
(iii) economic growth (iv) secondary education
(v) skilled human capital (vi) strenth, weakness

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 21: Problems of Secondary Education (Aims,
Curriculum, Methods and Examination)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
21.1 Development of Secondary Education
21.2 Aims of Secondary Education
21.3 Curriculum of Secondary Education
21.4 Methods of Teaching in Secondary Education
21.5 Student Examination and Evaluation
21.6 Summary
21.7 Keywords
21.9 Further Reading
Objective
• to explain the development of secondary education
• to discuss about aims of secondary education
• to describe the curriculum of secondary education
• to explain the methods of teaching in secondary education
• to discuss the student examination and evaluation
Introduction
In an increasingly globalizing world, secondary education (12 years of schooling) is being seen as
a part of basic education in most countries. Besides creating knowledge, skills and attitudes
appropriate for an inclusive society, investment in secondary education is considered critical for
preparing a citizenry that is committed to good governance, fiscal accountability and transparency.
Secondary education increasingly is being integrated in comprehensive long-term strate4gies for
development at the national level so as to ensure a holistic social inclusion.
The value of secondary education has been increasing day-by-day. In independent India, the
network of educational institutions has expanded remarkably. Between 1950/51 and 2007/08, the
number of secondary and higher secondary level institutions increased by mo9re than twenty-
three fold, from 7416 to 173.0 thousand (SES, 2007-08). Secondary and/or higher secondary sections
(grades IX-X and/or grades XI-XII) was more than 195.0 thousand in 2009-10, which included
around 166.0 thousand institutions having secondary section and around 57.0 thousand institutions
having higher secondary section (NUEPA, 2001). We will discuss about secondary education in
this unit.
21.1 Development of Secondary Education

Development of secondary education has been divided in five period.
First Period : Originally all secondary schools were English Schools. They were established by
private bodies, Christian missionaries and Government. As a result of Lord Auckland’s Minute

Unit 21: Problems of Secondary Education...
(1839), Zilla (district) schools were established at almost all district headquarters. There were forty Notes
such schools in 1840. By about 1852, the whole of India had 52 recognised English institutions.
Many of them developed into colleges later.
In 1853, the Charter of the East India Company was to be renewed and the need for defining an
educational policy had become apparent. This led to the emanation of the famous Despatch of
1854 from Charles Wood. It is considered the Magna Carte of Education in India. It had two important
consequences, viz,.
1. Establishment of universities in Calcutta. Bombay and Madras, and
2. Introduction of grant-in-aid system for schools and colleges.
Second Period : The Indian universities began to dominate secondary education since their inception
in 1857. The policy regarding curriculum, examination system, medium of instruction and other
vital problems began to be chalked out by university fathers who had very little of school experience
and kept administrative needs and requirements of colleges in the forefront. It may also be noted
that till 1854, secondary schools were mainly under Government or European Management. But
during this period, Indians themselves entered the field, and by 1882 the majority of schools were
under Indian Management.
The number of secondary schools reached 4122 in 1882. The main reason for this
remarkable expansion in secondary education was the keen demand for English
education, which was considered necessary for securing jobs, Government or private.
The largest increase in the number of private and unaided schools was noted in Bengal. These
institutions depended on fee in come and did not at all ask for government grants. Universities
had no administrative contral over them, so long as they satisfied the requirements of the
matriculation examination, and Education Department had no jurisdiction over them because
they did not receive any Government aids. The result was far form satisfactory.2
The Resolution of 1904 relieved the universities of the control of secondary schools and the
responsibility of granting them recognition. But indirectly the universities continued to controls
high schools through the Entrance/Matriculation examinations.
Third Period : The Calcutta University (Sadler) Commission examined some common problems of
secondary of secondary and university education, and held that “no satisfactory re-organization
or the university system ...... Will be possible unless and until a radical reorganization of the
system of secondary education. upon which university work depends, is carried into effect. “The
Commission suggested that it is necessary to separate the control and management of education
upto the intermediate stage from the university through the following measures :
1. The formation of a Secondary/Intermediate Board. consisting of representatives of
government, universities, high schools and intermediate colleges with full power of managing
secondary and intermediate education;
2. The separation of the intermediate classes from degree colleges by instituting separate
intermediate colleges providing instruction in arts, science, medicine, engineering, education
agriculture, commerce and industry; and
3. That the admission to be university stage to take place after intermediate and not to follow
the matriculation examination.2 It may be noted that it was for the first time that a commission
suggested the transfer of intermediate classed to high schools and the need for setting up of
an independent board of education to control high schools and intermediate education.
Fourth Period: During this period a number of important reports were published. TheAbbot-
Wood Report of 1937 suggested a complete hierarchy imparting general education. A number of
polytechnics came into existence as a result of the recommendations of this Report.

Notes The Sergeant Report of 1944 recommended :

(a) Six year duration for the high school course, and
(b) Three year degree course at the university stage. Thus it suggested the abolition of the
intermediate course by attaching the first year of this course to the intermediate course by
attaching the first year of this course to the school stage and absorbing its second year in the
degree course.
The University (Radha Krishnan) Commission, (1947-49), which had to report primarily on university
education in India, also reviewed the position of secondary education and made certain notable
suggestions. It remarked that secondary education is the real weak spot in out entire educational
machinery The Commission suggested that :
1. The standard of admission to the university courses should correspond to that of the present
intermediate examination, i.e., after the completion of 12 years of study at a school and an
intermediate college;
2. In each province, a large number of well-equipped and well-staffed intermediate colleges
should be established; and
3. A large number of occupational institutions should be opened to divert students to different
vocations after 10 to 12 years of schooling.
During the period, there has been a considerable expansion in secondary education. In 1946-47,
there were 5,298 high schools with an enrolment of 2,194,030 pupils. The corresponding figures
for 1916-17 were 1,750 and 5,72,261.
Several causes contributed to this rapid expansion :
1. There was a general demand for secondary education mostly due to the awakening among
the masses;
2. A number of secondary schools had been established in rural and semi-urban areas with a view
to bringing secondary education with in an easy reach of the children of those localities; and
3. Secondary education made some progress amongst women and less advanced communities.1
Fifth Period : During this period, a number of official reports on education were published. In
1952, the Mudaliar Commission which was exclusively concerned with secondary education
recommended three stage in Indian educational system, viz.
1. Primary stage of 4 to 5 years’ duration;
2. Middle (secondary) stage of 4 years’ duration; and
3. Higher secondary stage of 4 years’ duration.
In other words, it suggest the abolition of the Intermediate stage by transferring the first year of
the course to the higher secondary and the second to the degree course, thus institution a three
year degree course. It stressed that higher secondary schools, by and large, should be multipurpose
institutions offering seven alternative streams, viz., Humanities, Science, Technical, Commerce,
Agriculture, Home Science and Fine Arts. It recommended that Agriculture, Home Science and
Fine Arts. It recommended that Class VIII should serve as the Delta class, after which the students
should be drafted to different streams. During the decade (1956-66) a large number of higher
secondary schools were establised. Many of them were multipurpose. It was, however, realised
that the scheme was no working well, and the multipurpose schemes remained illusory. The chief
reason was that the pupils of class VIII found it too difficult to make a choice of subjects. Moreover,
a number of multipurpose schools were started with out looking to the actual needs of the locality
where they were set up.
The Commission recommended a pattern of education consisting of three successive stages, viz.,
primary stage of 7 to 8 years; lower secondary stage of 2 to 3 years of general education or 1 to 3
years of vocational education a higher secondary stage of 2 years of general education or 1 to 3
years of vocational education. The higher secondary courses were to have provision for specialized
studies in different subjects. This new pattern of 10 + 2 + 3, was examined by several official
bodies. It was realised that certain modifications were needed.

21.2 Aims of Secondary Education Notes
The National Curriculum Framework-2005 Aims of Education: The National Curriculum

Framework taking cues from ‘Learning without Burden’ (1993) and seeking guidance from the
Constitutional vision of India as a secular, egalitarian and pluralistic society, founded on the
values of social justice and equality, identifies certain broad aims of secondary education. These
include :
(i) independence of thought and action,
(ii) sensitivity to others’ well being and feelings,
(iii) learning to respond to new situations in a flexible and creative manner,
(iv) pre-disposition towards participation in democratic processes and the ability to work towards
and contribute to economic processes and social change.
Guiding Principles: The fact that learning has become a source of burden and stress on children
is an evidence of a deep distortion in educational aims and quality. To correct this distortion, the
present National Curriculum Framework proposes five guiding principles for curriculum
development:
(a) connecting knowledge to life outside the school;
(b) ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods;
(c) enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of children rather than remain
textbook centric,
(d) making examinations more flexible and integrated into classroom life
(e) nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic polity
of the country.
By 2020, there will be provision for universal senior secondary education and
universal retention. This will be possible because of high transition rate from 10th
to 11th standard and high retention rate in the senior secondary grades even now.
21.3 Curriculum of Secondary Education

There are so many curriculum reform in seconary education acording to national currculum
framework. Since, Curriculum Reform is a process of reforming systematically all the related
aspects of education i.e. syllabus, textbooks, classroom processes, assessment and evaluation, teacher
education and ICT therefore it needs to be planned not only connecting each of these aspects but
also interweaving them with each other e.g. if curriculum, syllabus and textbooks are being revised
it does not mean to add or delete some content, it does mean to present content enumerating
pedagogical concerns and also the emerging perspectives of assessment which demands change
in typology of questions from recall type to thought provoking questions which require higher
mental order skills.
Providing broad guidelines for the development of curriculum, syllabus and textbooks; assessment
and evaluation and also for teacher education the National Curriculum Framework-2005 in
secondary education recommends the following shifts:
1. Change in the design of encyclopedic type of syllabi and textbooks and also a change in
social ethos, which places stress on learners.
2. (As per the document this will enable learners to find their voices, nurture their curiosity-to
do things, to ask questions and pursue investigations, to improve their ability to share and
integrate their experiences with school knowledge-rather than to reproduce textual
knowledge)

Notes 3. Bringing the arts, work, peace and health and physical education squarely into the domain
of the curricular, infusing them in all areas of learning while giving them an identity of their
own at relevant stages.
4. (This is essential as quality in education includes a concern for quality of life in all its
dimensions. Concern for peace, protection of the environment and a predisposition towards
social change must be viewed as core components of quality, not merely as value premises.
Moreover, For the purpose of strengthening our cultural heritage and national identity, the
curriculum should enable the younger generation to reinterpret and reevaluate the past with
reference to new priorities and emerging outlooks of a changing societal context. Creation of
citizenry conscious of their rights an duties, and commitment to principles embodied in our
Constitution must be the priority of the school education in regard. Physical development
supports mental and cognitive development, especially in young children. The capacity to
think reason and make sense of the self and the world, and to use language, is intimately
connected with acting and interacting-doing things by oneself and with others. Therefore it
is essential to involve all students).
5. Significant changes in all the curricular areas in the context of emerging social needs.
Language Education
Language skills such as speech and listening, reading and writing – cut across school subjects and
disciplines. Their foundational role in children’s construction of knowledge right from elementary
classes through higher secondary classes needs to be recognised. A renewed effort should be
made to implement the threelanguage formula, emphasizing the recognition of children’s home
language(s) or mother tongue (s) as the best medium of instruction. This includes tribal languages.
English needs to find place along with other Indian languages. The multilingual character of
Indian society should be seen as a resource for the enhancement of school life.
Mathematics
Teaching of Mathematics, it is proposed, should enhance the learner’s resources to think and
reason, visualise and handle abstractions, to formulate and solve problems.
Science
Content, process and language of science teaching must be commensurate with the learner’s age-
range and cognitive reach. Science teaching should engage the learners in acquiring methods and
processes that will nurture their curiosity and creativity, particularly in relation to the environment.
Concern for the environment should be emphasized in every subject and through a wide range of
activities involving outdoor project work.
For any qualitative change from the present situation, science education in India must undergo a
paradigm shift. Rote learning should be discouraged. Inquiry skills should be supported and
strengthened by language, design and quantitative skills. Schools should place much greater
emphasis on supporting curricular activities aimed at stimulating, investigative ability,
inventiveness and creativity, even if these are not part of the external examination. The development
of science corners and providing access to science experimentation kits and laboratories in all the
schools are important ways of equitable provisioning for science learning.
A large-scale science fair at the national level (with feeder fairs at cluster/district/state levels)
may be organised to encourage schools and teachers to participate in the movement of popularising
and strengthening science at secondary level.
Social Sciences
Social Science learning in the NCF proposes to recognize the disciplinary markers while emphasising
integration in Social Sciences from the perspective of marginalized groups. Gender justice and
sensitivity towards tribal and dalit issues and minority sensitivities must inform all areas of Social
Sciences.

Work, Arts, Heritage Crafts, Health and Peace Notes

The NCF also draws attention to the four other curricular areas: work, arts and heritage crafts,
health and physical education and peace. Certain radical steps to link learning from the primary
stage upwards with work are suggested on the ground that work transforms knowledge into
experience and generates important personal and social values such as self-reliance, creativity and
co-operation. Art as a subject at all stages is recommended, covering all four major spheres, i.e.
music, dance, visual arts and theatre with an emphasis on interactive approaches rather than
instruction. The goal of art education is to promote aesthetic and personal awareness and the
ability to express oneself in different forms.
The importance of India’s heritage crafts both in terms of their economic and aesthetic values
should be recognised as being relevant to school education. The success of the child at school
depends on the nutrition and a well-planned physical activity programme. The NCF recommends
that resources and school time must be deployed for the strengthening health and physical education
dimension at secondary and senior secondary stage both for boys and girls.. Peace has been
recognized as a pre condition for national development and as a social temper. It is proposed that
the potential of peace education for socializing children into a democratic and just culture should
be created through appropriate activities and judicious choices of topics in all subjects at all stages.
Secondary education spreads over the ages of 15 and 16, and then to 17 and 18 in the
senior secondary grades. These are the years of adolescence, and late adolescence. These
are the years of transition; indeed, most crucial years of life.
Curriculum Reform in States/UTs:

Considering the prevailing diversity and the federal character of our country, translating the
NCF-2005 vision into reality requires serious engagement of all States and Union Territories. This
concern seeks attention of all the stakeholders in the education sector. As the perspective of NCF
– 2005 is to be understood and internalized; the need arises for reviewing the existing curricular
practices in States/UTs which include syllabi and textbooks, classroom processes, infusion of
concerns and other areas such as Arts, Health and Physical Education, Work and Peace in the
curriculum domain. As a follow-up of the NCF – 2005 and new syllabi developed by the NCERT,
some of the states developed state curriculum frameworks whereas others directly moved on to
revision of their syllabi and textbooks. Some states, namely, Bihar, Kerala, Chattisgarh, Orissa and
Karnataka have developed their State Curriculum Frameworks. Eighteen States, namely, Andhra
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh and
Uttarakhand have revised their syllabi in the light of NCF – 2005. Among these states/UTs, a few
States/UTs (as mentioned in column A) have also adopted NCERT’s syllabi and textbooks for
different stages of school education. The table 1 depicts status of states/UTs on the revision including
adoption or adaption of syllabus and textbooks in tune with the NCF-2005.
1. There are a few states/UTs which adopt NCERT’s syllabus and textbooks at secondary level,
and also claim to have practicals in science are not able to actually conduct practicals regularly
due to lack of adequate laboratories and equipments. Researches have shown that lack of
hands-on experiences in science seriously effect learners’ performance in science, With the
introduction of science practicals at secondary level these states/UTs need to immediately
procure micro-scale science laboratory kits for every secondary school and initiate actions
for teacher training in this area for providing learners proper science education.
2. The Table 1 shows that there are a few states/UTs such as Delhi, Goa, Himachal Pradesh,
Jharkhand, Uttarkhand, etc. which have adopted/adapted the NCERT’s textbooks for all the
stages or for maximum number of classes i.e. from VI – XII. These textbooks in consonance
with the NCF-2005 present new approach for subject teaching and provide opportunity within

Notes the text to learn from other curricular sites and relate knowledge with one’s own context.
Therefore, there is a need to find out from the system whether teachers understand the
emerging approach and whether there is correspondence between the approach and the way
teachers transact these textbooks at the secondary level. Moreover, these states/UTs also
need to review the need of state-specific educational needs of learners at various stages and
also the need to bring out curriculum guidelines or new set of syllabi and textbooks to fill up
gaps between the state-specific needs and syllabi and textbooks developed at the national
level.
Self Assessment
(i) The largest increase in the number of private and unaided schools was noted in .....................
is second period of secondary education.
(a) Bengal (b) Chennai (c) Delhi (d) Ajmer
(ii) According to Mudaliar Commission which wa exclusively concerned with secondary
education recommended ........................ stages in India education system.
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
(iii) According to National curriculum framework-2005 there are ................... other curricular
areas except core toward, which academic subjects attention should be given.
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
(iv) ......................... is not the year in which any national curriculum framework has been
prepared.
(a) 1988 (b) 2000 (c) 2005 (d) 2012
21.4 Methods of Teaching in Secondary Education

Curricular structure and course offerings are the necessary condition for quality secondary
education. Instructional processes provide the sufficient condition for quality secondary education.
Contemporary instructional processes and practices are characterised largely by lectures where
students are passive listeners. Such instructional processes contribute at best to lower order
cognition, memorization and fragile learning; together, they make a grand nexus for large-scale
failing in examination. Students lack problem-solving ability, higher order thinking and cognition,
and creativity. Most importantly, they miss out on ‘learning to know’ or learning to learn. If the
new generation secondary education sets its targets for students to be able to think critically, solve
problems individually and collectively, be creative, instructional processes must undergo a
paradigm shift. Instructional processes must bring students at the centre of stage where they
primarily learn to learn through peer interaction, problem-solving, experiential learning, etc. In
this new instructional scenario, teachers will be facilitators of learning. Research as a tool for
learning is quite common all over the world; introduced even at the pre-primary stage. Indeed, by
the time students are in the 9th and 10th standards they should become researchers to be able to
crack problems, contemplate solutions, explore and experiments alternative and creative ways of
problem-solving. In other words, instructional processes must be constructivist in its approach.
Through constructivism, students will learn to construct their learning according to their own
worldview that unfolds over the years of schooling. It is this learning to construct learning that
will hold them in stead into the adult life at work and later.
Information and Communication Technology

Experience is said to be a great teacher. This experience may be gained by the learner through
direct and indirect means. Direct access to the source for gaining first-hand experience is neither
always possible nor desirable. Consequently, most of our learning is based on second-hand
experience in the form of information received by us about the object, places, persons, ideas or
event. This information provides a base for our knowledge and understanding about them and
the environment surrounding them. For this purpose, the learner must be able to learn the art of

getting information, store and make its use as and when desired. Such type of activities is aid to Notes
be the part and parcel of Information Technology (IT). However, the use as well as access to the
information remains incomplete without the involvement of the art of communication.
Communication as a two-way process tends for the sharing of ideas, thought, beliefs and
information with others. The mutual sharing between the source and receiver of the information
thus tends to add in its increase, understanding and use that ultimately help in building up
knowledge. In this way, both information and communication are utmost needed in acquiring
knowledge and getting involved in the knowledge-acquiring process. Now, the efficiency and
effectiveness in the activities selected to information and communication is availed from information
and communication technology or ICT.
Uses and Advantages
ICTs can play the same role in our information and communication processes and their outcomes
as played by other technologies in making our lives quite comfortable and purposeful. As a result,
they have become quite popular in all walks of our life. The modern ICTs, in fact, have brought a
revolution in he field of business, industry, insurance, banking, agriculture, medicine, transport,
postal and telecommunications, service organizations and various other fiends affecting our day-
to-day activities.
The Students
They may get the required opportunities and training for receiving and using information for
their self-improvement. ICT may help them to satisfy their urges of curiosity, intenseness,
construction, etc. They get acquainted with he relevant sources of information, the ways and
means of extracting required information, methods of information processing, etc. The training
received in proper decision-making and problem solving may enable them to bring necessary
changes in their behavior.
The Teacher
The teachers get sufficient help from ICT in their task of teaching. Their acquaintance with the
relevant source of information in the form of books, journals and other reading=material, audio-
visual arterial and equipment and electronics and telecommunication media makes them able to
acquire necessary teaching material and techniques.
21.5 Student Examination and Evaluation

Secondary education is the turning point for a large majority of students. Not only the certificate
one earns after schooling but also the actual learning during schooling is the lifelong resource.
Along with building dynamism in curricular framework as well as instructional processes,
evaluation must undergo major changes. Conventionally, education system, particularly school
education is guided and controlled by concern for results in examination irrespective of the quality
of learning --whether fragile or sustainable. The competition, though artificial, for securing
percentage of marks in the final examination creates unusual stress in the students leading often
to mental break down and suicides. This must change.
Change in the mechanics of examination will be too simplistic a solution, amounting to treating
the symptoms, not the disease itself. Examination-stress is directly related to facing the challenge
of examination with ‘fragile’ learning due to memorizing huge stock of information. In order to
manage the stress factor in examination it will be necessary to ensure sustainable learning which
the function of instructional processes is. Yet, it will be necessary to reconstruct and redesign
examination system with attributes like flexibility where a student can achieve mastery learning
in a flexible time frame and accumulate credits; eliminating power tests (fixed duration), adopt
continuous and comprehensive evaluation. The practice of mark sheets indicating marks in certain
subjects must be replaced by a portfolio that would accommodate a student’s performance in a
variety of domains like life skills, academic/nonacademic and vocational subjects, personal qualities,
etc. The portfolio should be comprehensive, revealing of the total being of the student.

Notes 21.5.1 Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)

Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) formulated CCE (Continuous and Comprehensive
Evaluation) method for its students from Class I to X in the year 2009 and started implementing
the same in a phased manner. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangethan, a Central Government Body which
runs schools all over India under CBSE curriculum introduced from Class III to X from the academic
session 2010-11.
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation refers to a system of school based assessment that
covers all aspects of student's development.
It emphasizes two fold objectives. Continuity in evaluation and assessment of broad based learning.
With a view to reduce examination pressure to students, the significant change made in the CCE
is implementation of optional Board Examination for X std. There will be only school conducted
exam at the end of academic year for students of Senior Secondary Schools who are appearing for
Class X and who do not wish to move out of the CBSE system. If a student studying in a Senior
Secondary School can prefer to attend Board Examination in respect of X std, if he wishes so.
However, students who are studying in secondary schools in which no classes for XI and XII are
conducted all the students must appear for Board Examination in respect of X std.
21.5.2 Grading System

The examinations provide an essential yard stick to judge the quality of students. They play an
important role in the education system. They provide motivation and a sense of purpose to both
teachers and students to achieve set goals. Though all out efforts are made to enhance the reliability
of examination, however the human error cannot be avoided. Presently, the evaluation is carried
out in 101 point scale and human nature lacks in true evaluation on such a large scale. It is
experimentally established that the error of measurement in terms of marks is between 5 to 15%
and that in more than 50 percent cases it is more than 5%. This shortcoming can be overcome if the
students are placed in ability bands that represent range of scores.
21.5.3 Grades in place of marks

Grading is a method of communicating measurements of student achievement by using a set of
symbols that ought to be clearly defined and understood by all concerned i.e. students, teachers,
parents and all other stake holders. In grading, subjects are classified on the basis of pre-defined
standards. It is of utmost significance that the meaning of each grading symbol is clearly spelt out.
The different grading systems in use are:
• Direct Grading
• Indirect Grading - Absolute Grading
- Relative Grading
Advantages of Grading are:
• It will minimize misclassification of students on the basis of unreliable marks
• It will eliminate unhealthy cut-throat competition among high achievers.
• It will be a greater relief to low achievers when the system of declaring pass/ fail is abolished.
Failure in a single stroke examination should not convey the message that a student is a
failure in life and thus affect self esteem.
• It will provide a chance to improve upon his/her grade in any subject over a period of time
without carrying the stigma attached with failure.
• It will reduce societal pressure and will make the learner more comfortable.
In relative grading students are ranked and assigned grades according to rank i.e. placing students
in direct competition with one another.
It is observed that when rank-based systems are used in education or in any employment situation,

cut-throat behaviour and cheating becomes rampant. It only measures performance in a given Notes
group, but not the real potential abilities of a given student. One of the major criticisms of this
scheme is that the percentage of students receiving different grades is preconceived.
As far as Absolute Grading is concerned it is simple and straightforward to use. Student has the
freedom to strive for the attainment of the higher possible grade. However following are the
limitations of this scheme
• the distribution of scores is taken on its face value regardless of the errors of measurement
creeping in due to various types of subjectivity
• arbitrariness in cut-off for different ranges
The following are the limitations of Grading:
• It is not free from some criticism
• It is not possible to get single indicator like 'Total Marks'.
• Merit List/ Toppers/ Rank Holders cannot be identified.
• There can be some mis-classification in border line cases
Under Absolute Grading only subject-wise grades may be awarded with no cumulative or overall
grade. Also all the subjects can have the same weightage and the scheme would be easy to
implement at school as well as at Board level, i.e., it should be valid for small as well as large
student population. The scheme should also take into account the important fact that in a highly
heterogeneous population, distribution of student performance (scores) is far from the normal
curve or bell-shaped curve.
While recommending a grading system in use, the factors to be kept in mind are that it should be:
• Easy to compile
• Easy to understand
• Easy to implement in large as well as small populations
• Comparable between School and Board examinations
• Comparable among different kind of Schools
There are many State Boards who are giving Grades at Class X level. They however also give
marks. The result is that the Grades are not looked at seriously. The Central Board of Secondary
Education (CBSE) arrived at a nine point grading system (with the last grade as ‘Needs
Improvement’ grade) with the help of extensive analysis of Board’s data containing the distribution
of marks in the past CBSE examinations of class X. It makes use of indirect grading in which
student performance is assessed using conventional numerical marking mode and subsequently
marks so awarded are converted into letter grades. Conversion of marks into grades will be carried
out by using absolute grading methods. No marks are mentioned by the CBSE in the final certificate.
The adoption of Grading in place of Marks is a positive and a powerful directive of NPE for all
levels of education. It is time to accept the concept without any reservation and work for its
implementation.
Putting a system of Grading in place which replaces marks with grades has found support of
various research studies as well as Committees and Commissions including NPE and has been
under active consideration by the CBSE.
Thus it remains imperative that we take up this challenge at the earliest and create awareness as
well as advocacy of all stake-holders including students, teachers, heads of institutes, parents,
educators and university officials. Its successful implementation by the CBSE should finally find
wider acceptance in other Boards as well.


(i) ................. and ................ are the necessary condition for quality secondary education.
(ii) ......................... is the type of technology employed in the shape of tools, equipment and
application support which helps in the collection, storage and enriching knowledge in the
field of education
(iii) ............................. refers to a communication technology system of school based assessment
that covers all aspects of student’s development.
(iv) ................ is a method of communicating measurements of student achievement by using a
set of symbols that ought to be clearly defined and understood by all concerned students,
teachers, parents.
Students Assessment and Examination Reforms
Establishment of a National Institute for Assessment, Evaluation and Research: Short –term and
long-term Vision for the Centre; The immediate vision of the Centre would be to share the expertise
and experience with/of the Boards and the partner organisation to create improved resources for
better quality of learning assessment, research and professional development.
This includes
• Creative curricular designing
• Productive pedagogical techniques
• Progressive assessment practices
• Multidimensional assessment techniques
• Action research studies for improved learning
• Development of support materials
• Empowerment of educational personnel.
Every effort will be made to achieve the pre-decided short-term goals within a span of three years.
The priority areas of immediate concern will be identified in advance and focused efforts will be
made to meet the targets.
The long-term vision of the Centre envisages overall improvement and strengthening of student
learning, teacher effectiveness, sharing of international best practices and monitoring of educational
standards in the schools.
Some of the long term targets include:-
• generating expert educational human resources
• creating learning institutions
• promoting research based educational practices
• monitoring quality educational parameters
The long term vision is proposed to be realized in a time span of about five years. The Centre is
expected to acquire a truly National character with expansion and support to all other systems of
education in the country.
Specific Objectives
The proposed Centre is expected to :
• create research capability and assessment resources of international quality
• establish mechanism to provide feedback and input to the Board regarding levels of students’
learning
• provide professional development and leadership training
• conduct research into policies and programs that can improve student learning and teaching
quality

• provide insight and support to study existing school based assessment practices and Notes
strengthen the same
• develop support materials and research based materials to strengthen school stage procedures
and practices.
The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) is in the process of establishing one such centre
in Public Private Partnership model. The character of the Centre is not-for –profit kind.
The general operational elements for establishment of the Centre are:
• The required infrastructure will be provided by the Board.
• A joint working committee will be constituted to make the centre operational.
• The selection of staff including Head of the Centre will be done by Joint working committee.
• Academic expertise and capacity building expertise will be provided jointly by CBSE and
the partner organisation with major contributions from partner organistions.
• Both the partner organisation and the Board will equally share the initial expenditure incurred
in making the centre function effectively. The Centre is expected to generate its own financial
resources through publications, projects and empowerment programmes etc. at a later stage.
• All major decisions such as projects to be undertaken, collaborating with national and
international agencies, research activities, identifying the growth path for the Centre etc. will
be taken by Joint Working Committee.
This centre, upon becoming operational, will be converted into National Institute for Assessment,
Evaluation and Research during the 12th Plan Period. An outlay of Rs. 210 crore has been proposed
for this purpose.
What is CCE/
Self Assessment:
2. State whether the following statements are Ture or False:
(i) The existing secondary system, suffers from aimbessness.
(ii) The standard of secondary level textbooks is right.
(iii) Modern methods of teaching are mostly conservative and traditional in nature.
(iv) No new method or technique will help to provide the practical aspect of the subject.
21.6 Summary
• Development of secondary education has been divided in five period.
First Period : Originally all secondary schools were English Schools. They were established
by private bodies, Christian missionaries and Government.
• Second Period : The Indian universities began to dominate secondary education since their
inception in 1857. The policy regarding curriculum, examination system, medium of
instruction and other vital problems began to be chalked out by university fathers who had
very little of school experience and kept administrative needs and requirements of colleges
in the forefront. It may also be noted that till 1854, secondary schools were mainly under
Government or European Management.
• Third Period : The Calcutta University (Sadler) Commission examined some common problems
of secondary of secondary and university education, and held that “no satisfactory re-
organization or the university system ...... Will be possible unless and until a radical
reorganization of the system of secondary education. upon which university work depends,
is carried into effect.

Notes • Fourth Period: During this period a number of important reports were published. TheAbbot-
Wood Report of 1937 suggested a complete hierarchy imparting general education. A number
of polytechnics came into existence as a result of the recommendations of this Report.
The Sergeant Report of 1944 recommended :
(a) Six year duration for the high school course, and
(b) Three year degree course at the university stage. Thus it suggested the abolition of the
intermediate course by attaching the first year of this course to the intermediate course by
attaching the first year of this course to the school stage and absorbing its second year in
the degree course.
• Fifth Period : During this period, a number of official reports on education were published.
In 1952, the Mudaliar Commission which was exclusively concerned with secondary education
recommended three stage in Indian educational system, viz.
1. Primary stage of 4 to 5 years’ duration;
2. Middle (secondary) stage of 4 years’ duration; and
3. Higher secondary stage of 4 years’ duration.
• The National Curriculum Framework-2005 Aims of Education: The National Curriculum
Framework taking cues from ‘Learning without Burden’ (1993) and seeking guidance from
the Constitutional vision of India as a secular, egalitarian and pluralistic society, founded on
the values of social justice and equality, identifies certain broad aims of secondary education.
These include :
(i)independence of thought and action,
(ii)sensitivity to others’ well being and feelings,
(iii)learning to respond to new situations in a flexible and creative manner,
(iv)pre-disposition towards participation in democratic processes and the ability to work towards
and contribute to economic processes and social change.
• Providing broad guidelines for the development of curriculum, syllabus and textbooks;
assessment and evaluation and also for teacher education the National Curriculum
Framework-2005 in secondary education recommends the following shifts:
1. Change in the design of encyclopedic type of syllabi and textbooks and also a change in
social ethos, which places stress on learners.
2. (As per the document this will enable learners to find their voices, nurture their curiosity-
to do things, to ask questions and pursue investigations, to improve their ability to share
and integrate their experiences with school knowledge-rather than to reproduce textual
knowledge)
3. Bringing the arts, work, peace and health and physical education squarely into the domain
of the curricular, infusing them in all areas of learning while giving them an identity of
their own at relevant stages.
• Language Education: Language skills such as speech and listening, reading and writing –
cut across school subjects and disciplines.
• Mathematics: Teaching of Mathematics, it is proposed, should enhance the learner’s resources
to think and reason, visualise and handle abstractions, to formulate and solve problems.
• Science: Content, process and language of science teaching must be commensurate with the
learner’s age-range and cognitive reach. Science teaching should engage the learners in
acquiring methods and processes that will nurture their curiosity and creativity, particularly
in relation to the environment.
• Methods of Teaching: Curricular structure and course offerings are the necessary condition
for quality secondary education. Instructional processes provide the sufficient condition for
quality secondary education. Contemporary instructional processes and practices are
characterised largely by lectures where students are passive listeners.

• Information and Communication Technology: Experience is said to be a great teacher. This Notes
experience may be gained by the learner through direct and indirect means. Direct access to
the source for gaining first-hand experience is neither always possible nor desirable.
Consequently, most of our learning is based on second-hand experience in the form of
information received by us about the object, places, persons, ideas or event. This information
provides a base for our knowledge and understanding about them and the environment
surrounding them. For this purpose, the learner must be able to learn the art of getting
information, store and make its use as and when desired.
• Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE): Secondary education is the turning point
for a large majority of students. Not only the certificate one earns after schooling but also the
actual learning during schooling is the lifelong resource. Along with building dynamism in
curricular framework as well as instructional processes, evaluation must undergo major
changes.
• Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) formulated CCE (Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation) method for its students from Class I to X in the year 2009 and
started implementing the same in a phased manner. Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangethan, a Central
Government Body which runs schools all over India under CBSE curriculum introduced
from Class III to X from the academic session 2010-11.
• Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation refers to a system of school based assessment
that covers all aspects of student's development.
• Grading System: The examinations provide an essential yard stick to judge the quality of
students. They play an important role in the education system.
• Grading is a method of communicating measurements of student achievement by using a set
of symbols that ought to be clearly defined and understood by all concerned i.e. students,
teachers, parents and all other stake holders. In grading, subjects are classified on the basis
of pre-defined standards. It is of utmost significance that the meaning of each grading symbol
is clearly spelt out.
The different grading systems in use are:
• Direct Grading
• Indirect Grading - Absolute Grading
- Relative Grading
• Advantages of Grading are:
• It will minimize misclassification of students on the basis of unreliable marks
• It will eliminate unhealthy cut-throat competition among high achievers.
• It will be a greater relief to low achievers when the system of declaring pass/ fail is abolished.
Failure in a single stroke examination should not convey the message that a student is a
failure in life and thus affect self esteem.
21.7 Keywords
• Recommendations : an official suggestion about the best thing to do
• Province : one of the areas that some countries are divided into with town local
government
• Vocational : connected with the skill to do particular job
• Councelling : professional advice about a problem


1. Explain the development of secondary education.
2. What are the aims of secondary education?
3. Give the main principles to prepare secondary school curriculum.
4. Explain the examination and evaluation system in India.
5. What is grading system? Give it advantages.

1. (i) English (ii) Kothari Commission (iii) time table
(v) Mother tongue
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, Khatia K., Shipra

Publications.
3. Educational Regimes in Contemporary India : Radhika Chopra , Patricia M Jeffery

Unit 22: Vocationalisation of Secondary Education
Unit 22: Vocationalisation of Secondary Education Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
22.1 Need for Vocationalisation of Education
22.2 Merits of Vocationalisation of Education
22.3 Targets Set And Achieved In NPE, 1986 And 1992
22.4 Problems of Vocationalisation
22.5 Suggestions for Accelerating Vocationalisation of Secondary Education
22.6 Summary
22.7 Keywords
Objective
• to discuss about Need for Vocationalisation of Education
• to describe about Merits of Vocationalisation of Education.
• to explain targets, set and achieved in NPE, 1986 and 1992.
• to discss about Problems of Vocationalisation
• to describe about Suggestions for Accelerating Vocationalisation of Secondary Education
Introduction
UNESCO, in its recommendation of 1974 defined it as a “Comprehensive term embracing those
aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of
technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding
and knowledge relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and social life.”
22.1 Need for Vocationalisation of Education

It is increasingly being realised that the great need of the hour is to divert our “Single track”
education system of the academic type into a double track or multi-track education to provide
diversified vocational courses which really prepare higher secondary students for life, make our
education job-oriented and productive. The country’s education system is to be re-organised in
terms of job-orientation, work experience and development of skills and attitudes that will make
for self-employment rather than search for the job. As Rabindranath Tagore has put it “A man
may be eminent in book-learning but his education remains incomplete till he has not learnt to put
his hand to good and efficient purpose”. Mahatma Gandhi also stressed the importance of working
with head and hand together. It is high time that we make our education really terminal so that a
large majority of our students are prepared for and directed to different walks of life.
The report of Abbot Wood in 1937 advocated for a planned and systematic vocational education
in this country. The system of basic education as propounded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1937 made
education Craft-centred. The Secondary Education Commission 1952-53 recommended the
establishment of multi-lateral or multi-purpose schools to provide for diversified courses at the

Notes secondary stage. The Education Commission 1964-66 also laid a great stress on vocationalisation
of education, especially at the secondary school level to meet the needs of Industry, Agriculture
and Trade. The report of the Review Committee on the Curriculum, for the Ten Years School,
popularly known as Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee (1977) recommended a compulsory introduction
of socially useful productive work. The Plus 2 Committee Report entitled ‘Learning To Do—Towards
the Learning and Working Society’’ on Higher Secondary Education with special reference to
vocationalisation, under the Chairmanship of Malcom S. Adiseshiah (1978) recommended the
introduction of socially useful productive work at the school stage and also made important
recommendations for the voctionalisation of the higher secondary education. The report pleaded
very strongly to give serious thought to the effective implementation of this very important aspect
of education, i.e., relating education to productivity.
The rate of unemployment has continued to increase with the rapid expansion of educational
facilities. The maladjustment between the supply and demand of educated persons is likely to
assume unmanageable proportions unless effective steps are from now onwards. The discontent
and frustration among our educated youth is clearly visible in their very irrational acts like tearing
degree certificates in the University convocation functions.
The Plus 2 Committee or the Adiseshiah Report (1978) outlined the philosophy of vocationalisation
as, “In a country where industrial and agricultural production is growing, where the application
of science and technology opens up diverse fields of activity, where commerce and trade and a
large variety of public services are expanding rapidly, there must be an adequate supply of
personnel for the higher administrative and professional levels, but there is a crucial middle level
of manpower trained in certain specific competencies without which neither production can be
increased nor services improve. If health services have to function and benefit the common man,
the doctor alone can achieve nothing, unless the drugs, and instruments are manufactured and
hospital facilities established to reach every nook and corner of the country. This focuses or attention
on the variety and number of technical people manning of the productive medical enterprises on
the one hand, and a host of paramedical and technical people who make it possible for a hospital
to function from those who take the X-ray or conduct pathological tests to operation theatre
technicians, physiotherapists, orthopaedic assistants, and so on. In agriculture, commerce and the
string of cultural and welfare services, this middle-level personnel is of the utmost importance for
the very existence of a modern society. Deficiencies, either in number or in training of personnel
for these vocations, lead to poor maintenance of equipment, material and services, to frustration
for the users and high infructuous costs to the country.
In India, although agriculture is and will remain for decades to be the mainstay of our economy,
we have in the past been concerned mainly with industry-cum-oriented vocations. Facilities and
services in rural areas have remained generally backward so that the city-trained doctors, engineers
and even technicians do not find it sufficiently attractive to settle and serve in the rural areas.
Special attention, therefore, has to be given to raising the facilities and quality of life in the rural
area, which implies development of particularly those vocations which have the potential of better
utilization of rural agricultural resources from the servicing of tractors, tube-wells or other
machinery to vocations such as those based on dairy/fruit/vegetable/ horticulture/medical plant/
products, or those connected with rural health/ educational/cultural services. Therefore, in a
sense, vocational education has the potential of enabling us to really move towards equitable
sharing of benefits of economic development towards social justice and socialism.”
The National Policy on Education, 1986 as modified in 1992 has pointed out the importance and
philosophy of vocationalisation in these words, “The introduction of systematic, well planned and
rigorously implemented programmes of vocational education is crucial in the proposed educational
reorganisation. These elements are meant to develop a healthy attitude amongst students towards
work and life, to enhance individual employability, to reduce the mis-match between the demand
and supply of skilled manpower, and to provide an alternative for those intending to pursue
higher education without particular interest or purpose. Efforts will be made to provide children
at the higher secondary level with generic vocational courses which cut across several occupational
fields and which are not occupation specific.”

Notes
The ratio of enrolment in vocational courses at the secondary stage is only about 10 per
cent in India as compared with 20% in China, 25% in France, 29% in Italy, 60% in Russia,
65% in U.K. and 80% or more in Switzerland, Denmark and Germany. In this connection,
it is of importance to note that the introduction of practical subjects in secondary schools
so as to divert the students into different walks of life was recommended as early as
1882 by the Hunter Commission.
22.2 Merits of Vocationalisation of Education

1. Education related to productivity : Vocational education contributes to the achievement of
society’s goal of self-sufficiency in agriculture and industry by developing suitable skills.
2. Preparation of individuals for jobs : It prepares the individual to realize his own potential
within the framework of economic development to which the individual contributes.
3. Employment potentialities : Education does not produce job but vocationalised education
makes it more timely for an individual to get a jobs or to be his own master either starting a
new productive activity or a service which may satisfy a felt need of the community.
4. Broadening of horizon : It leads to an understanding of the scientific and technological
aspects of contemporary civilisation in such a way that they comprehend their environment
critically and constructively.
5. Dignity of labour : Vocationalisation of education provides useful experience for the
development of dignity of labour.
6. Maximum utilisation of the material resources of the country : Due to lack of trained
technical know how our resources have remained unutilized. Vocationalisation of education
provides suitable opportunities.
22.1.1 Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary

Education
A Centrally sponsored scheme of vocationalisation of higher secondary education was introduced
in February 1988 with the following objects :
1. To enhance individual employability.
2. To reduce the mismatch between demand and supply of skilled manpower.
3. To provide an alternative for those who pursue higher education without particular interest
or purpose.
22.2.2 Major steps taken in Vocationalisation of Education

1. A Joint Council for Vocational Educational (JVC) was set up in April 1990 for policy
formulation and coordination at the national level.
2. Nearly 60 vocational courses have been notified under the Apprenticeship Act.
3. Collaborative arrangements have been made with the Ministry of Railways.
In 1993, Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational Education (SSCIVE)

was set up at Bhopal to provide technical and academic support to the programme
in the country.


1. Multiple Choice Questions:
(i) The report of about wood in ........... advocated for a planned and systematic vocational
education in this country.
(a) 1930 (b) 1935 (c) 1937 (d) 1940
(ii) Nearly ...................... vocational courses have been notified under the apprenticeship act.
(a) 40 (b) 60 (c) 80 (d) 100
(iii) Due to lack of trained technical know how our resources have remained .......................... .
(a) unutilized (b) necessary (c) official (d) vocational
(iv) A centrally sponsored scheme of vocationalization of higher secondary education was
introduced in ........................... .
(a) Jan. 1980 (b) Feb. 1988 (c) March 1996 (d) April 1998
22.3 Targets Set And Achieved In NPE, 1986 And 1992

Target set in NPE, 1986 : It is proposed that vocational courses cover 10 per cent of higher secondary
students by 1990 and 25 per cent by 1995. Steps will be taken to see that a substantial majority of
the products of vocational courses are employed or self-employed. Review of the courses offered
would be regularly undertaken. Government will also review its recruitment policy to encourage
diversification at the secondary level.”
Targets Set in NPE, 1992 : ”It is proposed that vocational courses cover 10 per cent of higher
secondary students by 1995 and 25 per cent. by 2000. Steps will be taken to see that a substantial
majority of the products of vocational courses are employed or become self-employed. Review of
the courses offered would be regularly undertaken. Government will also review its recruitment
policy to encourage diversification at the secondary level.
Present Position : At present only 10 per cent of the students are opting out for the vocational
courses against a target of 25 per cent by 2005. Thus the situation is of great concern.
22.4 Problems of Vocationalisation

1. General Indifference to vocational pursuits.
2. Vocational courses as dumping ground.
3. Inadequate content of vocational courses.
4. Lack of equipment.
5. Lack of trained vocational teachers.
6. Non-determination of equivalance of vocational degrees.
7. Limited choice of vocational courses.
8. Inadequate guidance and counselling facilities.
9. Lack of research.
10. Lack of systematic vocational set up.
11. Evaluation difficulties.
22.5 Suggestions for Accelerating Vocationalisation of Secondary Education

1. Vocational institutions not to be regarded as dumping ground for drop-outs and
educationally backward pupils : It is extremely important that our attitude towards schools
should undergo a revolutionary change. We should form right type of attitude towards
drop-outs, who go in for vocational institutions.

2. Vocational courses should be terminal in character : At the end of a course, the students Notes
should be prepared for career or independent work. The knowledge imparted should be
theoretical as well as practical. The courses should produce semi-skilled and skilled workers
for lower level and middle level requirements.
3. Vocational courses for drop-outs : In our country it is estimated that out of 100 students
who join class I, only 50 reach class VIII and only 16 class XII. It is, therefore, suggested that
part-time courses should be organised for these drop-outs. Separate courses should be devised
for girls in accordance with their requirements.
4. Provision for further training and re-training to persons opting for vocational courses :
Provision for further training and re-training to persons opting for vocational courses will
have to be assured so that they may have the chance for advance studies and higher
specialisation if they have the capacity and will to do it.
5. Training of village worker for agriculture extension programme : Short refresher courses
to increase food production and to give a new outlook to agriculture be organised for such
workers.
6. Compulsory introduction of work experience in all primary and secondary schools:
Establishment of school complex consisting of a group of schools to provide work experience
to the pupils individually as well as in groups will be very useful. Proper care should be
taken to see that it does not meet the fate of basic education.
7. Pre-occupational education and vocational guidance : There should be provision not only
to provide vocational advice but there should also be provision for aptitude and psychological
testing wherever possible.
8. Placement or organised transfer from vocational schools to industries, or enterprises: A
separate statewise agency should be set up for this purpose.
9. Part-time vocational courses for self-employed persons : There is a great need to organise
courses for the agriculturist who works on the family farm. A careful study of the local needs
should be made before the selection of various courses. A few central places in the district
should be selected for such courses.
10. Provision for on-the-job training : Provision for on-the-job training should be made with
the help of nearby industries or enterprises, both of private and public sector.
11. Provision of building equipment : Adequate building and proper equipment are essential
for the implementation of any educational programme and vocational education is no
exception to it. A central place in each district be selected for vocational schools with hostel
accommodation.
12. Training of vocational teachers : All progressive and industrialised countries attach great
importance to this training programme. In India also we have to give due attention to this aspect.
13. Adequate preparation: more challenging task : It will be necessary to prepare suitable
textbooks and other reading material for various courses to be selected in different vocational
schools.
14. Freeships and stipends to vocational trainees : In order to encourage more young boys and
girls to take up vocational courses, freeships and stipends will be very necessary. The existing
Apprenticeship Scheme will have to be strengthened.
15. Very low fees for vocational courses : Vocational courses of all types should be provided
without charging any fees or nominal fees at all levels.
16. Vocational education to become people’s movement : The Government may take the lead
but the cooperation of the State Government as well as other non-governmental agencies is
very essential.
17. Study of manpower needs : It is widely felt that in India the expansion of vocational and
technical education should be done with caution and with regard to the development of
organised, industries and needs of the society.

Notes 18. District and state vocational committees : District and state vocational committees having
representatives of productive activities and services, trade and commerce, administration,
planning and educational institutions would be most useful not only in deciding upon the
vocations for which facilities should be provided from year to year, but also in deciding on
the content of the vocational courses and more than this, the manner of facilitating training
in these vocations by the cooperative participation of the above mentioned agencies.
19. School industry link : Through proper legislation, the government could consider involving
large public undertakings and workshops, such as those belonging to the railways to take
positive steps to adopt higher secondary schools for teaching and training in certain fields so
that the costs of vocationalization do not mount, at least in part, owning to the duplication of
facilities. The laboratories and workshops of these institutions should be made available
during the vacations and during holidays.
Needless to say that vocational programmes in most cases will have to be run by sharing the
facilities of professional institutions also, besides part-time staff. It is in sense a partnership
programme between education and other sectors of the economy and the services between
the school and the factory or the farm.
20. Need for systematic supervision and effective administration of vocational education
programmes : A separate department should be established at the State level for the
administration and supervision of vocational education.
21. Problems related to reorientation and training : The introduction of vocational courses has
created enormous problems of training of teachers. As a matter of fact only bonafide vocational
experts can impart vocational education effectively. Ways and means will have to be devised
so that such trained vocational experts come forward for working in educational institutions.
Proper qualifications will have to be prescribed for teachers teaching vocational subjects.
22. Problems related to evaluation : Suitable evaluation tools will have to be developed
immediately to assess the performance of the students in the vocational courses. Subjective
element will have to be reduced to the minimum.
23. Redesigning of Teacher Training Courses : The teachers training colleges and departments
are required to recast their curriculum so that it is in accordance with the new requirements.
24. Problems related to the determination of equivalence of diplomas/ certificates and degrees
: A student will not go in for a vocational course unless he is sure that a particular course will
lead him to a specific job. This points to the need of a more centralised system for identifying
the course which are acceptable to the organised sector and whose equivalence is already
determined.
Similarly, proper arrangements will have to be made for those students who wish to go in
for higher education after completing a two-year vocational course.
25. Problems related to research : So far we have been guided by the subjective opinion of a few
educational experts who dominate and whose opinions carry considerable weight. Our
educational programmes, by and large, have not been based on try-outs and surveys. It is
very much surprising that no authentic survey has been conducted to assess the reactions of
the students who are directly involved in the new scheme of secondary and higher secondary
education. It is very imperative that suitable techniques of educational research are evolved
and used to find out the reactions not only of the students who are studying under the new
pattern but also of their parents and teachers. This would provide pragmatic guidelines for
foimulating scheme of educational reforms.
26. Easy loans : Adequate provision will have to be made for a system of easy loans so that
vocationally trained students are motivated to set up their own business.
27. Co-ordination with the finance department : It has generally been observed that there is no
proper co-ordination between the educational administrators and the officials of the Finance
Department of the states with the result that there is an undue delay in getting financial
sanctions for the requisite staff, equipment, etc. Suitable ways and means will have to be

devised so that the officials of the Finance department appreciate the urgency and significance Notes
of educational reforms in their real perspective and shed their traditional attitude of putting
unnecessary obstacles in clearing schemes of educational reforms.
To the above may be added the following recommendations made by the Ramamurti
Committee (1990).
28. Work benches and practice schools : In order that the process of vocational education is
enriched by a meaningful combination of teaching of theory and practice and effective linkages
are established with the ‘world of work’, ‘work benches’ and ‘practice schools’ should be
identified, accredited and involved ‘work benches’ and ‘practice schools’ are work situations
selected for the purpose of giving vocational training and direct experience to students within
production units or developmental activities of the official agencies. This arrangement offers
a more effective educational strategy for providing vocational experience to students than
what can be arranged within the four walls of the ‘classroom’.
Name 5 committees established for vocationalisation of education.
Self Assessment
(i) In 1986, NPE proposed that vocational courses cover 10 percent of higher secondary students
by 1990 and 25 percent by 1995.
(ii) There is no lack of trained vocational teachers and equipment.
(iii) At present only 20 percent of the students are opting out for thevocational courses against
a target of 25 percent at 2005.
(iv) The teachers training colleges and departments are requiredto recast their curriculum so
that it is in accordance with thenever requirements.
(v) A separate department should be established at thestate level for the administration and
supervision of vocational education.
22.6 Summary
• The country’s education system is to be re-organised in terms of job-orientation, work
experience and development of skills and attitudes that will make for self-employment rather
than search for the job.
• The report of Abbot Wood in 1937 advocated for a planned and systematic vocational
education in this country. The system of basic education as propounded by Mahatma Gandhi
in 1937 made education Craft-centred.
• The rate of unemployment has continued to increase with the rapid expansion of educational
facilities. The maladjustment between the supply and demand of educated persons is likely
to assume unmanageable proportions unless effective steps are from now onwards.
• In a country where industrial and agricultural production is growing, where the application
of science and technology opens up diverse fields of activity, where commerce and trade and
a large variety of public services are expanding rapidly, there must be an adequate supply of
personnel for the higher administrative and professional levels, but there is a crucial middle
level of manpower trained in certain specific competencies.
• The National Policy on Education, 1986 as modified in 1992 has pointed out the importance
and philosophy of vocationalisation in these words, “The introduction of systematic, well
planned and rigorously implemented programmes of vocational education is crucial in the
proposed educational reorganisation.

Notes • Education related to productivity : Vocational education contributes to the achievement of

society’s goal of self-sufficiency in agriculture and industry by developing suitable skills.
• Preparation of individuals for jobs : It prepares the individual to realize his own potential
within the framework of economic development to which the individual contributes.
• Employment potentialities : Education does not produce job but vocationalised education
makes it more timely for an individual to get a jobs or to be his own master either starting a
new productive activity or a service which may satisfy a felt need of the community.
• A Centrally sponsored scheme of vocationalisation of higher secondary education was
introduced in February 1988 with the following objects :
(i) To enhance individual employability.
(ii) To reduce the mismatch between demand and supply of skilled manpower.
(iii) To provide an alternative for those who pursue higher education without particular
interest or purpose.
• Target set in NPE, 1986 : It is proposed that vocational courses cover 10 per cent of higher
secondary students by 1990 and 25 per cent by 1995.
• Targets Set in NPE, 1992 : ”It is proposed that vocational courses cover 10 per cent of higher
secondary students by 1995 and 25 per cent. by 2000. Steps will be taken to see that a substantial
majority of the products of vocational courses are employed or become self-employed.
• General Indifference to vocational pursuits.
• Vocational courses as dumping ground.
• Inadequate content of vocational courses.
• Lack of equipment.
• Lack of trained vocational teachers.
22.7 Keywords
• Vocationalisation : A process of connected with the skills that you need to have in order
to do a particular job.
• Placement : The act of finding a suitable job
• Co-ordination : Work together in an efficient and organized way.

1. Write the 3 merits of vocationalisation of education.
2. What types of problems of vocationalisation are at the present scenario.
3. When was joint council for vocational educational (JVC) set up?
4. How many vocational courses have been notified under the apprenticeship act.

1. (i) (c) (ii) (b) (iii) (a) (iv) (b)
(iv) True.

Dash Bn.

Unit 23 : Teacher Education: Concept and Importance
Unit 23 : Teacher Education: Concept and Importance Notes
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
23.1 Meaning of Training and Education
23.2 Difference between Training and Education
23.3 Need for Teacher-training
23.4 Objectives of Teacher-Education
23.5 Objectives of Teacher-Education at Pre-Primary Stage
23.6 Objectives of Teacher Education at Primary Stage
23.7 Objectives of Teacher Education at Secondary Stage
23.8 Objectives of Teacher Education at Higher Secondary Stage
23.9 Objectives at Collegiate Stage
23.10 Summary
23.11 Keywords
Objectives
• to explain the meaning and difference between Training and Education.
• to explain the need for Teacher-Training.
• to describe objectives of Teacher-Education.
• to discuss about the objectives of teacher-education at pre-primary , primary, secondary
stage, and higher Secondary stage.
• to discuss about the objectives at collegiate stage.
Introduction
The progress of a country depends upon the quality of its teachers and for this reason teaching
is the noblest among all professions. The irony of fate, however, is that teaching is the most
unattractive profession and teacher no longer occupies an honourable position in the society.
Teaching can regain its earlier noble status in case the quality of teacher-education in our
country is improved. It is probably for this reason that the education commission recommends
the introduction of “a sound programme of professional education of teachers”.
23.1 Meaning of Training and Education

Both terms have different meanings. The term ‘training’ has very limited boundary while the
‘education’ is a very broad term under which many things come.
Training: This term is specially defined and explained in the glossary of training terms published
in 1971 in London by the department of employment. In this glossary training has been defined
as “Systematic development of attitude, knowledge, skill, behaviour patterns required by an
individual in order to perform adequately a given job or task.”

Notes Knowledge: ‘Bruner’ in ‘Instructional Technology’ has defined the term as – “Knowledge consists
of facts, concepts, terms, principles, theories, generalization, etc, which are useful for a teacher.”
A teacher must have knowledge of his subject, methods and techniques of teaching and factors
which affect teaching and knowledge of child psychology.
For training purpose it is necessary to know which part of knowledge is essential depending upon
the nature of the job.
Training emphasizes specific attitude, specific knowledge, and specific skills. Efficient
performance of the job depends upon the training. Objective of training programme
is also very specific.
23.2 Difference between Training and Education

‘Glase’, (1962) in his book ‘Psychological Instructional Technology in Training, Research and
Education’ published by University of Pintsburg has pointed out that a distinction can be made
in training and education on the basis of two criteria :
(a) The degree of specificity of objectives.
(b) Minimising Vs. Maximising individual differences.
Training has more specific objectives and attempts to minimise individual difference while
educational objectives are more general and it maximises the individual differences. It means
when people are educated the difference among them are increased and when they are trained
differences are minimised.
Difference between Education and Training
Education Training
1. Education emphasised the activities 1. It emphasizes on development of specific

which aim at developing the knowledge knowledge, attitude, skills and behaviour
and moral values required in all walks patterns to which an individual requires
of life rather than knowledge and skill to perform a job adequately. These
relating io only a limited field of behaviour patterns differ from job to job.
activities. Education is a process of If we train a teacher we develop those
developing integrated personality. skills which are needed to him to be a
good teacher.
2. The purpose of education is to provide the 2. The Purpose of Training is to bring

conditions essential for young persons excellence in the specific job for which
and adults to develop an understanding the individual is being trained. Training
of traditions and ideas influencing the is concerned with people learning to
society in which they live, others cultures perform tasks fairly specific and
and of the law of nature and to acquire prescribed tasks, although there are
linguistic and other skills which are basic exceptions where tasks are more opened
to learning personal development and as in management supervision.
creativity.
Difference in education and training exits more in the context in instructional activity than the
actual methods used and objective sought. Never the less academically it is impossible to make
clear distinction between training and education. Training is an aspect of education.

23.3 Need for Teacher-training Notes
Training is necessary for efficient work in a particular job. If we appoint a person in any job
after sometime through apprentice he will be quite competent for that job. If a person is trained
before employing him in a job-this is called pre-training. This pre-training is very important.
Without providing any training if we employ a person in a job then it is risky because he does
not have any knowledge about the machine, when a person failures in a job he develops the
negative attitude towards the job and thinks that he is not competent for that job. Therefore the
pre-training is must. By having some training he will get success in his job with full satisfaction.
There is need for training in general:
1. In order to perform the job successfully and effectively.
2. It is seen that a trained person learns effectively in a lesser time then untrained person. A
person can learn these things (K/A/S/BP) without training also when he is in job but
efforts and time will go waste and he may learn many irrelevant things also.
3. More complex jobs require more specific knowledge, attitude, and skills and behaviour
patterns that more specificity is there hence training is more important in these jobs. The
risk is involved if he learns on job even it may cause danger to his life also and secondly
trial and error results into wastage of time and energy. A good deal of waste is teacher
efforts can be saved through training.
4. Organized and systematic programme of training make them to learn easily in a more
efficient way and in lesser time.
5. If here is no specificity of objectives K.A.S.S. for a job then there is no need of training but
for every job certain specific K/A/S/BP are required. Therefore, training is necessary for
all kinds of job.
23.3.1 Need for Training in Teaching

Certain people, who are not favour of training hold, the view that there is no need of training
for the teachers, only they should have mastery over the subject because there is no significant
difference found in teaching of training and untrained person.
Theoretically it is not right. Training is essential for every teacher trained teachers can do much
more than untrained teachers. There may be so many reasons for that why they do not perform
their work effectively. Demand of job/profession, the objective and expectations from a teacher
certify the existence of teacher training.
To have mastery over subject matter and to communicate this to students are quite different.
Many skills are needed to communicate the information effectively e.g., skill of questioning
illustrating, demonstrating and explaining, etc., other skills which may be required are skill of
arranging and logically sequencing the subject-matter.
23.3.2 Need for Training in Teaching for College Teachers

Need for training for primary and secondary teachers has been emphasized by many commission
and committees but there are few who realize the need for training the college teachers also.
In the past it had been advocated the need for high-school and junior high-school teacher
training and for degree colleges there is no need of training. But now-a-days, a feeling is
growing up in the circle of top educationists that there should be need for training for college
teachers also. The idea has been propagated by top educators particularly by N.C.T.E. But prior
to this U.G.C. has also organized certain type of orientation programme for college teachers. In
the beginning there was a great resistance of this idea. Now more and more people working in
universities and professional colleges are accepting this idea and advocating the need for training.
Actually, the whole universe of teachers in the country is divided into two groups:
1. The training does not make a person more effective.

Notes 2. Who have great faith in training, say if training has not produced effective teachers perhaps
it might be due to several other reasons not only training but theoretically. If training is
organized it must produce effective teachers. They organized seminars on different
universities on teacher education.
Several universities with the assistance of U.G.C. have organized several short
term courses to provide orientation in teaching continuous for three years 1973-
74 and 75. As a result of this realization at Baroda University ‘Post-Graduate Diploma
Course’ for teaching was also started. 40 days summer course programme was
also started in some universities with the assistance of U.G.C. Relationship
between training and job is helping the people to be more successful on job.
23.3.3 Need Importance of Teacher Education

All the teacher should be trained, but there should not be and also cannot be a specific training
of teachers. This conviction is born out by observations that even the born teachers have to
study the techniques of teaching craft. There are teachers who through training and experiences
have acquired enormous success in teaching. There is, however, no denying the fact that much
wastage in teaching effort can be saved if the prospective teacher is subjected to teacher education
situations conducive for actualization of potential in him.
23.4 Objectives of Teacher-Education

Education helps in the development of an individual’s cognitive, conative and affective abilities.
Teacher-education programmes are designed to prepare effective teachers by providing theoretical
awareness of teaching and developing teaching competency and teaching ability.
23.4.1 Meaning of Ability

The present level of performance of an individual on a test will indicate the growth of his
ability.
Teacher education covers those theoretical aspect through which knowledge, pertaining to specific
subjects and transmitted to students and teachers, is prospected.
23.4.2 Objectives of Teacher Education
The following are the general objectives teacher education programmes.
1. Teacher education : The general objectives of develop Gandhian values of non-violence,
truthfulness, self-discipline, self-reliance and dignity of labour.
2. Perceives the role as an agent of social change in the community.
3. Not only acts as a leader of the student community but also as guide to the wider
community.
4. Established a liaison between the school and the community by employing ways and
means for integrating the resources as a life of the community with school life.
5. Not only uses but also helps in the conservation of environmental resources and life and
preservation of historical emoluments and other cultural heritage.
Write about the teacher education in your own words.


(i) According to Bruner, ................ consists of facts, concepts terms, principles, theories,
generalization, etc. Which are very useful for a teacher.
(ii) ...................... is necessary for efficient work in a particular job.
(iii) Organized and ................... programme of training make them to learn easily in a more
efficient way.
(iv) .......................... is a process of developing integrated personality.
23.5 Objectives of Teacher-Education at Pre-Primary Stage

It has been assumed that teacher who will be educated in the pre-primary teacher institution
will generally teach children between 3 to 8 years of age. This age group is considered
psychologically to be the most important formulated years of an individual’s life span.
Frued believed that foundations of personality of an individual are made in the first five years
of his age. This being so, teacher at pre-primary level need to be the best equipped in terms of
his ability to help in laying down strong foundation for a normal human personality and also
the competencies which may enable him to actualize an individual’s inherent potentials.
However, little care in the country till date has been made in designing a teacher education
curriculum which may develop knowledge, skills and attitudes among the prospective teachers
to help in the personality building process as well as in naturalization of young children’s
potentials.
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) broucher has laid down the
following objectives of teacher education at pre-primary stage.
1. Acquires theoretical and practical knowledge of childhood education.
2. Understands the major principles of growth and development of the children.
3. Applies theoretical and practical knowledge to the education of the children in Indian
context-rural, urban and industrial.
4. Develops understandings, skills, attitudes and interests which will enable him to foster
alround growth and development of the children under his care.
5. Develops skills to help in the physical and emotional health of the children by providing
a conducive environment.
23.6 Objectives of Teacher Education at Primary Stage

The learner at the primary stage has a better developed cognitive, psychomotor and affective
abilities. He has a better capacity in comparison to the learner at the pre-primary stage to make
abstractions, to think, to reason out, to draw inference, to manipulate words, to communicate,
to develop proper relationship with peers, social group, home, neighbourhood and the society
to confirm to social norms, to control his emotions and express his feelings according to social
expectations. Consequent these developments and also because of origin of new problems, new
per spectives, new dimensions in his life the teacher’s talk at this stage is no less crucial and
significant than what it was during pre-primary stage. To be successful as a teacher the prospective
teacher should acquire the following behavioural changes :
1. Possesses knowledge of the first and second language, mathematics, topics related to
social and natural sciences, related to environmental studies.
2. Develops skills to identify, select and organize learning experiences pertaining to subjects
mentioned above and also the skills to conduct them.
3. Possess theoretical and practical knowledge in respect of the child’s health, physical and
creational activities, work experiences, play, games creative art and music and the skills to
conduct these activities.

Notes 4. Develops understanding of the major psychological principles pertaining to growth and
development of the children under his care.
5. Possess theoretical and practical knowledge in respect of childhood education including
integrated teacher.
23.7 Objectives of Teacher Education at Secondary Stage

The following are the basis for the objectives.
1. The child is at the adolescent stage and has problems specific to adolescence.
2. All mechanism of growth and development.
3. Child’s interests at this stage become crystallized in their interaction with varying situation.
4. Child after the completion of adolescence, is ready to choose vocation and pursue it upto
his optimum level.
5. Child’s interests in religion, society, politics, nation and work at large trends to be
manifested.
23.8 Objectives of Teacher Education at Higher Secondary Stage

The following are the main objectives:
(1) Possesses competency to teach subject of his specialization of accepted principles of
teaching and learning in the context of new school curriculum:
Terminal Behaviours
The following are the terminal behaviours :
(a) depth of his understanding of the concept pertaining to his discipline.
(b) makes an internal and external judgement of the quality of an article through ideal
of principles against a criterion.
(c) locates the deficiencies, short falls and errors committed by an author.
(d) suggests solutions for overcoming the falls and observes deficiency and pitfalls.
(e) knows the ways through which adolescent learns.
(f) understands the concept of work and experience.
(g) appreciates the rationale of 10 + 2 curriculum.
(h) possesses the skills to teach.
(2) Develops understandings, skills, interests and attitude which would enable him to foster
the around growth of the child.
Terminal Behaviours
The following are the terminal behaviours :
(a) understands the total concept of personality.
(b) knows the various techniques through which total personality development takes
place.
(c) understands the significance of enabling the child to make a wholesome personality
development.
(d) possesses communication mental and social skills to interact with pupils.
(e) manifests his psychomotor skills in formal and informal institutional situations.
(f) shows a positive and warm attitude about the optimum physical, intellectual,
emotional and social development of the child.

(g) shows interests in the development of the child indicated by : Notes

(i) intrinsic and extrinsic readings pertaining to adolescent growth problems and
needs.
(ii) organization of socio-cultural functions and excursion terms.
(iii) conference with the adolescent.
23.9 Objectives at Collegiate Stage

The following are the basis for the objectives:
1. Learner at college stage is at the transitional adulthood stage.
2. The learner is ready to lead an independent life by vocational and social adjustment.
3. Aptitudes are by and large hardest and stable, habits are enduring and style of work and
personality undergo very little change.
4. Learner is able to acquire more abstract concept, able to reason able to propound his own
theory and able to test it under conducive learning conditions.
Objectives : The main objectives are as follows:
(1) The future teacher for collegiate stage should possess competency to teach the subjects of
his specialization on the basis of accepted principles of teaching and learning also by
striving to keep himself abreast with the latest knowledge in the subject of his specialization
and methodology of teaching.
(2) Develops understanding of the aims and objectives of education in general and of higher
education in particular and is also aware of his role in building up a democratic, secular
and socialistic society in Indian context.
Terminal Behaviours
The following are the terminal behaviours:
(a) understand the various philosophical, sociological, psychological interpretation of concept
of education.
(b) discrimination between aims and objectives of education.
(c) recalls the objectives of education in general and those of higher education.
(d) discriminates between general and specific objective of higher education
Self Assessment
(i) Teacher who will be educated in the pre-primary teacher institution will generally teach
children between 3 to 8 years of age.
(ii) Freud believed that foundations of personality of on individual are made in the first
five years of his age.
(iii) The learner at the secondary stage has a batter developed cognitive, psychomotor and
affective oblations.
(iv) Teacher education does not possess the cortical and practical knowledge in respect of
childhood education including integrated teacher.

Notes 23.10 Summary

• Training: This term is specially defined and explained in the glossary of training terms
published in 1971 in London by the department of employment. In this glossary training
has been defined as “Systematic development of attitude, knowledge, skill, behaviour
patterns required by an individual in order to perform adequately a given job or task.”
• Need for training for primary and secondary teachers has been emphasized by many
commission and committees but there are few who realize the need for training the
college teachers also.
• Teaching is a profession which needs training. But at what level teaching it needs training,
this is the questions. Teaching at any level is done with a view to impart knowledge. So
far as objectives are concerned they do not vary at various levels. Only content and
procedure is changed at different levels.
• All the teacher should be trained, but there should he not be and also cannot be a specific
training of teachers. This conviction is born out by observations that even the born teachers
have to study the techniques of teaching craft. There are teachers who through training
and experiences have acquired enormous success in teaching.
• eachers are a section of community sharply segregated from the rest of the community
preparing themselves for their life’s work in institutions where their fellow students will
be preparing themselves for developing human attributes.
23.11 Keywords
• Attitude : The way that you think and feel about anything.
• Assumptions : A belief or feeling that is true or that will happen.
• Behaviour : The way that behaves especially towards other people
• Innovate : to introduce new things, ideas or way of doing.

1. Write the difference between Education and Training.
2. Why is the need for training in teaching?
3. What is the meaning of ability?
4. Write five basic assumptions for teacher education?
5. What are the objectives of teacher-education at pre-primary stage?
6. what the terminal behaviour of the learner at collegiate level.

1. (i) knowledge (ii) Pre-training (iii) systematic (iv) education
1. Development of Education Systems : Shipra Publications, J.C. Aggarwal, Dash Bn.

Goldrick

Unit 24: Types of Teacher Education (Pre-Service and In-Service)
Unit 24: Types of Teacher Education (Pre-Service and Notes
In-Service)
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
24.1 Pre-Service Teacher Education
24.2 In-Service Teacher Education
24.3 Summary
24.4 Keywords
Objectives
• to explain about the pre-service teacher education.
• to describe about in-service teacher education, etc.
Introduction
The educational expansion, universalisation of elementary education, vocationalisation of
secondary education, higher and professional education and overall quality of education are
major challenges before the country. Evidently the quality of education is a direct consequence
and outcome of the quality of teachers and teacher education system. The task of bringing
qualitative change in institutional efficacy of the teacher education system in itself is a huge
and challenging one. The last five decades have witnessed several attempts to change, modify
and indigenise the inherited system of teacher education. The system however continues to
function more or less on the same principles, similar content and approaches characterised by
continuity and unwillingness to change. Over the years the magnitude of the task has increased
manifold.
24.1 Pre-Service Teacher Educaation

Teacher education by its very nature is interdisciplinary. The major areas of inter-disciplinarity
implicit in teacher education programmes include philosophy, psychology, sociology,
anthropology, economics, history and culture. Recent researches in medical and life sciences are
opening new avenues of knowledge which are relevant to education. Besides, teacher education
has an essential and inalienable component of practical work including student teaching,
internship, field work, working with the community, work education, etc. The country needs
teachers with different orientation and specialisations to manage educational programmes. In
addition, the teachers are also needed for physical education, music, art, painting, dance, work
education and vocational subjects and for the non-formal stream, distance education, adult
education, and open learning system. The scope of teacher education curriculum, therefore, gets
enlarged.
The curriculum for teacher preparation, in future has to emcompass the broader canvas which
is consistently emerging before the teachers and shall continue to change at a much faster pace

Notes in times ahead. Teachers shall have to take a global view of the new trends, strategies and
practices, and focus on indigenous heritage and thoughts which could fit in the local and national
situations. Transplantation of alien educational ideas and practices has not been found rewarding
in developing countries.
Temerging structures and designs of the curriculum shall lay greater emphasis
on the ideas, practices and experiences that have emerged in India through the
contributions of thinkers like Mahatma Gandhi, Vivekanand, Rabindra Nath
Tagore, Zakir Hussain, Sri Aurobindo, Giju Bhai and many others.
The teacher education programmes shall focus on competencies and commitment in much
greater magnitude in future. Such a transformation in teacher preparation strategies would
emerge only after due familiarity and adequate appreciation of indigenous thoughts developed
over decades in India. Gradually an indigenous approach and strategy would emanate and
replace the alien practices that have remained in vogue in teacher education over the decades.
A comprehensive theoretical base is essential for a teacher to assume professional

role and develop capacity to conceptualise inputs from other disciplines as well and
evolve strategies to utilise them.
24.1.1 Teacher Profile

The profile of a teacher which emanates from the contexts and concerns necessarily implies
additional roles besides the conventional ones. The following capabilities and competencies are
required in a pre-service teacher:
(i) inculcating the intrinsic and extrinsic values of professional competency, professional
commitment and professional ethics
(ii) creating and reconstructing knowledge
(iii) selecting, organising and using learning resources
(iv) effectively transacting curriculum, selecting and organising educational activities and
programmes for learners with special needs
(v) using media and appropriate instructional technologies
(vi) communicating effectively and responding to the challenges of continuity and change
(vii) counselling students for personality development, adjustment and learning attainment
(viii) conducting research, especially action research and initiating innovative practices
(xi) organising student-activities
(x) inculcating a sense of value judgement, value commitment and value transmission
(xi) understanding the import of inter-relationship between culture and education and 'culture
and personality'
(xii) fostering interest in life-long learning
(xiii) understanding the aspirations and expectations of the community and establishing
mutually supportive linkages between school and community
(xiv)acting as a change agent for modernisation and development
The educational programmes for prospective teachers, therefore, need to be so designed as to
develop in them the requisite potential and capabilities.

24.1.2 General objectives Notes

The general objectives of pre-service teacher education derived from the contexts, concerns and
issues of education, teacher education and the perceived profile of the teacher, could include the
following:
• to promote capabilities for inculcating national values and goals as enshrined in the
Constitution of India.
• to enable teachers to act as agents of modernisation and social change.
• to sensitize teachers towards the promotion of social cohesion, international understanding
and protection of human rights and rights of the child.
• to transform student-teachers into competent and committed professionals willing to
perform the identified tasks.
• to develop competencies and skills needed for becoming an effective teacher.
• to sensitize teachers and teacher educators about emerging issues, such as environment,
ecology, population, gender equality, legal literacy, etc..
• to empower teachers to cultivate rational thinking and scientific temper among students.
• to develop critical awareness about the social realities.
• to develop managerial and organisational skills.
24.1.3 Characteristics of Curriculum Framework

An overview of the context and concerns as discussed earlier, teacher's profile and general and
specific objectives would define the boundaries of a curriculum framework. The perceived
characteristics of the envisaged curriculum framework would include the following:
• reflects the Indian heritage, acts as an instrument in the realisation of national goals and
fulfills aspirations of people.
• responds to the latest developments in the field of education.
• establishes integration of theory and practice of education.
• provides multiple educational experiences to teachers.
• enables teachers to experiment with new ideas.
• ensures inseparability of pre-service and in-service education of teachers.
• sets achievable goals for various stages of teacher education.
• provides for use of communication technology.
24.1.4 Teacher Education for Early Childhood Stage

The need for early childhood education has long been emphasised on the argument that it
would lead to providing healthy and wholesome learning environment. It is also considered as
a preparatory stage for the realisation of Universalisation of Elementary Education. In order to
provide healthy and enriched childhood to young learners, a new type of teacher specifically
sensitized about the perspectives of child development will be required.
The enrichment programmes for early childhood education have been launched under Integrated
Child Development Scheme through Anganwadis, Day Care Centres, Balwadies, Pre-primary
Schools run by the State Governments, Municipal Corporations, Voluntary Agencies and Private
Agencies. All such efforts, though not adequately provided for, are continuing with diverse
approaches without making a synergic impact. Concerted efforts are needed for organising
early childhood education in a planned manner. It presupposes pooling of resources by the
community as well as the concerned agencies.
In order that early childhood education becomes a reality, in terms of its organisation and
accessibility, one of the significant inputs in making a success story of it is that of a professionally
trained and committed teacher. The professional preparation of teachers for this stage, hitherto

Notes unplanned and uncared for, calls for thoughtful planning of training sequences relevant to the
developmental needs of early childhood interwoven with commonalities and specificities.
Specific Objectives : The objectives of teacher education specific to early childhood include the
following:
• to prepare teachers for facilitating physical, mental, moral, social, aesthetic and linguistic
development of children
• to acquaint them with the knowledge of child psychology
• to cultivate social sensitivity, affection for children and respect for their uniqueness
• to acquaint them with techniques of caring for children and enable them to identify their
needs
• to provide experiences and organise activities that promote children's self-concept, creativity
and inventiveness
• to enable them to select, prepare and use different kinds of resource materials
• to develop a sense of involvement with and appreciation of local resources (human and
material) and their utilisation
• to develop an acquaintance with basics of Scientific and Technological Literacy
• to develop a repertoire of children's games, songs and literature
• to empower student-teachers towards creating learning readiness among young learners
Curriculum Framework : The following curriculum framework is suggested for formulating a
Plan of Action for developing programmes and activities, devising strategies of negotiating the
curricular inputs and methods of obtaining feed-back. These are pre-requisites for improving
the interaction processes directed towards the realisation of optimum enrichment of experiences
at the early childhood stage.
The framework given here is suggestive and not a prescriptive one. It has
considerable space for flexibility, innovation and use of locally available
community resources.
Elementary Teacher Education Curriculum Framework: The constitutional provision of providing

free and compulsory education to all children upto 14 years of age includes both the lower
primary and upper primary classes, that is from class I to class VIII. There seems to be a
compelling need for having multiple models for preparing teachers - for primary and upper
primary classes. Incidentally, in a number of Elementary Teacher Education Institutions (ETEIs)
in the country, the nomenclature of the training programme from pre-service training of primary
school teachers has been changed to pre-service training of elementary school teachers. But in
actuality, the transformation in programmes has yet to take place effectively.
There are three distinct possibilities of designing courses in teacher education for elementary
stage:
• Teacher education programme exclusively for primary school stage (Classes I to V).
• Teacher education programme for elementary school stage (Classes I to VIII).
• Teacher education programme exclusively for upper primary school stage (Classes VI to
VIII).
In view of the requirements of Universal Primary Education and Universal Elementary Education,
only the first two alternatives are being recommended. However, the third suggested above,
could be attempted by offering credit oriented modular courses after successful completion of
primary teacher education programmes. It is significant to note that we have nearly 5.98 lakh
primary schools which are mostly in rural areas as compared to upper primary schools
numbering about 1.76 lakhs only*.

24.1.5 Teacher Education for Primary Stage Notes

Specific Objectives : The formulation of curriculum framework for this stage (classes I to V) has
been guided by general and specific objectives of teacher education and perceived characteristics
of curriculum development. The specific objectives of primary teacher education may include
the following:
• to develop understanding of the psychological and sociological foundations relevant to
the primary stage.
• to enable teachers to manage appropriate resources for organising learning experiences of
children.
• to acquaint them with methods and techniques of caring for children with special needs.
• to enable them to acquire necessary skills so as to develop curiosity, imagination and
creativity.
• to develop in them the capacity to understand and analyse the social and emotional
problems.
• to develop communication skills
• to enable them to establish mutually supportive linkages with the community focussing
on the objective of UPE/UEE.
• to enable them to understand implications of research for teaching-learning and undertake
action research and use innovative practices.
• to enable them to organise games, sports, physical activities and other co-curriculur
activities.
Keeping in view the teacher profile particularly the facilitative and resource management aspects,
general and specific objectives of teacher education, the following framework which is flexible
with ample scope for adaptation and for making it relevant to local enviornment is being
suggested :
Curriculum Framework
Theory
• Emerging Indian Society
• Primary Education in India : status, problems and issues
• Psychology of Teaching and Learning with special reference to children of age group 6-11
years
• Assessment, Evaluation and remedial teaching
• Health and Physical Education
• School Management
• Education of Children with Special Needs
• Guidance and Counselling
• Content Areas for Primary Schools
• Action Research
24.1.6 Teacher Education for Secondary Stage

For teaching at secondary stage, the qualification most sought after is one year B.Ed. which is in
fact B.Ed. for secondary stage. However, at present, there are several variations for first degree
level qualification which are also available. These include B.Ed. (Elementary); B.Ed. (Special
Education); which too are programmes of one year duration; B.Ed. through correspondence or
distance education mode which is now of two years duration. There are certain other variations
in the form of vacation courses or part-time courses which were available before NCTE norms
came into force. In addition, there are four-year integrated courses for elementary stage and
also for secondary stage.

Notes Teacher education programme at this stage, like at all other stages, will include the theory,
practice teaching in schools, and practical work in the light of contexts, concerns, profile of
teachers and general and specific objectives.
Specific Objectives: The specific objectives at this stage may include the following:
• to enable the prospective teachers to understand the nature, purpose and philosophy of
• to develop among teachers an understanding of the psychology of their pupils.
• to enable them to understand the process of socialisation.
• to equip them acquire competencies relevent to stage specific pedagogy, curriculum
development, its transaction and evaluation.
24.1.7 Teacher Education for Senior Secondary Stage

Teacher education programmes have to respond to three major determinants: the stage-specific
developmental characteristics of the students, the courses of study they pursue and the academic
qualifications the prospective teachers possess. At the Senior Secondary stage all the three
become distinctly different from that of the secondary schools which offer a common curriculum
upto class ten. The main features of the three determinants are given below:
The Characteristics of Students at + 2 Stage: The development of students at this stage, the later
part of adolescence, is characterized by
• maturity of body and brain
• development of abstract thinking and logic; goal fixation and symbolization
• self-consciousness, self-identity and self-assertion
• sex-consciousness and sex interest
• personal preferences and choices and ideal formation and differentiation
• peer group influences, strong likes and dislikes, reactions and adventurism
• changes in reference group, imitation of adult behavior and roles and a tendency of
defiance
• moral reasoning and challenging attitude towards the established ideas, practices and
authority
• self-esteem and ego-involvement
• attachment to friends
Evaluation: Multiple approach will be adopted for the purpose of evaluating achievement for
the theoretical content. It will be continuous as well as annual, internal as well as external.
Teacher-made objective type of tests, diagnostic and prognastic tests, etc. shall be used for the
purpose. The essay-type question will also be used for identifying abilities not detected by
other tests. Continuous progress record of the students maintained by the teacher will be
considered at the time of evaluation of the practice of teaching. The different kinds of practical
work, project report, sessional work, tests and records of various activities shall be evaluated
by experts in the area internally and continuously for giving proper feedback. The evaluation
strategy at this stage shall aim at identifying the students' potentialities teaching at the senior
secondary stage.
Implementation Strategy: A separate B.Ed. programme as envisaged in the framework may be
organised by colleges of education and university departments of education. The teachers who
have undergone a B.Ed. course for secondary stage and Master's degree in any of the academic
subjects may subsequently undergo a bridge course or earn additional credits needed for
developing competencies relevant to this stage under a specially designed programme of suitable
duration.

24.1.8 Teacher Education for Senior Secondary Stage - Vocational Stream Notes
The focus of vocational courses is on self-employment or employment which demand different
capabilities, competencies and practical and academic skills from the teachers. The teachers of
vocational subjects should not only possess high competency in a trade or vocation but also be
able to enthuse their students to undertake it as a career and develop qualities essential for
achieving success in this area. The preparation of teachers for teaching vocational subjects,
therefore, becomes an important function of teacher education programme at this stage.
Objectives
• to make the teachers understand and appreciate the philosophy, purpose and need of
vocational education and its relevance in Indian context.
• to enable them to impart knowledge and develop necessary competencies
• to enable them to develop an understanding of the scientific principles involved in a trade
or vocation.
Eleibility Qualification and Duration forVarious Teacher Edcuation Programme
Pre-Primary Primary Elementary Secondary Senior M.Ed. M.Ed.
Secondary (General) (Teacher
Education)
General Courses
Eligibility 10+2 10+2 10+2 Graduate Post-Graduate Graduate Post Graduate
with first with first
degree in degree in
education education
Duration 2Yrs. 2Yrs. 2 Yrs. 2 Yrs. 2 Yrs. 1Yr. 1 Yr.
Integrated Courses
Eligibility 10 10 10 10+2 - -
Duration 4 Yrs. 4 Yrs. 4 Yrs. 4 / 5 Yrs. - -
The above table gives the eligibility qualifications and duration suggested for various teacher
education programmes. The course structure for these programmes has been given separately
under the three broad sections of theory, practice teaching and practical work. Weightage for
various components may be arranged so as to give total weightage of 40% to theory, 20% to
pedagogical analysis of school subjects, 20% to practice teaching and 20% to other practical
work. Weightage for various components may be same for time allocation as well as for the
scheme of examination. This distribution however, would not be applicable to pre-primary
teacher education programmes for which theory and practice would have 30% and 70%
weightages respectively.
There has been a strong demand from a large section of teacher educators and educationists to
increase the duration of B.Ed. course from one year to two years. However, change-over from
one year to two years duration may require two-three years preparatory time. It is, therefore,
recommended that the two year B.Ed. courses may be instituted after careful planning,
24.1.9 Pre-Service Teacher Education in India

The NCERT working Group for preparing a scheme for Revitalization and Modernisation of
Pre-service Education (1986) made the following important recommendations :
1. The national accrediting agency should appoint expert committees to inspect teacher
training institutions and on the basis of their reports decide about the recognition of the
institution.

Notes 2. The candidates passing from an institution or a course not recognised by the national
accrediting agency should not be appointed as teachers at the primary or secondary level.
3. After completing the course of studies at a recognised teacher training institution, a
candidate should be required to undergo internship in teaching for a period of six months
under a trained registered teacher at a recognised secondary/primary school. On satisfactory
completion of the internship, he should be granted a teacher’s licence and registered as a
teacher.
4. No person should be employed as a teacher unless he possess a valid teacher’s licence. A
teacher’s licence may be invalidated if at any time a teacher is found guilty of gross
misconduct, corrupt practices, criminal offences or serious neglect of his duties as teacher.
5. The Central and State Governments should make studies to determine the requirement of
teachers subjectwise and levelwise during each five year plan period. The number of
teachers to be trained in each state during the five year period should be fixed on the basis
of manpower study.
Self Assessment
(i) The enriched programmes for early childhood education have been launched under
........................ .
(ii) The nomenclature of the training programme from pre-service training of primary school
teachers has been changed to pre-service training of ..................... school teacher.
(iii) The focus of ................... is on self employment.
(iv) For teaching at secondary stage, the qualification most sought after is ....................... .
24.2 In-Service Teacher Education

24.2.1 Importance and Need of In-Service Teacher Education
Gurudev Rabindra Nath Tagore has very aptly stated: “The teacher can never truly teach, unless
he is still learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its
own flame.”
The Report of University Education Commission (1948-49) appointed by the Government of
India contains these observations, “It is extraordinary that our school teachers learn all of
whoever subject they teach before reaching the age of twenty-four or twenty-five and then all
their further education is left to experience which in most cases is another name for stagnation.
We must realise that experience needs to be supplemented by experiment before reaching its
fullness and that a teacher, to keep alive and fresh, should become a learner from time to time.
Constant out-pouring needs constant intaking: practice must be reinforced by theory and the
old must be constantly tested by the new.”
NCTE has stressed the importance of in-service education of teachers on account of the following
considerations:
1. The in-service teacher education programmes are essential in view of obsolescence as well
as explosion of knowledge and are necessitated to acquire and execute new and different
roles. Advances in the fields of curriculum, evaluation, audio-visual aids,
telecommunication, etc., demand updating and orientation of teachers. An innovation at a
macro level would invariably fail if teachers are not equipped and properly oriented to
implement that innovation. In the Indian context the developments, such as, the 10+2+3
scheme, the making of science compulsory up to the class 10 standard, new practices to
evaluation the internal assessment, question banks, continuous and comprehensive
evaluation and grading, introduction of new topics like environmental education,
population education, computer education, etc., demand continuous in-service training of
teachers.

2. The National Commission on Teachers recommended that promotion (upward mobility) Notes
of teachers would also depend upon the completion of certain number of in-service
programmes. This stipulation itself demands regular in-service programmes of teachers.
24.2.2 Meaning of In-Service Teacher Education

The term is self-explanatory. It refers to the education a teacher receives after he has entered the
teaching profession and after he has had his education in a teachers’ college. It includes all the
programmes, educational, social or others, in which the teacher takes a vital part, all the extra
education which he receives at different institutions by way of refresher and other professional
courses, and all the travel and visits which he undertakes. All these things enlarge his experiences
and vision.
24.2.3 Aims of In-Service Teacher Education and Training of Teachers

(INSET)
1. To maintain the knowledge and skills of teachers.
2. To give teachers the opportunity to enlarge and improve their knowledge and educational
capacities in all fields of their work.
3. To make teachers ready and able to understand and face in time new situations coming up
in society and to prepare their students for the new economic, social or cultural challenges.
24.2.4 Institutions for In-Service Education

1. State Institutes of Education and District Institutes of Education.
2. State Institutes of Science.
3. State Institutes of English.
4. Extension Services Departments.
5. State Directorates of Education.
24.2.5 Shortcoming and Inadequacies of In-Service Education Programmes

The Working Group on In-Service Education of Teachers 1986 (NCERT) pointed out the following
shortcomings of in-service teacher education (INSET) :
(a) Inadequate understanding of the importance of in-service teacher education. INSET not
only helps to update the teacher continuously but also remedies inadequacies of the existing
pre-service education. In the process of providing in-service education, teacher educators
gain experience relevant to pre-service education of teachers.
(b) Absence of a national system of in-service education. This has resulted in inadequate and
unsystematised service to teachers.
(c) Lack of attention to methodology of in-service education. In the absence of specific
infrastructure including manpower for in-service education, suitable methodologies for
communication with small groups have not evolved.
(d) Unsystematic selection of participants and resource persons. Lack of advance planning and
communication regarding content and objectives affects the deputation of suitable
participants from various institutions. It can also affect the quality of resource input.
(e) Ineffective follow-up. Contact with teacher participants of in-service programmes is usually
not maintained. Institutions and groups do not follow up the functioning of their trainees.
24.2.6 Suggestions for Improving In-Service Education

1. Need for Expanding Facilities : It has been observed that so far thousands of teachers
especially those belonging to private institutions have not been actively involved in the
Extension Services Programmes because of inadequate facilities. There is, therefore, a
great need for expanding the programme of in-service education.

Notes 2. Co-operation of Various Agencies : The various agencies like the Extension Services
Department, State Institutes of Education, State Department of Education, and State Boards
of School Education need to co-ordinate their activities so that there is no over-lapping.
3. Role of Inspectors : It is the duty of the heads of institutions to encourage their staff to
take part in the programmes of in-service education. The education officers like-wise
should also encourage their participation and should ensure that all teachers attend these
programmes.
24.2.7 Functions of DIETs

1. Providing pre-service education to prospective elementary teachers.
2. Organising in-service education programmes, for elementary teachers.
3. Providing training and continuing education to Non-formal and adult education instructors
and supervisors.
4. Training and orientation of heads of institutions in institutional planning and management.
5. Providing academic support to school complexes and District Boards of Education.
24.2.8 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)

The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) which had been in existence for the last
more than two decades was given a statutory recognition by a gazette notification issued on
August 17, 1995 (Notification No. 484) by the Ministry of Human Resource Development
(Department of Education). This was done in pursuance of the National Council for Teacher
Education Act, 1993 (No. 73 of 1993).
24.2.9 Territorial Jurisdiction of Regional Committees

I. Eastern
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim,
West Bengal, Tripura, A & N Islands.
Address : Regional Director, Eastern Regional Committee (NCTE), Jana Shiksha Bhawan, Unit-
V, Bhubaneshwar-751001.
II. Western
Goa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, D & N Haveli, Daman & Diu.
Address : Regional Director, Western Regional Committee (NCTE), Manas Bhawan (Near A.I.R.),
Shyamia Hills, Bhopal-462002.
III. Northern
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Chandigarh, Delhi.
Address : Regional Director, Northern Regional Committee (NCTE), Directorate Adult Education
Campus, Gopi Nath Marg, Panch Batti, Jaipur-302001.
IV. Southern
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Laksha Dweep, Pondicherry.
Address : Regional Director, Southern Regional Committee (NCTE), No. 66, 6th Main, 4th
Block, Rajaji Nagar, Bangalore-560010.
24.2.10 Functions of National Council for Teacher Education

According to the Act 1993, the NCTE performs the following functions :
1. Undertaking surveys and studies relating to various aspects of teacher-education and
publishing the results.

2. Making recommendations to the Central and State Govt. Universities, the U.G.C. and Notes
other institutions in the preparation of plans and programmes in the field of teacher-
education.
3. Coordinating and monitoring teacher-education and its development in the country.
4. Preparing guidelines with regard to minimum qualifications for the candidates to be
employed as teacher-educators at different levels.
5. Developing norms for various courses or training in teacher-education, including minimum
eligibility criterion for admission.
What is the aim of In-service Teacher Education and Training.
24.2.11 Policy Regarding Correspondence Courses

The NCTE has laid down clearly that correspondence programme leading to B.Ed. degree can
be offered only to clear the backlog of untrained teachers for the present and that not more than
500 students can be enrolled by an institution in a year.
The other conditions laid down include that teachers seeking admission should have put in
three-year service in a recognised school and that the duration of the programme will be for
two years, with contact programme during two consecutive summer vacations—the intervening
period taking care of correspondence lessons.
Self Assessment
2. State whether the following are ‘True’ or ‘False’:
(i) A teacher receives education after he/she has entered the teaching profession in In-
service teacher education.
(ii) In the process of providing in-service education, teacher educators do not gain experience
relevant to pre-service education of teachers.
(iii) NCTE co-ordinates and monitors teacher education and its development in the country.
(iv) According to NCERT recommendation after completing the course of studies at a
recognized teacher training institution, a candidate should be required to under internship
in teaching for a period of 2 years under a training registered teacher at recognized
secondary/primary school.
24.3 Summary
• The idea was suggested by the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) and the objective
of a comprehensive college of education is to break the isolation of teacher education. A
comprehensive college of educational runs as many levels of teacher training as possible,
24.4 Keywords
• Pre-service : Before service
• In-service : Along with service or during the service
• Curriculum : The subjects that are included in a course of study or taught in a
school, college.
• Elementary : Most basic and important
• Evaluation : To form an opinion of the amount, value or quality of something.


1 Explain the pre-service teacher education at different levels.
2 What are the general objectives of pre-service teacher education?
3 Give the characteristics of students at +2 stages.
4 What is the important and need of In-service teacher education?
5 What are the aims of In-service teacher education?

1. (i) Integrated child development scheme (ii) Elementary
(iii) Vocational course (iv) One year B.Ed.

Dash Bn.

Unit 25 : Teacher Education at Various Levels, Emerging Trends in Teacher Education
Unit 25 : Teacher Education at Various Levels, Notes
Emerging Trends in Teacher Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
25.1 Teacher Education
25.2 Teacher Education for Early Childhood Stage
25.3 Elementary Teacher Education Curriculum Framework
25.4 Teacher Education at Secondary Stage
25.5 Teacher Education for Senior Secondary Stage
25.6 Teacher Education at Higher (College) Level
25.7 Summary
25.8 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about teacher edudcation
• to discuss about teacher education at early chilldhood care education
• to describe the teacher education at elementary level
• to explain the teacher education at secondary level
• to discuss the teacher education at senior secondary level
• to describe the teacher education at higher (college) level
Introduction
Teacher education reaches teachers at all levels of education, namely Pre-primary, Primary,
Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the Tertiary. The needs requirements of students
and education very at each level. Hence level and stage-specific teacher prepartion is essential.
Teacher education also helps in the development of teaching skills in teachers of professional
institutions. The teachers in professional institutions have only the theoretical and practical
knowledge of their respective subjects. They require specialized teacher training inputs to deal
with students entering their professions. Teacher education also reaches special education and
physical education. Thus where there are teachers, there would be teacher education. The
knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified across stages, in order to develop
effective processes of preparing entrant teachers for the functions which a teacher is expected to
perform at each stage.
25.1 Teacher Education

Teacher education is an integral component of the educational system. It is intimately connected
with society and is conditioned by the ethos, culture and character of a nation. The constitutional

Notes goals, the directive principles of the state policy, the socio-economic problems and the growth
of knowledge, the emerging expectations and the changes operating in education, etc. call for
an appropriate response from a futuristic education system and provide the perspective within
which teacher education programmes need to be viewed.
When India attained freedom, the then existing educational system was accepted as such because
it was thought that an abrupt departure from the same would be disturbing and destabilising.
Thus a predisposition to retain the system acquired preponderance and all that was envisaged
by way of changes was its rearrangement.
25.1.1 Need of Teacher Education

The need for improved levels of educational participation for overall progress is well recognised.
The key role of educational institutions in realising it is reflected in a variety of initiatives
taken to transform the nature and function of education -- both formal as well as non-formal.
Universal accessibility to quality education is considered essential for development. This has
necessitated improvement in the system of teacher education so as to prepare quality teachers.
The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) as a non-statutory body (1973-
1993) took several steps as regards quality improvement in teacher education.
25.1.2 Objectives
The Constitution of India solemnly resolves "to constitute India into a sovereign, socialist,
secular and democratic republic and secure to all its citizens: justice-social, economic and political;
liberty of thought, expression, faith, belief and worship; equality of status and of opportunity;
and to promote among them all fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the integrity
of the nation." The main goals of teacher educaation are to make a nation which the nation
expects to be realised through education. Teacher preparation must not lose sight of this basic
thrust so as to empower teachers to inculcate the same among the students.
25.1.3 Characteristics of Curriculum Framework

An overview of the context and concerns as discussed earlier, teacher's profile and general and
specific objectives would define the boundaries of a curriculum framework. The perceived
characteristics of the envisaged curriculum framework would include the following:
• reflects the Indian heritage, acts as an instrument in the realisation of national goals and
• responds to the latest developments in the field of education.
• establishes integration of theory and practice of education.
• provides multiple educational experiences to teachers.
• enables teachers to experiment with new ideas.
• ensures inseparability of pre-service and in-service education of teachers.
• sets achievable goals for various stages of teacher education.
• provides for use of communication technology.
India has a large system of education. There are nearly 5.98 lakh Primary Schools,
1.76 lakh Elementary Schools and 98 thousand High / Higher Secondary Schools
in the country, about 1300 teacher education institutions for elementary teachers
and nearly 700 colleges of education / university departments preparing teachers
for secondary and higher secondary schools.

25.2 Teacher Education for Early Childhood Stage Notes
The need for early childhood education has long been emphasised on the argument that it
would lead to providing healthy and wholesome learning environment. It is also considered as
a preparatory stage for the realisation of Universalisation of Elementary Education. In order to
provide healthy and enriched childhood to young learners, a new type of teacher specifically
sensitized about the perspectives of child development will be required.
25.2.1 Specific Objectives : The objectives of teacher education specific to

early childhood include the following:
• to prepare teachers for facilitating physical, mental, moral, social, aesthetic and linguistic
development of children
• to acquaint them with the knowledge of child psychology
• to cultivate social sensitivity, affection for children and respect for their uniqueness
• to acquaint them with techniques of caring for children and enable them to identify their
needs
• to provide experiences and organise activities that promote children's self-concept, creativity
and inventiveness
• to enable them to select, prepare and use different kinds of resource materials
• to develop a sense of involvement with and appreciation of local resources (human and
material) and their utilisation
• to develop an acquaintance with basics of Scientific and Technological Literacy
• to develop a repertoire of children's games, songs and literature
•to empower student-teachers towards creating learning readiness among young learners
25.2.2 Curriculum Framework

The framework given here is suggestive and not a prescriptive one. It has considerable space
for flexibility, innovation and use of locally available community resources. The following
curriculum framework is suggested for formulating a Plan of Action for developing programmes
and activities, devising strategies of negotiating the curricular inputs and methods of obtaining
feed-back. These are pre-requisites for improving the interaction processes directed towards the
realisation of optimum enrichment of experiences at the early childhood stage.
Inclusion of the following components of theory and practice are suggested:
Theory
• Early Childhood Education: Scope, Nature, Status, Problems and Issues.
• Psychology of the Child and Learning during early years (implementing developmentally
appropriate curriculum).
• Planning, management and administration of ECCE programmes
• Methods and Materials for facilitating the growth and development of pre-school child
through activities for:
• Physical development
• Mental development
• Emotional development
• Aesthetic development
• Language development
• Social development
• Moral development

Notes • Neuro-muscular co-ordination

• Self-expression
• Health and Hygiene
• Habit formation
• Observation
• Sensory-Motor Training
Practical Work
• Drawing and Painting
• Music
• Creative activities
• Story telling
• Dance and Drama
• Games and Physical Activity
• Plays
• Field trips
• Block making and related games
• Activities for children with special needs
25.3 Elementary Teacher Education Curriculum Framework

The constitutional provision of providing free and compulsory education to all children upto
14 years of age includes both the lower primary and upper primary classes, that is from class I
to class VIII. There seems to be a compelling need for having multiple models for preparing
teachers - for primary and upper primary classes. Incidentally, in a number of Elementary
Teacher Education Institutions (ETEIs) in the country, the nomenclature of the training programme
from pre-service training of primary school teachers has been changed to pre-service training
of elementary school teachers. But in actuality, the transformation in programmes has yet to
take place effectively.
There are three distinct possibilities of designing courses in teacher education for elementary
stage:
• Teacher education programme exclusively for upper primary school stage (Classes VI to
VIII).
In view of the requirements of Universal Primary Education and Universal Elementary Education,
only the first two alternatives are being recommended. However, the third suggested above,
could be attempted by offering credit oriented modular courses after successful completion of
primary teacher education programmes. It is significant to note that we have nearly 5.98 lakh
primary schools which are mostly in rural areas as compared to upper primary schools
numbering about 1.76 lakhs only.
25.3.1 Teacher Education for Primary Stage

Specific Objectives: The formulation of curriculum framework for this stage (classes I to V) has
been guided by general and specific objectives of teacher education and perceived characteristics
of curriculum development. The specific objectives of primary teacher education may include
the following:
• to develop understanding of the psychological and sociological foundations relevant to
the primary stage.

• to enable teachers to manage appropriate resources for organising learning experiences of Notes
children.
• to acquaint them with methods and techniques of caring for children with special needs.
• to enable them to acquire necessary skills so as to develop curiosity, imagination and
creativity.
• to develop in them the capacity to understand and analyse the social and emotional
problems.
• to develop communication skills
• to enable them to establish mutually supportive linkages with the community focussing
on the objective of UPE/UEE.
• to enable them to understand implications of research for teaching-learning and undertake
action research and use innovative practices.
• to enable them to organise games, sports, physical activities and other co-curriculur
activities.
Keeping in view the teacher profile particularly the facilitative and resource management aspects,
general and specific objectives of teacher education, the following framework which is flexible
with ample scope for adaptation and for making it relevant to local enviornment is being
suggested :

Theory
• Primary Education in India : status, problems and issues
years
• Assessment, Evaluation and remedial teaching
• Content Areas for Primary Schools
• Action Research
Practice Teaching
• Pedagogical Analysis of Primary School Subjects
• Practice Teaching in Schools
• Observation of Model Lessons
Practical Work
• School Experience inclusive of Internship
• Work Education
• School-Community Interaction
• Action Research Studies (planning and execution)
• Organisation of relevant Educational Activities
In the proposed training programmes, the prospective teachers would be imparted training in
a manner that theory and practice are organically integrated. Correlation within the curricular
areas of learning and external environment is established. Psychology of Teaching and Learning,

Notes School Organisation and Pedagogical Analysis of primary school subjects will provide a sound
base for the adoption of integrated approach to teaching and learning and for establishing
meaningful and interactive bonds between theory and practice. The intent of including Action
Research and Education of Children with Special Needs is guided by the fact that every student-
teacher is expected to know the elements of action research, surveys, community services etc
and is capable of educating children with special needs. Additional areas may be included for
making the course content relevant and region specific.
Transacting Curriculum
Theory: Transactional strategies invariably need to emphasise interactive, partcipative and
activity-oriented approach. The transaction of curriculum will have place to place and intra-and
inter-content variations. The theoretical component of the curriculum can be transacted by
lecture-discussion, self-study approach, seminars, media supported teaching wherever possible,
tutorials and through practical activities. It is expected that the intending teachers during the
course of training acquire mastery of competencies and skills that are basic to making an
effective, reflective and committed teacher.
Practical: Practical work is an essential component for internalising the theoretical concepts.
Thus it will have to be planned on each aspect of theoretical inputs. In addition, practical
activities centring around different school experiences, work education, school community
interaction, action research projects and other educational activities directed towards development
of personality of students will also be undertaken by intending teachers. It needs continuous
planning, analysing, monitoring and evaluation throughout the duration of the course which
will necessitate the involvement of teacher educators more vigorously than what it is presently.
Self Assessment
(i) The constitutional provision of providing free and compulsory education at all children
14 years of age including both the lower primary and upper primary classes.
(ii) Universal accessibility to quality education is considered essential for development.
(iii) Practical work is not an essential component for understand and explain the theoretical
concepts.
25.4 Teacher Education at Secondary Stage

For teaching at secondary stage, the qualification most sought after is one year B.Ed. which is in
fact B.Ed. for secondary stage. However, at present, there are several variations for first degree
level qualification which are also available. These include B.Ed. (Elementary); B.Ed. (Special
Education); which too are programmes of one year duration; B.Ed. through correspondence or
distance education mode which is now of two years duration. There are certain other variations
in the form of vacation courses or part-time courses which were available before NCTE norms
came into force. In addition, there are four-year integrated courses for elementary stage and
also for secondary stage.
Teacher education programme at this stage, like at all other stages, will include the theory,
practice teaching in schools, and practical work in the light of contexts, concerns, profile of
teachers and general and specific objectives.
25.4.1 Specific Objectives

The specific objectives at this stage may include the following:
• to enable the prospective teachers to understand the nature, purpose and philosophy of
• to develop among teachers an understanding of the psychology of their pupils.
• to enable them to understand the process of socialisation.

• to equip them acquire competencies relevent to stage specific pedagogy, curriculum Notes
development, its transaction and evaluation.
• to enable them to make pedagogical analysis of the subjects they are to teach at the
secondary stage.
• to develop skills for guidance and counselling.
• to enable them to foster creative thinking among pupils for reconstruction of knowledge.
• to acquaint them with factors and forces affecting educational system and class room
situation.
• to acquaint them with educational needs of special groups of pupils.
• to enable them to utilise community resources as educational inputs.
• to develop communication skills and use the modern information technology.
• to develop aesthetic sensibilities.
• to acquaint them with research in education including action research

Theory
• Secondary Education in India - status, problems and issues
• Psychology of Teaching and Learning
• Assessment, Evaluation and Remediation
• Curriculum Design and Development
• Comparative Education
• Action Research
Optional Courses - any two of the following
• Pre-school Education
• Elementary Education
• Educational Technology
• Vocational Education
• Adult Education
• Non formal Education
• Distance Education
• Environmental Education
• Computer Education
• History and Problems of Education
• Population Education
Practice Teaching
• Pedagogical analysis of two school teaching subjects
• Practice teaching in schools
• Observation of Model Lessons

Notes Practical Work

• Internship and School Experiences
• Field Work with community based programmes
• Creativity and Personality Development Programmes
• Work Education
• Sessional/practical work
• Physical Education Activities, games and sports and other school activities
• Aesthetic Development Programmes and Activities.
• Action Research studies
A teacher helps in improving the quality of human life in the context of multiple internal and
external forces impinging on man and the society. The course on 'Emerging Indian Society',
would develop an insight into the nature of Indian society, its variety and complexities and
making teacher education programme relevant to the community. Ingenuity of teachers lies in
first understanding national ethos and then planning for teaching within this framework as a
professional.
A professionally trained teacher is expected to identify the strengths and weaknesses of secondary
education in India and after having gained insights into the status, problems and issues
concerning education at this stage, develop a mental make-up of evaluating the system and
utilising the same for promoting excellence in education.
Theory: Education as a field of specialised studies is inter-disciplinary in its nature. Since
different branches of learning are involved in understanding the presage, process and product
variables of education, it is essential that formulation of teacher education programmes adopts
a holistic approach in order to promote proper understanding, insight and thinking on matters
pertaining to this field. The complimentary character of theory and practice needs to be
emphasised at every step. The prospective teachers are encouraged to organise, express and
communicate their ideas clearly in the class. It has to be accepted as a communicative process of
an intensive teacher-learner dialogue and renewal of a two-way process as opposed to 'the
banking concept' of teaching. The emphasis must be laid on cultivation, formation and
development of power of mind in contrast to the prevalent tendency of aiming at the success in
examination alone. Student teachers, it is hoped, in classroom transactions, will employ the use
of divergent thinking and problem solving strategy.
Student Teaching and Practical Activities: There is no denying the fact that practice of education
is as important as its theory. Each good theory leads to a good practice and vice-versa. To strike
a balance between theory and the practice of education, therefore, is a matter of judicious
planning and scheduling in order to give proper direction to teacher education.
Changes in the pattern and practices of student teaching have been only peripheral. The content-
cum-method approach, wherever attempted, remained limited to the introduction of an additional
component of content without fully achieving the objective of integration. The problem-solving
approach, discovery method, competency based teaching learning and the indigenous
contributions, like those of Gandhi, Tagore, Aurobindo, Zakir Hussain and several others have
the potential for bringing in innovative ideas in teacher education. The application of educational
technology, informatics, telematics, cybernetics etc. have yet to make a discernible headway.
The learning resources wherever available in the training institutions and the community as
also in the schools have not been optimally utilised.
Practical Work: The modalities to be employed for organising activities other than teaching for
all round capacity building and empowerment of a teacher-trainee will involve joint supervision
by the teacher educator and a school teacher.
The transaction modes, for example, for motivating adults for making them literate can be
through mass participation, folk songs, street plays etc. The identification of various sports and
a variety of activities for cleanliness in the community, collecting success stories and

disseminating them in the community, preparing simple write-ups of all the activities Notes
undertaken; utilizing community resources for the developmental needs of library building,
students scholarships, awards, student aid funds, celebration of festivals etc; student-parent-
community contact programmes and organisation of welfare shows for better institution-
community participation are certain other strategies of transaction of practical work.
Work Education: To come to its present form, work education has undertaken a long journey.
From Marx's 'combination of productive labour and learning' to Abbot Wood's
'vocationalisation', it came to Gandhi's 'handicraft as the medium of education' and again took
the form of Kothari's 'work experience' which Ishwar Bhai Patel thought to be devoid of 'social
value' and coined the term 'Socially Useful Productive Work' (SUPW). Its central purpose is to
shift the centrality of education from excessive verbalism to practicality.
Work education is a powerful medium for personality development. There can be a variety of
activities which are necessarily school based and which may be included under work education
like maintenance of the school plant including its playgrounds, cleanliness, repair of furniture
and production of material to be used as instructional aids. It will be a great educational
experience if community visit, field work, nature study, school co-operatives saving bank,
games and sports and other co-curricular activities are carefully organised as part of the
programmes leading to development of qualities needed for the success of work education.
25.5 Teacher Education for Senior Secondary Stage

Teacher education programmes have to respond to three major determinants: the stage-specific
developmental characteristics of the students, the courses of study they pursue and the academic
qualifications the prospective teachers possess. At the Senior Secondary stage all the three
become distinctly different from that of the secondary schools which offer a common curriculum
upto class ten. The main features of the three determinants are given below:
25.5.1 The Characteristics of Students at + 2 Stage

The development of students at this stage, the later part of adolescence, is characterized by
• maturity of body and brain
• development of abstract thinking and logic; goal fixation and symbolization
• self-consciousness, self-identity and self-assertion
• sex-consciousness and sex interest
• personal preferences and choices and ideal formation and differentiation
• peer group influences, strong likes and dislikes, reactions and adventurism
• changes in reference group, imitation of adult behavior and roles and a tendency of
defiance
• moral reasoning and challenging attitude towards the established ideas, practices and
authority
• self-esteem and ego-involvement
• attachment to friends
• self-defence and self-exhibition
• argumentation and rebelliousness
• fixation of ideas, development of aptitudes and demarcation of academic or vocational
preferences
In short, they acquire many characteristics of youth and adults. Their educational potentialities,
inclination and preferences become evident.
Course of Study: For the students of +2 stage, two types of courses - academic and vocational -
have been designed. The characteristics of courses responding to the above are mentioned
below :

Notes Academic Stream

• differentiated, demarcated and specific contents
• subject and discipline orientation preparatory to specialization
• enriched and comprehensive curriculum with goal specificity
• regrouping of subjects into compulsory and optionals
• emphasis on abstract and creative thinking and higher mental faculties to deal with complex
ideas and complicated concepts.
• directed and focussed towards higher studies
Vocational Stream
The main characteristics of vocational courses are in their being
• job oriented,
• skill based,
• useful,
• practical,
• manipulative,
• rich in economic values,
• employment or self-employment oriented,
• terminal in nature, and
• suitable for middle level workers in economy.
Teacher Characteristics: In order to deal with the above, the teachers of academic stream require
the following :
• enriched and higher academic qualifications and standards
• additional teaching competencies
• different curriculum transactional strategies and modalities
• competency to promote desire for pursuing higher studies and develop academic interests
and pursuit of independent study
To deal with vocational subjects different kinds of teachers are required. They must possess.
• expertise in a vocational subject;
• capacity to inculcate workmanship and dignity of labour;
• ability to transfer skills from one trade/vocation to another;
• competencies to explain scientific principles involved in a trade or vocation;
• capability to impart knowledge and skills for achieving success in a trade or vocation;
• desire to produce an educated citizen, not only a narrow specialist or trade's man;
• ability to inspire students for the constant upgrading of their skills; and
Teacher Education Programmes for the +2 Stage : At present there exists a common programme
for the education of teachers for the secondary and senior secondary schools. It is undifferentiated
and generalized. But the courses at the senior secondary stage have been enriched. Their nature
and goals are dufferent. They have been divided into two broad streams. The characteristics of
students have also changed. Under these circumstances certain additional competencies are
needed for teachers teaching at this stage. Hence the separate programmes for the academic and
vocational streams of teachers.
Teacher Education for Senior Secondary Stage - Academic Stream
Objectives : The objectives of teacher education for academic stream may include the following:
• to develop among teachers an understanding of the nature, purpose and philosophy of the
academic stream

• to develop necessary competencies and skills for curriculum development, transaction Notes
and evaluation
• to communicate difficult concepts and complex ideas
• to inspire students for higher and independent study and promote library and laboratory
skills and habits
• to develop abstract, creative and critical thinking among students
• to enable them to reconstruct knowledge and experience
• to enable them to develop and use different kinds of tests
• to foster academic interests and values.
Curriculum Framework - Academic Stream

Theory
• Senior Secondary Education - Nature, Purpose, Status, Problems, Issues etc.
• Psychology of Teaching and Learning
• Curriculum, Pedagogy and Evaluation
• Research Methodology
• Methods of Teaching of one subject at the +2 stage
Optional: One from the following :
(i) Educational Evaluation
(ii) Educational Technology
(iii) Population Education
(iv) Environmental Education
(v) History and Problems of Education
(vi) Comparative Education
(vi) Educational Management, Planning and Finance
(vii) Innovations in Education
(viii) Physical Education
(ix) Computer Education
Practice Teaching
• Pedagogical Analysis of one subject at this stage
• Practice teaching
Practical Work
• Internship and School experiences
• Project work in the method and content
• Sessional and practical work in the area
• Action Research
• Field work
• Organization of student and physical education activities
• Personality and leadership development programmes
• School and community relationship programmes
• School development plans/projects
• Library and Laboratory work

Notes • Preparation and use of tests

• Preparation and use of teaching aids/instructional technology
Rationale: An understanding of emerging Indian society and factors and forces operating behind
it are essential for developing educational insight among teachers. The knowledge of various
components of senior secondary education in the academic stream will enable them to
understand its nature, purpose, philosophy and problems. They will be aware of the curriculum,
pedagogy and evaluation techniques relevant to this stage and acquire the knowledge of
psychology of teaching, learning and transacting the curriculum and the action research to
solve day-to-day problems. Teachers will acquire knowledge of the methods of teaching in
depth and develop related competencies by means of the specialized programmes. Practical
work, the pedagogical analysis of the subject and practice teaching in the class under the
supervision of the expert will inculcate among them needed competencies. The related practical
activities like action research, field work, project work and sessional and practical work will
develop problem- solving approach. The preparation and use of instructional technology will
make them more effective in the classroom. The preparation and administration of teacher-
made objective tests will transform their approach to evaluation. They will be able to guide the
students how to use library and laboratory for independent studies. The theoretical and the
practical components mentioned in this curriculum frame will, thus make them competent and
reflective teachers.
Transacting Curriculum
Theory: For the purpose of transaction a course may be divided into units and then modular
approach may be followed. Pupil teachers may be encouraged to pursue independent and
group studies. Seminars and workshops may be arranged. Lectures should only be indicative.
The teacher may start the lecture analytically and through interactive interventions arrive at
synthesis at the end. The skills of listening, drawing conclusion, conceptualisation, and
identifying the central theme and its relevance to life be established. After each lesson, reference
materials may be suggested. The main thrust of transactional modality will be on the
development of abstract, critical and creative thinking alongwith inculcation of habit of precision
and comparison and use of appropriate words and concepts.
Practice Teaching and Practical Work : Pedagogical analysis should precede the actual teaching.
The notes of lesson may be only indicative. Its centrality should be focussed on the realisation
of objectives. Supervision shall be the joint responsibility of the school and training colleges.
At least three fourth of the lessons will be supervised by the expert in detail. Its nature should
be formative. The projects shall be completed under the guidance of an expert and sessional/
practical work shall be properly planned. The organisation of the student and physical education
activities and services will be supervised by teacher educators.
What is transacting curriculum of teacher education at +2 levels?
25.6 Teacher Education at Higher (College) Level

Education is a transmission of knowledge and information through predefined teaching methods
and various training programmes. The quality of learning mainly depends on the ability and
the capability and also the opportunity available to individual learner. Hence transmission of
qualitative education at higher level may have various receptions.
When we talk about quality in higher education which is perceived in terms of satisfaction of
students, teachers and society. There is also a growing realization that we are practicing in our
schools and colleges these days will define the social and intellectual competencies and character
of the new generation which has to take upon itself the responsibility of shaping and functioning

the society of incoming generation. The concerned for quality in higher education in particular Notes
surfaced strongly in the recommendations of education commission which noted that. The
essence of a programme of teacher education is nothing but quality and in its absence, teacher
education becomes overall deterioration in educational standards..
College education is a constituent part of the life long education system. The out puts of
secondary education are inputs for it and a quality of higher education products solely depends
on the their quality Teacher Education inputs which are meant for the world of labour and the
system of further Non – Formal formal education system.
Re-orientation of subject knowledge which should include a study of fundamental concepts and
their implications for the college syllabus preparation and use of text books and preparing
source materials to assist teaching, On order to over come the curriculum load arising had
anisiving out of such re-organization of course content the number of working day and be
extended.
25.6.1 Need for Teacher Education for Preparation of Teachers In Higher

Education
It is learnt and expected that the learners of today are expected to be more independent and
autonomous in respect of their learning activities, the rapid expansion and adoption of distant
and open learning education at college level has reduced the need to spend more time within
the four walls of classrooms. The question arises what type of professionalism is expected of
teacher education teachers to effectively handle the new learning situations at tertiary level ?
25.6.2 Objectives of Teacher Education Programme at College Level

The Role of teacher is becoming more specific and specialized and yet demanding in the new
world order on account of the explosion of knowledge. This would mean the need for increased
professionalism among the incoming teaching community. If the objectives have to reflect the
new national and international needs will have to be integrated with to local working conditions
and be made more receptive to the realities of Indian social context along with the requirements
at international competition. We are aware that till today we followed independent programmes
of teacher education that varied form one system to another, the advent of apex bodies for
monitoring and controlling quality in teacher education has helped to achieve certain degree of
homogeneity in the objectives of teacher education. What are the objectives of Teacher Education
programme at tertiary level ? How far these objectives be achieved is an important introspection
to be made by the teacher community.
Objectives of Teacher Education Programmes:
• To develop essential competencies and skills for curriculum development, transaction and
evaluation of Teacher Education programme.
• Inspire and demonstrate research based and reflective practices.
• Able to share and use modern and applicable learning centred teaching and assessment
methods.
• Develop among teachers commitment to scholarship of teaching and learning in discipline
and in the inter discipline scientific community.
• Able to show and promote active participation in national and international networks.
Develop abstract reasoning creative and critical thinking among the students.
• Build excitement and increase anticipation of professional educators for the use of
information and communication technology to enhance instruction.
• Identify computer and related technology resources for facilitating life long learning and
emerging roles of the learner and the educator.

Notes • Inspire students for higher and Independent study and promote library and laboratory
Skills to develop managerial and organizational skills required for functioning of modern
system of education.
• To enable the perspective teacher educators to evolve need based and culture specific
pedagogogy.
• To empower them to induce their students for self employment.
• Develop insight among the students to transfer their vocational skills in higher learning
form one area to another.
• To make them aware of national problems environmental crisis and Indian cultural ethos.
• To enable them to develop the spirit of self reliance and self confidence.
• To develop and inculcate the skills of problem solving and research based activities.
• Develop communication, psychomotor skills and abilities conducive for human relations
which enable to promote learning effectively.
• To develop skills in making use of educational technology in teaching vocational subjects
by providing appropriate learning experiences.
• To Develop skills cognitive and psychomotor for teaching academic/Vocational subjects.
25.6.3 Structure of Teacher Education Programme at College Level

Introduction : In the present world with advancement in science and technology the teaching
structure and models are prominent. The structure of education system varies from states to
national to International scenario. The three levels of education system includes primary
education, secondary and higher education. The syllabus curriculum do varies at different levels
of education system it is imperative that for the entire Indian education, is to bring the 2 stage
of education within the purview of school education and to give it a vocational bias, This
requires immediate attention be paid to the development of functional teacher education
programme at this stage. The tertiary teacher education programmes need different structure
present system need changes in the structure in order to compete with other countries.
Learning Out Comes :-

At the end of this unit you will be able to
(i) Differentiates the structure of teacher education programme with secondary education.
(ii) able to perceive the various courses in teacher education programmes
Structure of Teacher education Programme and institutions at Tertiary Level: In this context
that Teacher Education Frame work developed by the NCTE recommended the framing of
functional teacher education programme for the + 2 stage as well as for college teachers. The
framework suggested three structures of teacher education programme for the +2 stage and for
the collegiate stage.
Structure–II
Modified version of secondary teacher education programme and was meant for preparing post
graduate teachers for the academic stream.
• Greater importance to pedagogical inputs
• Specialize in only one subject
Structure–II
As suggested for + 2 stage vocational stream
• All the components of structure 1
• Trainees for the vocational stream

• Work experience programmes Notes
Structure–III
Importance to pedagogical theory and general methods of teaching to college teachers
Duration <---- > One semester the structure of teacher education at tertiary level means the
logical arrangement of the components of teacher education inclusive.
• Teaching Skills.
• Perpetuates objectives to individual and social development.
• To generate teaching culture
Stages of Structure of Teacher Education
Teaching Skills Teaching Objectives Teaching Culture
Stages of Structure of Teacher Education

M. Ed. Teacher Education for those who have completed L. T. or B. Ed.
1 Year Full Time.
M. Phill Completed M. Ed. Course teaching at higher level 18 months
Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy Research related aspect
M. A. Education Higher Education related course Research Methodology (2
years)
Distance and open learning formal system of education Department /
University
B. Ed. Conventional System 1 Year
Open and Distance Learning 2 Year
Courses / Subject Offered:
• Educational Sociology / Philosophy
• Educational Psychology School Management/Educational Evaluation
• Information Communication Technology
• Special fields in Education
Guidance and Action Rural Inclusive Computer

Counseling Research Development Education Education
Environmental Education „³ International Education
Languages / Social Science
Science and Mathematics
Economics And Commerce
M. Ed. Theory Dissertation
Methodology of Education
Problems in Any Educational area
Research Research Practical Work
6 Papers

Notes Phill. Sociology Advanced Psychology Teacher Education Management of Education Guidance
Counselling Educational Technology
Area M. Ed. M. Phill
a) Pedagogical Theory (1) Foundation Courses 20 % Not Essential for M. Ed.
But needed For other discus.
2) Research Courses 20 %
3) Theoretical Course 60 % Research Courses 20%
Research Courses 20 %
4) Task Oriented Courses 60 %
5) Any two areas of specialization
Interdisciplinary four years integrated course related to Teacher Education Programme
B. Sc. (Ed) M. A. (Ed.)
B. A. (Ed) M. Sc. (Ed.)
M. A. (Education) 2 years (Open and Distance Learning) MATE Master of Arts in Teacher Education
(Sri Lanka) M. Phill - Those who have passed B. Ed / B. Phil
Core Skills/Special Skills

Identifyin, analyzing,
Solving skills
* Social Understanding
* Leadership Traits
* Creativity Development
*Progressive Attitude
Topics Like Research Methodology and tools

* Educational Organization and Administration
* Teacher Education
Designing of Curriculum
Ph. D Study of significant problem presenting solution, collecting data analyzing
and interpreting it statistically
M. A. T. E. Master of Arts in Teacher Education Related to teach Education
programme
P. G. D. H. E. Post graduate Diploma in Higher Education Ignou / Distance Education
Activity If you were to be an authorized faculty in U. G. C. N. C. E. R. T. how
would you structure and design Teacher Education Courses ? (In about
150 Words)
• List Out the probable programmes launched for teacher training at tertiary level?
We have discussed about the structure of teacher education programmes at tertiary level. The
structure of teacher education includes teaching skills, objectives, to individual and social
development and to generate teaching culture. It has highlighted the courses like. M. Ed. M.
Phil Ph. D where in the course content like research methodology in the form of research is
very important, the course duration varies in formal and Distance Education It elaborates
pedagogical and specialization thus the structure varies in different system of education.

Over Reaching Goals / Objectives Notes

Specialized Studies: Language Studies
• Career Preparation
• Global Issues
• Choice Based Optional
Learning Outcomes:
• At the end of this Unit you will be able to
• Analyse the Importances and parameters that helps to prepare curriculum for teacher
education at tertiary level.
• Able to explain the importance of theory and practical aspects of curriculum for teacher
education.
• Able to suggest other components required while framing curriculum.
Need Based curriculum: The primary purpose of teaching education curriculum in our country
is to prepare teacher for the different school levels. The concept of teacher preparation for
higher education has not gathered enough momentum An ideal teacher education curriculum
should be deduced from the professional competencies to be required and the roles to be
performed and the habits attitudes and values to acquire. The great and general complaint
about the school curricula is that they are overloaded. This is often due to the non involvements
of teachers in the process of curriculum development and in the preparation of textual material
and also to the rigid nature of the curriculum document.
Quality Curriculum: The quality curriculum is one which has the potential to realize its stated
objectives with minimum efforts. In this context of teacher education a quality curriculum
stands for its ability to develop professionally competent teachers within the assigned time for
the operation. The quality of curriculum refers to its attributes are in corporated in its
development. As the existing curriculum in higher education is mostly non functional, it ought
to be restructured. At may be well be made to respond to the challenges enumerated to avoid
the pitfalls Apart from the Apex bodies like NCERT and NCET, Curriculum building should be
more democratic in spirit in corporating the suggestions from social workers, psychologists,
eminent persons in the various field.
Self Assessment
(i) The course on ................ develops an insight into the nature of Indian society.
(ii) .................... is to shift the centrality of education from excessive verbalism to practically.
(iii) At present there exists a common programme for the education of teachers for the
secondary and ....................... schools.
(iv) ......................... is a transmission of knowledge and information through predefined
teaching methods and various training programmes.
25.7 Summary
• Teacher education is an integral component of the educational system.
• When India attained freedom, the then existing educational system was accepted as such
because it was thought that an abrupt departure from the same would be disturbing and
destabilising.
• The need for improved levels of educational participation for overall progress is well
recognised. The key role of educational institutions in realising it is reflected in a variety
of initiatives taken to transform the nature and function of education -- both formal as
well as non-formal.

Notes • reflects the Indian heritage, acts as an instrument in the realisation of national goals and
• responds to the latest developments in the field of education; establishes integration of
theory and practice of education; provides multiple educational experiences to teachers;
enables teachers to experiment with new ideas.
• In order to provide healthy and enriched childhood to young learners, a new type of
teacher specifically sensitized about the perspectives of child development will be required.
• Curriculum framework is suggested for formulating a Plan of Action for developing
programmes and activities, devising strategies of negotiating the curricular inputs and
methods of obtaining feed-back; Emerging Indian Society
• Psychology of the Child and Learning during early years (implementing developmentally
appropriate curriculum); Planning, management and administration of ECCE programmes
• The constitutional provision of providing free and compulsory education to all children
upto 14 years of age includes both the lower primary and upper primary classes, that is
from class I to class VIII.
• There are three distinct possibilities of designing courses in teacher education for elementary
stage:
years; Assessment, Evaluation and remedial teaching; Health and Physical Education
• In the proposed training programmes, the prospective teachers would be imparted training
in a manner that theory and practice are organically integrated. Correlation within the
curricular areas of learning and external environment is established.
• Transactional strategies invariably need to emphasise interactive, partcipative and activity-
oriented approach. The transaction of curriculum will have place to place and intra-and
inter-content variations.
• A teacher helps in improving the quality of human life in the context of multiple internal
and external forces impinging on man and the society.
• A professionally trained teacher is expected to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
secondary education in India and after having gained insights into the status
• Education as a field of specialised studies is inter-disciplinary in its nature.
• There is no denying the fact that practice of education is as important as its theory.
• Teacher education programmes have to respond to three major determinants: the stage-
specific developmental characteristics of the students, the courses of study they pursue and
the academic qualifications the prospective teachers possess. At the Senior Secondary stage
all the three become distinctly different from that of the secondary schools which offer a
common curriculum upto class ten.
• For the students of +2 stage, two types of courses - academic and vocational - have been
designed. The characteristics of courses responding.
• At present there exists a common programme for the education of teachers for the
secondary and senior secondary schools. It is undifferentiated and generalized. But the
courses at the senior secondary stage have been enriched. Their nature and goals are
dufferent.
• Education is a transmission of knowledge and information through predefined teaching
methods and various training programmes. The quality of learning mainly depends on
the ability and the capability and also the opportunity available to individual learner.

• College education is a constituent part of the life long education system. The out puts of Notes
secondary education are inputs for it and a quality of higher education products solely
depends on the their quality Teacher Education inputs which are meant for the world of
labour and the system of further Non – Formal formal education system.
• It is learnt and expected that the learners of today are expected to be more independent
and autonomous in respect of their learning activities, the rapid expansion and adoption
of distant and open learning education at college level has reduced the need to spend
more time within the four walls of classrooms.
• In the present world with advancement in science and technology the teaching structure
and models are prominent. The structure of education system varies from states to national
to International scenario.
• To develop essential competencies and skills for curriculum development, transaction and
evaluation of Teacher Education programme.
• Inspire and demonstrate research based and reflective practices.
• Able to share and use modern and applicable learning centred teaching and assessment
methods.
25.8 Keywords
• Integral : Being an essential part of something
• Component : One of several parts of which something is made
• Accessibility : The process of easy to understand
• Characteristics : Features or qualities
• Vocational : Connected with the skills, knowledge that you need to haave in order
to do a particular job.

1. Explain the teacher education at various levels in India.
2. What are the objectives of teacher education?
3. Explain the curriculum framework for secondary level.
4. What is socially useful productive work (SUPW)?
5. Why is the need in qualitative higher education?
Answers : Self Assessment

1. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False
2. (i) Emerging Indian Society (ii) Socially useful productive work
(iii) Senior Secondary (iv) Education
1. Development of Education System : SC Shaoo, Khatia K., Dash Bn.

2. Development of Educational System in India : A K Agrawal, Radhika Chopra,
Patricia M Jeffery

Notes
Unit 26: Distance Education : Concept, Need and
Modes of Distance Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
26.1 Distance Education and its Nomenclature
26.2 Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
26.3 Problems of Distance Education and Measures for Strengthening
26.4 The Interaction Modes in Distance Education
26.5 Some well Known open Universities of the India
26.6 Summary
26.7 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the distance education and its nomenclature
• to discuss about the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
• to explain about the problems of distance education and measures for strengthening
• to discuss about the interaction modes in distance education
• to describe about some well known open universities of the india
Introduction
Distance learnings (education) is a modern system of non-formal education. It is imparted
through correspondence or postal courses, contact, electronics media like radio, television,
video and audio cassettes etc. and other audio-visual aids. Distance education is the method of
learning at one’s own pace in one’s own time, without the boundaries of the formal class room
and without the formal presence of the teacher.
26.1 Distance Education and its Nomenclature

Distance education as the name indicates is a form of education in which there is usually a long
distance between the learner and the teacher (The word 'long' is a relative term and it has no
limits). It is in a sense a remote control system of education wherein the learner and the teacher
may not be face to face. They are separate by physical distance. Some of the important definitions
of distant education are given below:
1. In the words of Dohmen (1967) "Distance education is a systematically organised form of
self-study in which student counselling, the presentation of learning material and the
securing and supervising of students success is carried out by a team of teachers, each of
whom has responsibilities. It is made possible at a distance by means of media which
can cover long distances. The opposite of 'distance education' is 'direct education', or
'face-to-face education': a type of education that takes place with direct contact between
lecturers and students."

Unit 26: Distance Education :Concept, Need and Modes of Distance Education)
2. Peter (1973) defines distance education as "Distance teaching/education is a method of Notes

imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalised by the application of
division of labour and organisational principles as well as by the extensive use of
technical media, especially for the purpose of reproducing high quality teaching material
which makes it possible to instruct great numbers of students at the same time wherever
they live. Whereas in mainstream of education, the relationship between teacher and
students in the classroom is based upon social norms, in distance education it is based
upon technological norms."
Distance is an industrialised form of teaching and learning. It is a method of indirect

instruction implying geographical and emotional separation of the teacher and the
taught.
Distance education is known by different names. On account of a variety of terms used for
distant education, Prof. F.R. Jevons (1983) called it a “bewildering nomenclature”. Important
terms associated with distance education are as under:
(1) Continuing Education; (2) Correspondence Education; (3) Correspondence Learning;
(4) Correspondence Course; (5) Correspondence School, etc.
26.1.1 Brief History of Distance Education in India

University of Delhi was the first University to start correspondence course in higher education
in 1962.
Andhra Pradesh was the first Open University to be opened in the country in 1982.
The National Policy on Education - 1986 (revised in 1992) says:
“The open learning system has been initiated in order to augment opportunities for higher
education, as an instrument of democratising education and to make it a lifelong process. The
flexibility and innovativeness of the open learning system are particularly suited to the diverse
requirements of the citizens of our country, including those who had joined the vocational
stream.
26.1.2 Chief Characteristics of Distance Education

1. There is physical distance between the teacher and the learner
2. There is little face-to-face relationship
3. There is no fixed classroom or lecture room
4. There is less of oral instruction
5. There is no immediate, supervision by the tutor present with his students.
26.1.3 Correspondence Education, Open Education, Formal Education and

Distance Education
Correspondence Education and Distance Education: The basic difference between the
correspondence education and distance education is the use of mode of communication. In
correspondence education, postal system is the mode whereas in distance education postal
system and multimedia are used.
Distance Education and Open Education: In distance education there may be minimum
educational qualifications prescribed for joining a course but in open education there may not
be any such qualifications required for pursuing a course.

Notes 26.1.4 Main Objectives of Distance Education

1. To provide a suitable alternative path to wider opportunities in education and especially
higher education.
2. To provide an efficient and less expensive system of education.
3. To provide opportunities to students who had to discontinue their formal education on
account of various circumstance.
4. To cater to the educational needs to people residing in geographically remote areas.
5. To provide for educational opportunities to students who had to discontinue studies
because of lack of aptitude and motivation but who may later on become motivated, etc.
26.1.5 Need and Importance of Distance Education

The concept of distance learning has emerged in various advanced countries of the world. The
following points highlight the need and importance of distance education.
1. Explosion of knowledge: There is explosion of knowledge because of rapid scientific

and technological developments. The formal system of education on account of its rigidity
and high cost, finds is difficult to incorporate new changes speedily as desired.
2. Population Explosion: Unprecedented growth rate of population has resulted in the
corresponding increase in students. The formal education system serves a selected and
limited number of students.
3. Varied Needs: Distance learning is needed of satisfy the varied needs of varied students.
4. Earning while Learning: Distance education is especially needed for those who want to
learn while learning.
5. Desire to Improve Qualifications: There are many people who want to improve their
education qualification while they are in jobs. Distance learning provides opportunities
to such people to improve their qualifications.
26.1.6 Merits and Limitations of Distance Education

Merits and Salient Features of Distance Education
1. It fulfills the needs of various categories of persons who are unable to make use of the
formal system of education.
2. It is a very flexible educational system which is not limited by time and place restrictions.
3. Under this system a learner can progress at his own speed.
4. Distance education makes higher education accessible to all sections of society.
5. The courses cater to all segments of society.
26.1.7 Limitations of Distance Education

1. The system of distance education has very limited scope for making people aware of
cultural change and social development.
2. The courses become stereotyped in due course.
3. The scope for practical experience is very negligible.
4. Usually the provision for study-centres and book banks is very meagre.
5. The experts do not have the adequate means to ensure whether the students are entirely
satisfied with the material given.


(i) Distance education is a form of education in which there is long distance between
............... and ................... .
(ii) The opposite of distance education is ................. education.
(iii) According to Prof. F.R. Jovens Distance education is also called ....................... .
(iv) The basic difference between the correspondence education and distance education is
the use of mode of ..................... .
(v) In ............................ there may be minimum education qualifications prescribed for
joining a course.
26.2 Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)

The University came into being on December 1985 by an Act of Parliament.
26.2.1 Mission and Objectives of IGNOU

These included the following:
— Introduction and promotion of open university and distance education system in the
educational pattern of the country.
— Widening access to higher education for large segments of the population, particularly the
disadvantaged groups.
— Ensuring relevance to programmes of education by relating them to the needs of economic
development, employment and empowerment of the people of India.
26.2.2 The Strategic Goals of the Open System of Education
The strategic goals the IGNOU sets for itself are:
(i) To expand higher education facilities and widen access to education that will empower
increasing diversity of people.
(ii) To ensure relevance for educational programmes by diversifying the course provisions
and developing high-quality, multi-media open learning curriculum, designed to meet
the academic, technical and vocational needs of diverse student groups.
(iii) To reach out to large number of learner groups, especially those who have no
opportunities to pursue good quality higher education programme, and enable them to
acquire knowledge, skills and competence to become productive participants in
development.
What are the objectivs of IGNOU?
26.2.3 Special Features of IGNOU

University stands significantly apart from others because of:
— national jurisdiction;
— flexible admission rules;
— individualised study : flexibility, in terms of place, pace and duration of study;
— use of latest educational and communication technologies;

Notes
Internet & CD-Rom
Printed Materials
Audio Cassettes Award of

Degree
Certificate
Identify Educational Needs
Production of Multi-Media
Video Cassettes
Instructional Materials
and Target Groups
Plan & Design the
Delivery System
Target Groups
Radio Broadcasting
Curriculum
TV Broadcasting Evaluation
Lab Practical
Including Face-to-
face Training
Contect & Counse-

lling Sessions
Teleconferecing
One or more than one

Instruction Inputs
Evaluation
Fig. 26.2: Instructional System in IGNOU
26.3 Problems of Distance Education and Measures for Strengthening

1. Selection of Need Based Courses.
2. Preparation of Material Reviews.
3. Selection of Course Writers Editors
4. Printing of Material
5. Provision of Infrastructural Facilities
6. Coordination with Postal Authorities
7. Guidelines for Correspondence Students
8. Timely Dispatch of Material
9. Evaluation of Response Sheets
10. Arranging Contact Programmes
26.3.1 Present Position of Distance Education System

Besides IGNOU, there are nine Open Universities and 64 Institutions of Correspondence Courses
and Directorates of Distance Education in Conventional Universities in India.
Total enrolment through this non-formal system of learning is nearly 13 per cent of the total
enrolment of nearly 7.8 million students enrolled in Universities and Colleges.
26.3.2 National Institute of Open Schooling

At the school level, the Central Board of Secondary Education set up the National Open School
in July 1979 which subsequently became an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Department of Education, Government of India. It offers a
number of programmes.


(i) There are .................... open universities and 64 institutions of correspondence courses
and directorate of distance education besides IGNOU.
(a) 7 (b) 8 (c) 9 (d) 10
(ii) The total enrolment through non-formal system of learning is nearly .............. of the
total enrolment of nearly 7.8 million students enrolled in universities and colleges.
(a) 10% (b) 13% (c) 24% (d) 35$
(iii) The central board of education set up the national institute of open schooling ( National
open school) in-
(a) 1979 (b) 1980 (c) 1981 (d) 1982
26.4 The Interaction Modes in Distance Education

The communication occurs through the two basic mediations the technological and the human
mediation. The former is a condition for the non-contiguous communication and provides
support to the latter, which is performed through the Tutorial System. Each one of these
mediations carries out actions of paramount importance to guaranty the informational and
communicational flows continuity that jointly viability the pedagogical mediation.
The informational flows concern the circuits of circulation and diffusion of information necessary
for the process development, both administrative and pedagogical. The communicational flows
concern the interaction, construction and circulation circuits off the specific meanings of a
process whose intention is the collective knowledge construction.
Multidirectional this type of flow occurs in several directions, either from the institution to a
collective of students from the students to the institution, individually or collectively, and
among the students. Not only the students communication with the tutorship is viabilized, but
the communication among the students plays an important role in the knowledge building
learning and socialization.
The unidirectional flow can be associated to correspondence teaching, through the postal service
or the internet, and the tutorship offer allows the flow to be bidirectional, which enables us to
make the association with the “one-to-one” communication mode. The scale bidirectional flow
with the education performed through radio and television that can be identified with the
“one-to-many” communication mode, and the multidirectional flow with the “many-to-many”
communication. The Internet can viabilize proposals in any one of the previously described
communicational possibilities.
26.4.1 The First Interaction Mode: Star Mode

The pedagogical design is totally centered on the source-teaching providing institution, and
consists in the addressed assistance, which enabled Distance Education to be individualized and
personalized. Among the pedagogical conceptions possible in this interaction mode there are
the banking education, based on the content delivery with some tutorial follow-up, and the
cybernetic conception, which employs Programmed Instruction. In this mode, the communication
occurs between the source and an isolated receptor, following the printed media model, which
delivers a newspaper copy to each subscriber.

Notes Its characteristics are described in Table 1, below:

Table 1. Characteristics and Medias used in the Start Interaction Mode
Star Mode
Characteristics Pedagogical conception Medias
One-to-one interaction Banking education” Printed media
contents delivery CD-ROM
Packages delivery Cassette tapes
(contents, activities, Cyberneting programmed instruction Video tapes
evaluation Postal services
Internet
Centralization Telephone (fixed and mobile)
Fax
Individualization
Personalization
Flexibility
Synchrony
26.4.2 The Second Interaction Mode: Circle Mode

The pedagogical design is centered on the source teaching providing institution and consists in
the massified distribution of contents; the teaching is not personalized. The predominant
pedagogical conception in this interaction mode is the “banking education”, in as much as it is
characterized by contents delivery.
Its characteristics are described in Table 2, below:
Table 2. Characteristics and Medias used in the Circle Interaction Mode.
Circle Mode
One-to-many interaction banking education Television
Mass communication contents delivery Radio
Synchrony Internet
Centralization Tele and video conference
Non-personalization Telephone (fixed and mobile)
Nonexistent collective Fax
Interaction Postal services
26.4.3 The Third Interaction Mode: Network Mode

In this third interaction mode, the pedagogical design becomes markedly decentralized, non-
massified and non-personalized, allowing differentiated group trajectories. The predominant
pedagogical conception is dialogic and in network. In this interaction mode the communication
between source and receptors becomes more complex, following the network communication
model viabilized by Internet. It is even possible the interchange between the source and emitter
roles, and the communication can occur among all.

Its characteristics and used medias are described in Table 3, below. Notes
Table 3. Characteristics and Medias used in the Network Interaction Mode
Network Mode
Many-to-many Dialogic knowledge Printed media
interaction collective building Video tapes
Synchronous and Internet
asynchronous Telephone
communication Television
Intense collective Radio
interaction Internet
Decentralization Tele and video conference
Non-personalization Telephone (fixed and mobile)
Nonexistent collective Fax
interaction Postal services,
Others
26.5 Some well Known open Universities of the India

1. United Kingdom Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Kenyes,MK7 6 AA, United
Kingdom (1969).
2. Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia, Madrid, Spain (1972).
3. Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad, Pakistan (1974)
4. Everyman’s University, Israel (1974).
5. Fern Universitat, Fleyer Strasse 204, D 5800 Hagen, West-Germany (1974).
6. Athabasca University, Box 10,000, Athabasca, Alberta, Canada, TOG 2RO(1975).
7. Universidad Estatal a Distancia, Costa Rica (1977).
8. Universidad Nacional Abierta, Venezuela (1977).
9. Central Radio and Television University, Beijing, China (1978).
10. Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, 9/9 M009 Tambo Bangpood, Nonthaburi-
11120 Bangkok, Thailand (1978). etc.
Self Assessment
3. State whether the following statements one ‘Ture’ or ‘False’:
(i) The communication occurs through the two basic mediations the technological and the
human mediation.
(ii) The informational flow occurs in several directions from the institution to a collective
of students, from the students to institution.
(iii) The multi direction flows concern the circuits of circulation and diffusion of information
necessary for the process development.
(iv) The unidirectional flow can be associated to correspondence teaching, through the postal
service or the internet.
26.6 Summary
• Distance education as the name indicates is a form of education in which there is usually
a long distance between the learner and the teacher.

Notes • In the words of Dohmen (1967) "Distance education is a systematically organised form of
self-study in which student counselling, the presentation of learning material and the
securing and supervising of students success is carried out by a team of teachers, each of
whom has responsibilities.
• Peter (1973) defines distance education as "Distance teaching/education is a method of
imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes which is rationalised by the application of
division of labour and organisational principles.
• Correspondence Education and Distance Education: The basic difference between the
correspondence education and distance education is the use of mode of communication. In
correspondence education, postal system is the mode whereas in distance education postal
system and multimedia are used.
• In distance education there may be minimum educational qualifications prescribed for
joining a course but in open education there may not be any such qualifications required
for pursuing a course.
• Explosion of knowledge: There is explosion of knowledge because of rapid scientific and
technological developments. The formal system of education on account of its rigidity and
high cost, finds is difficult to incorporate new changes speedily as desired.
• Distance learning is needed of satisfy the varied needs of varied students.
• Distance education is especially needed for those who want to learn while learning.
• It fulfills the needs of various categories of persons who are unable to make use of the
formal system of education.
• It is a very flexible educational system which is not limited by time and place restrictions.
• Introduction and promotion of open university and distance education system in the
educational pattern of the country.
• To expand higher education facilities and widen access to education that will empower
increasing diversity of people.
• To ensure relevance for educational programmes by diversifying the course provisions
and developing high-quality, multi-media open learning curriculum, designed to meet
the academic, technical and vocational needs of diverse student groups.
• Besides IGNOU, there are nine Open Universities and 64 Institutions of Correspondence
Courses and Directorates of Distance Education in Conventional Universities in India.
• Total enrolment through this non-formal system of learning is nearly 13 per cent of the
total enrolment of nearly 7.8 million students enrolled in Universities and Colleges.
• The communication occurs through the two basic mediations the technological and the
human mediation.
• Each one of these mediations carries out actions of paramount importance to guaranty the
informational and communicational flows continuity that jointly viability the pedagogical
mediation.
• The informational flows concern the circuits of circulation and diffusion of information
necessary for the process development, both administrative and pedagogical.
• Multidirectional this type of flow occurs in several directions, either from the institution
to a collective of students from the students to the institution, individually or collectively,
and among the students.
• The unidirectional flow can be associated to correspondence teaching, through the postal
service or the internet, and the tutorship offer allows the flow to be bidirectional, which
enables us to make the association with the “one-to-one” communication mode.
• The pedagogical design is totally centered on the source-teaching providing institution,
and consists in the addressed assistance, which enabled Distance Education to be

individualized and personalized. Notes

• The pedagogical design in centered on the source teaching providing institution and consists
in the massified distribution of contents; the teaching is not personalized.
• In this third interaction mode, the pedagogical design becomes markedly decentralized,
non-massified and non-personalized, allowing differentiated group trajectories. The
predominant pedagogical conception is dialogic and in network.
26.7 Keywords
• Correspondence : The letters a person sends and receives.
• Vitality : Energy and enthusiasm.
• Aspiration : A strong desire do have or do something.

1. What is meant by distance educations write its nomenculature also.
2. What are the chief characteristics of distance education?
3. What is difference between distance education and formal education?
4. What is difference between correspondence education and distance education?
5. What are the main objectives of distance education.

1. (i) learner, teacehr (ii) direct
(iii) Bewildering nomen clature (iv) communication
(v) distance
2. (i) (c) (ii) (b) (iii) (a)

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 27: Privatization of Higher Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
27.1 Access and Equity in Higher Education
27.2 Financial Crunch
27.3 Privatization of Higher Education in India: Case for and Against
27.4 The Universities
27.5 Summary
27.6 Keywords
Objectives
• to describe about the access and equity in higher education
• to explain about the financial crunch
• to discuss about privatisation of higher education in india: Case for and against
• to explain about the universities
Introduction
Immediately after Independence there was an unprecedented linear expansion of higher education
in the country. The problem of university education was comprehensively reviewed by the
University Education Commission (1948-49) appointed under the chairmanship of S.
Radhakrishan. The report of the commission is a document of great significance and has been
the basis of all important recognition of university education item tied in post-Independence
period. One of its major recommendations was that a University Grants Commission should be
established in India on the lines of the University Grants Committee in England.- This
recommendation was accepted and a University Grants Commission was set up in 1953 and was
given a statutory from in 1956. It has assisted colleges and universities to provide important
facilities in teaching and research.
The task of designing a proper educational system in Post-Independence period was first assigned
to The University Education Commission (1948-49) for the university stage, then to the Secondary
Education Commission (1952-53) for the secondary school stage and finally to The Education
Commission (1964-66) for all stages of education. Inspect of educational expects of educational
development. Question pertaining to the appointment of the Education Commission (1964-66)
was raised from different pans. The Education Commission (1964-66) was set up it 1964 and
submitted its report in 1966 and provided a detailed plan of two decades (1966-86) of the
development of education for the country. The Commission thought over various significant
problems which affect the objectives and improvement of higher education. The Commission
took too much interest in higher education. It covered almost all aspects of higher education
and gave valuable recommendations for its improvement.

27.1 Access and Equity in Higher Education Notes
India has quite a large system of higher education in as much as we have today 250 universities,
over 10,500 colleges and nearly 55 lakhs of students being taught by over 3 lakhs of teachers.
And yet the proportion of the University and College going student population in the relevant
age group of 16-23 is dismal 6%. This is quite low even when compared with developing
countries, the figure being 20% for both Egypt and Thailand, 10% for Turkey, 11% for Brazil and
16% for Mexico. In the developed countries, however, access to higher education is to the tune
of 40% and more. Thus, though higher education in India has expanded generally, inadequate
access continues to cause concern. This issue, therefore, needs critical examination.
On the one hand we are worried about the so called ‘mushroom growth’ of the universities and
colleges, and on the other, are unable to provide access to education even at par with most
other developing countries in the world. Further, while enrolment of women and those
belonging to SC/ST group and other backward communities has improved, they are still very
much under represented. Thus, the twin issue of access and equity needs to be tackled by
adopting alternative strategies.
As well all know, providing increased access to education, meeting the challenge of equity and
improving the quality of education all entail large investment. It is all the more necessary to
ensure continuous inflow of funds needed for implementing and carrying out relevant
programmes and activities. But then their does exist the problem of resource crunch. A suggested
way out is exploring additional avenues of generating systems own resources instead of being
fully dependent on the State exchequer. It is imperative here that the higher education system
has to seek participation both of the Government as well as private and voluntary bodies.
Who was the Chairman of the University Education Commission (1948–49)?
Self Assessment
(i) ........................ deals with the tertiory level of education.
(ii) There are about ............... colleges, ..................... universities.
(iii) Some of the getting are residential in their nature performing teaching functions
only.
(iv) In the developed countries, access to higher educations to the tune of ............. and
more.
27.2 Financial Crunch

Lack of adequate funds in education is the most crucial issues. While overall investment in
education as a proportion of the gross domestic product (GDP) has gone up from 1.2 per cent in
1950s to 3.7 per cent in the 1990s, it is still below the norm of 6 per cent as stated in the National
Policy on Education. University education has particularly been hit hard. Most higher education
institutions all over the country are facing acute financial crisis. Two important questions
immediately intervene themselves: One, what is the justification for so radically changing the
40-year old policy of state support to higher education, and two, how could the state extend
financial support to higher education at a time when the country is facing severe resource
crunch?
Since provision of free and compulsory education at the elementary stage is a Constitutional
commitment, budgetary allocation for this sector of education is continuously on increase while
the University and higher education has go a raw deal for the sixth year in succession. This is
in keeping with the declared objective of the Union Government that the lion’s share of funding

Notes for higher education must come from sources other than the Government. The consequence of
in adequate investment in higher education is serious. While the Universities are at pain in
persuading the Government for increased budgetary allocations, some of them have
simultaneously takes measures for generating funds of their own.
It is high time the university system resorted to long-term resource planning instead of taking
the state support for granted each University will now have to identify avenues of resource
generation, both internal as well as external, depending upon the nature of its programme
offerings and the locale. The Punnayya Committee set up by the UGC and the Swaminathan
Panel of the AICTE have made some broad recommendations in this regard. The internal
measures, amongst other things, may include proper utilization of funds, general economy in
expenditures, pooling and sharing of departmental and institutional resources and most
importantly, rationalization of fee structure. As far the external resources, the important avenues
include donations from alumni, philonthropists and others, consultancy, university industry
interaction, etc.
In most institutions of higher education, at present, the tution fees contribute very little towards
earnings while the recurring expenditure on each student is must higher. In fact, an upward
revision of fees is over due. The need to raise the tution fees to at least 20% of the recurring
expenditure per student generally and at a still higher level higher professional and technical
courses is being advocated. Increase in fees from the foreign students at further higher levels is
being talked about by reserving seats for them in select institutions like the IIT and the IIMS.
By far the least controversial avenue of generating additional resource is that of tapping the
philonthropists, alumini and others such as business houses and industrial concerns for voluntary
contributions. In order to encourage this the Government of India’s financial act provides for
100% tax exemption in respect of donations by a tax payer to a university or institution of
national eminence. Again, University Industry interaction is becoming a plank in this direction.
The Swaminathan panel has suggested building up a reservoir of funds by collecting educational
cess from industries and other user organisations. Setting up of an Educational Development
Bank of India initially with shares of Rs. 1000 crore each by the State Governments, Central
Government and international financial agencies has also been suggested. Raising money through
consultancy work or job assignment by institutions to industries or other professional
organisations is yet another avenue being profusely recommended. As an incentive, part of this
money goes to individual scholars while the rest is added to the funds of the University. It is
pertinent to mention her the official view that avenues generated through enhanced fee structure,
consultancy and other activities would not be offset against Government grants with the
industries considering “adoption” of one or more institutions of higher education. A major
problem in relationship between industry and academic is that perhaps both do not know what
the other wants. While the universities are unable to identify the precise needs of the industry,
the latter are unaware about the type of interaction universities look forward from them.
Could a beginning not be made by sharing the infrastructure each is known to possess?
While measures such as these appear realistic, their repercussions need to be

thoroughly assessed before taking some definite decision in the matter.
Particularly, interests of poor students generally and those India students who
are pitted against the foreign students admitted on the basis of higher fees need
to be protected.
27.3 Privatization of Higher Education in India: Case for and Against

The private initiative in education, especially higher education is not altogether new to India.
Some of the leading universities namely, the Banaras Hindu University and the Aligarh Muslim
University came up with the efforts of certain dedicated individuals and financial support of the
community at large. Again, a large number of educational institutions in the country especially

those concerned with general and professional higher education have been established on private Notes
and voluntary initiative with or without financial subsidy from the Government.
In the context of the current changing social and economic fabric of the country, it appears almost certain
to go in for private funding of education. The recent paradigm shift in Indian economic and political
philosophy has led to the demand of private universities so as to meet the challenge of contemplated
open economy and the demand for qualitative human resources and high level of R & D.
There are view for and against privatisation of higher education in India. While some have
started criticizing the concept even before it has come to be defined and taken off the ground,
others consider it very useful and indeed inevitable. So much so that proposals for setting up
private universities affiliating the privately funded institutions are being discussed. For one
thing, there is no denying the fact that higher education is comparatively less expensive in
India even though under-developed countries like Bangladesh and developed ones like the US
Japan, Australia and many others have successfully switched over to provocation of education
without making it a crass. Can India also think on these lines especially if the money earned
can be “plough back” into the educational sector for its own improvement?
A clear cut policy of the Government of India regarding privatisation of higher education is
unfortunately not available at the present moment. We wonder it there one at all. At any rate,
the move is lacking in transparency. One thing is, however, clear from the occasional official
pronouncements that there is a need for supplementing Government measures by the efforts of
the non-Government organisations and the institutions themselves to generate resources. This,
in a way, does amount to partial privatisation calling for against, amongst others things the
following:
(a) resultant commercialisation of education
(b) obstacles in merit based admissions
(c) deterioration in academic standards
(d) encroachment in institutions and autonomy
(e) service conditions of teachers, and
(f) education becoming subservient to market logic advanced by the private sector in the country.
National Knowledge Commission (NKC) has recently submitted its annual report to the prime
minister.
The NKC has given recommendations regarding reforms in existing public universities,
undergraduate colleges, regulatory structure, financing, quality, creation of national universities
as centres of academic excellence and access to marginalised and excluded groups. However the
‘initiatives’ or prescriptions provided by the NKC in its report are country to the purpose.
These prescriptions are no different than those provided by the infamous Birla-Ambani report
or the concept paper for the Model Act for all the universities in India. Therefore, it is necessary
to analyse and discuss each block of recommendations of the NKC Report.
Self Assessment
2. State whether the following statements one ‘Ture’ or ‘False’:
(i) A large number of educational institutions in the country especially those concerned
with general and professional higher education have been established on private and
voluntary initiative.
(ii) National Knowledge Commission (NKC) has recently submitted its annual report to the
president.
(iii) A clear cut policy of the government of India regarding privatization of higher education
is available.
(iv) The higher education is comparatively less expensive in India even though under-
developed countries like Bangladesh and developed ones like the US, Japan.
(v) The recent paradigms shift in Indian economic and political philosophy has led to the
demand of private universities.

Notes 27.4 The Universities

The universities perform a critical role in an economy and society. They create, assimilate and
disseminate knowledge. Therefore, they must be flexible, innovative and creative. They have to
be accountable to the society. The number of universities and colleges has to be increased
several times to meet the demands. It is essential to revise the curriculum regularly at least
once in three to five years. There should be continuous internal assessment and reforms in
annual examination. There is no doubt that more choices of courses should be given to students.
But, the funding agencies have been resisting in granting more funds the are required for these
purposes virtually halting the reform process.
There must be a conscious effort to attract and retain talented faculty members. The NKC
recommends, regarding faculty appointments, that there should be “cross-pollination between
universities” and a “ceiling” of “one-half or even one-third” on the proportion of faculty
members than can be hired from within the university. With this recommendation many
prospective students who would like to join that reaching profession near their place of residence
would go to other professions in order to avoid additional financial burden if one has to live in
a distant place.
The NKC report recommends as reform in the structures of governance of universities, that the
appointments of vice chancellors should be free from direct or indirect intervention on the part
of the governments and should have tenure of six years. It points out “the size and composition
of university courts, academic councils and executive councils slows down decision-making
processes and sometimes constitutes an impediment to change.” Therefore, it recommends that
large university courts should be dispensed with. Since in large academic councils “decisions
are slow to come,” it recommends the creation of standing committees of academic councils for
“expeditious” decisions. The vice-chancellor should, then function as a chief executive officer
who has the authority and the flexibility to govern with the advice and concensor the executive
council which would provide checks and balances to create accountability.” With no university
courts and academic councils redundant, the vice chancellors would be too happy to have the
authority and flexibility’ in governance because the executive councils, which are of small size,
are very often manupulated by them. Thus, the vice chancellors will become all powerful and
accountable to none. In that event, democratic governance of universities, to whatever extent
present today, will not be there.
27.4.1 Undergraduate Colleges

Since the beginning of the liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (LPG) era in 1990s, the
system of affiliated colleges has been under attack. There have been attempts by the UGC to
force the colleges to become autonomous and self sufficient in their financing. The NKC report
is therefore no different which recommends” autonomy to colleges, either as individual colleges
or as cluster of colleges.”
Such autonomous colleges, or clusters of colleges, would constitute a part of the 1500 universities
the NKC proposes nation wide by 2015. It clearly means that the clarion call of the NKC to
create 1500 universities by 2015 is misleading because this number will include such colleges
which are raised to the status of universities. The NKC should have realised that only 200 out
of about 17,700 colleges have opted for autonomous status so far, because all such proposals
had hidden agenda of privatisation of higher education and learning them to the market forces.
The NKC proposes possibilities for college remaining affiliated colleges or colleges which are
not good to be autonomous. The first is to remodel them as community colleges which “could
provide both vocational education through two-years courses and formal education through
three-year courses.” These colleges could “provide holistic education and eligibility for
employment to the disadvantaged” by focussing on work or skin based education. The second is
“to establish a central board of undergraduate education (CBUE) along with state boards of
undergraduate education (SBUE) which would set curricula and conduct examinations for
undergraduate colleges that choose to be affiliated with them.” Some of the existing undergraduate

colleges, “particularly those that are at some geographical distance from their parent university,” Notes
would affiliate themselves to these boards.
It is clear from these proposals that the colleges not good to be autonomous would be good to
“provide holistic education and eligibility for employment to the disadvantaged.” The colleges
located in far-flung areas, in villages, hills, townships, catering to the needs of the poor and
first generation learners, far away from the affiliating universities, would be affiliated to CBUE/
SBUE.
27.4.2 Regulation
The NKC proposes the establishment of an independent regulatory authority for higher education
(IRAHE) for two reasons. First, entry or setting up of a university through an Act of legislature
or parliament is a “formidable barrier”. Second, entry norms will be needed for private
institutions and public-private partnership. Further, it would dispense with the “multiplicity of
regulatory agencies to provide a single-window clearance.”
The Acts of the UGC, AICTE, MCI and BCI would have to be amended. The role of the UGC
would be re-defined to focus on the disbursement of grants to, and maintenance of, public
institutions in higher education. The entry regulatory functions of the AICTE, the MCI and the
BCI would be performed by the IRAHE. It will apply “exactly the same norms to public and
private institutions, just as it will apply the same norms to domestic and international
institutions.”
From these recommendations it is clear that the proposed IRAHE would be a very powerful
body performing all functions related to the institutions of higher education and it would not
distinguish between public, private and foreign institutions. It would have no public control as
it would be at “an arm’s-length from the government and independent of all stakeholders
including the concerned ministries of the government.” The IRAHE, being the “only agency” to
“accord degree granting power to higher education institutions” would also take away powers
of the state governments to set up universities and higher education institutions. Such a body
cannot be accepted and must be opposed.
The IRAHE, to be established by an Act of parliament, would be the only agency that
would be authorised for according degree granting power to higher education
institutions, for monitoring standards and settling disputes, and for licensing
accreditation agencies, public or private.
27.4.3 Financing
The Report points out that there is no system of higher education in the world that is not based
upon significant public outlays. The present support for higher education, at 0.7 per cent of
GDP, is simply not adequate. In fact, over the past decade, in real terms, there has been a
significant decline in the resources allocated for higher education, in the aggregate as also per
student. In an ideal world, government support for higher education should be at least 1.5 per
cent, if not 2 per cent of GDP, from a total of 6 per cent of GDP for education. But the government
should endeavour to reach these levels by 2012.
Having said these good things, the NKC recommends that public universities should “use their
land as a source of finance.” And, as a norm “fees should meet at least 20 per cent of the total
expenditure in universities. In addition, fees need to be adjusted every two years through price
indexation.” As a rhetoric, as all other governmental reports have said, the NKC also suggests
“needy students should be provided with a fee waiver plus scholarships to meet their costs.” It
is well known now that the allocations for the scholarships, despite recommendations by several
committees, have been going down continuously. The fee waiver and scholarship clauses are
added in every report to shut up any resistance to fee hike.

Notes Other sources of finances suggested include licensing fees or user charges (for facilities in
universities used by people from outside) and private investment. The NKC recommends that
to attract more (not-for-profit) private investment to set up new institutions in higher education,
the government should provide the land and the private sector should provide the finances. In
today’s world, there is no private investment which is “not-for-profit.” All these
recommendations will instead decrease the enrolment.
27.4.4 Quality
It is claimed that the competition between institutions within India and outside India would
enhance quality and accountability. Foreign universities are coming to India to earn profits and
loot our students. The report points out, good institutions are not coming to India as they “care
more about their autonomy and wish to set benchmarks for themselves.” And therefore, the
NKC recommends that “all rules that apply to domestic institutions should also be applicable
to foreign institutions.” How can the rules under which the domestic institutions are funded by
the government be applicable for foreign institutions? This will dismantle our public funded
education system. Actually, the foreign universities should not be allowed to set up their
branches in the country. The foreign and Indian universities should continue to have exchange
programmes as is being done now.
For ensuring quality, it further recommends “salary differentials within and between universities
as a means of attracting and retaining talented faculty members. The salary differentiation will
help retain talent in some disciplines where remuneration in the market is much higher than in
other subjects.” Though the universities cannot compete with salaries elsewhere, but “they
should endeavour to provide a comfortable minimum for all, with some premium for those
who perform.” This happens in a market-model university. The departments that make money,
study money or attract money are given priority. Heads of universities and departments assume
the role of travelling salesmen to promote their programmes. In such a model, the disciplines
essential for a good liberal education such as social sciences, humanities and basic sciences
remain at a discount. Such proposals will further weaken our education system.
27.4.5 National Universities

In order to increase the gross enrolment, the NKC recommends the creation of up to 50 national
universities that can provide education of the highest standard. At least ten such universities in
the next three years should be created. The national universities need not all be new universities.
Each university may be endowed with a substantial allocation of public land, in excess of its
spatial requirements. The excess land can be a subsequent source of income generation, its
value rising over time due to the growing stature of the university. In the case of privately
executed charitable trusts, exceptions need to be made in existing income tax laws to encourage
large endowments. These universities shall have the autonomy to set student fee levels and tap
other sources for generating funds such as industry collaborations, overseas operations, as also
commercial use of university facilities.
It is clear from the above that these universities would be high fee charging universities catering
to the rich, generating its own resources, apart from others, through commercial use of university
facilities. In order to this impression, the NKC proposes “a host of scholarships, freeships,
bursaries and awards for economically disadvantaged students.” This generally never happens!
In order to “maximise the productivity of faculty”, there shall be “salary differentials between
national universities and also between disciplines.” There shall be “no career advancement
schemes and appointments at every level shall be through open competition.” This is a pure
private model that must be opposed.

27.4.6 Access Notes

Economic barriers to higher education can be addressed, according to the Report, by scholarships
or cross-subsidies. The academic institutions would be able to “set a fee of their own choice
subject to the provision that there are at least two banks that are willing to finance the entire
cost of education at that institution, without any collateral other than the fact of admission.”
Since “commercial banks may be wary of funding economically deprived students, especially
in non-professional courses”, the NKC recommends “a well-funded and extensive national
scholarship scheme targeting economically underprivileged students and students from
historically socially disadvantaged groups, particularly students from rural and backward areas.”
Therefore, it called upon the government to “endeavour to make available about 100,000
scholarships for such students.”
The NKC further states that “reservations are essential but they are a part, and one form of,
affirmative action. Disparities in educational attainments are related to caste and social groups,
but are also strongly related to other indicators such as income, gender, region and place of
residence. Access to quality higher education is further limited for students from certain types
of schools.” Therefore, in view of persisting multi-dimensional problems of deprivation of
educational opportunities, the NKC suggests “a deprivation index” based on social background
covering caste (keeping in view regional variations), religion and gender, family education
history; family income, type of school, the medium of instruction, place of residence, physical
disability, that could provide weighted scores to students to “compete for admissions.” Thus,
the NKC proposes ‘deprivation index” rather than reservation as provided under the
Constitution.
The entire structure on higher education in India presented in the NKCs report to the Nation
2006 is elitist and will not benefit the vast majority of young people below the age of 25 years.
It will decrease the enrollment instead of raising it to 15 percent by 2015. Raising the student
fees to 20 percent of the recurring expenditure, financing pattern, private investment, salary
differential, regulation by IRAHE with enormous powers, bias against the disadvantaged section
of the society, autonomous colleges, elitist national universities based on commercialisation,
etc. are retrograde recommendations which will lead to privatisation and commercialisation of
higher education in India.
Self Assessment
(i) Undergraduate colleges would constitute a part of the ........................ universities the
NKC proposes nation wide by 2015.
(a) 1100 (b) 100 (c) 1500 (d) 2000
(ii) The present support for higher education at ................... of GDP is simply not adequate.
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.7 (c) 0.9 (d) 0.4
(iii) In an ideal world government support for higher edcuation should be at least ..................
from a total of 6% of GDP for education.
(a) 1.5 (b) 2.5 (c) 2.7 (d) 3.5
(iv) The NKC recommends that public universities should use their land as a source of
finance and a norm fee should meet at least ............. of the total expenditure.
(a) 10% (b) 20% (c) 30% (d) 40%
(v) In order to increase the gross enrolment, the NKC recommends the creation of up to
........... national universities that can provide education of the highest standard.
(a) 18 (b) 40 (c) 50 (d) 60

Notes 27.5 Summary

• Immediately after Independence there was an unprecedented linear expansion of higher
education in the country. The problem of university education was comprehensively
reviewed by the University Education Commission (1948-49) appointed under the
chairmanship of S. Radhakrishan.
• The task of designing a proper educational system in Post-Independence period was first
assigned to The University Education Commission (1948-49) for the university stage, then
to the Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) for the secondary school stage and finally
to The Education Commission (1964-66) for all stages of education.
• Higher education deals with the tertiary level of education. Under s-eonve'the education in
colleges, universities and centres of advance studies. Talented students after higher secondary
seek admission to these institutions. There are about 4460 colleges, 120 universities, 11
deemed university and 23 centres of advance studies in the country.
• India has quite a large system of higher education in as much as we have today 250
universities, over 10,500 colleges and nearly 55 lakhs of students being taught by over 3
lakhs of teachers. And yet the proportion of the University and College going student
population in the relevant age group of 16-23 is dismal 6%. This is quite low even when
compared with developing countries, the figure being 20% for both Egypt and Thailand,
10% for Turkey, 11% for Brazil and 16% for Mexico.
• Lack of adequate funds in education is the most crucial issues. While overall investment in
education as a proportion of the gross domestic product (GDP) has gone up from 1.2 per
cent in 1950s to 3.7 per cent in the 1990s, it is still below the norm of 6 per cent as stated in
the National Policy on Education.
• The private initiative in education, especially higher education is not altogether new to
India. Some of the leading universities namely, the Banaras Hindu University and the
Aligarh Muslim University came up with the efforts of certain dedicated individuals and
financial support of the community at large. Again, a large number of educational institutions
in the country especially those concerned with general and professional higher education
have been established on private and voluntary initiative with or without financial subsidy
from the Government.
• The NKC’s ‘Report to the Nation 2006’ states that “destiny of India is in the hands of 550
million people below the age of 25 who will benefit the most from the new knowledge
initiatives.
• The universities perform a critical role in an economy and society. They create, assimilate
and disseminate knowledge. Therefore, they must be flexible, innovative and creative.
They have to be accountable to the society. The number of universities and colleges has to
be increased several times to meet the demands.
• The Report points out that there is no system of higher education in the world that is not
based upon significant public outlays. The present support for higher education, at 0.7 per
cent of GDP, is simply not adequate.
• In an ideal world, government support for higher education should be at least 1.5 per cent,
if not 2 per cent of GDP, from a total of 6 per cent of GDP for education. But the government
should endeavour to reach these levels by 2012.
• It is claimed that the competition between institutions within India and outside India
would enhance quality and accountability. Foreign universities are coming to India to earn
profits and loot our students. The report points out, good institutions are not coming to
India as they “care more about their autonomy and wish to set benchmarks for themselves.”
• In order to increase the gross enrolment, the NKC recommends the creation of up to 50
national universities that can provide education of the highest standard. At least ten such

universities in the next three years should be created. The national universities need not all Notes
be new universities. Each university may be endowed with a substantial allocation of
public land, in excess of its spatial requirements.
• The entire structure on higher education in India presented in the NKCs report to the
Nation 2006 is elitist and will not benefit the vast majority of young people below the age
of 25 years.
27.6 Keywords
• Expansion : An act of increasing or making something increase in size.
• Statuntory : Fire by law; that must be done by law.
• Prestigious : Respected and admired as very important or of very high quality.
• Controversial : Causing a lot of angry public discussion and disagreement.

1. Write the brief notes on “Privatisation of Higher Education”.
2. Explain access and equity in Higher Eduation.
3. What are the Crucial Questions for Privatise Higher Education in India?
4. Explain about the Financial Crunch.
5. Briefly Describe the privatisation of higher education in India– Case for and against.

1. (i) Higher education (ii) 10,500; 250
(iii) universities (iv) 40%
2. (i) True (ii) False (iii) False (iv) True (v) True
3. (i) (c) (ii) (b) (iii) (a) (iv) (b) (v) (c)

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 28: Globalization of Education
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
28.1 Globalization of Education
28.2 Impact of Globalization in Higher Education
28.3 Summary
28.4 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about the role of education
• to discuss about the imapect of globalization in higher education
Introduction
Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalization. The effects of
globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are
foreseeing changes within learning systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge,
changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialisation
towards an information-based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new
form of cultural imperialism. The rise of new cultural imperialism is shaping children, the
future citizens of the world into ‘global citizens’, intelligent people with a broad range of skills
and knowledge to apply to a competitive, information based society. Globalization and
technological advancements are delivering and increasing access to the world and subsequently
subjects should reflect this global outlook.
The internationalisation of higher education can be linked to various internal and external
changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labour market,
which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers, and workers with deeper
understandings of languages, cultures and business methods all over the world. Education is
becoming more invaluable to individuals. In today's environment, education provides
individuals with a better chance of employment, which in turn leads to a better lifestyle, power
and status. The commodification of knowledge as intellectual property has occurred particularly
with regard to connecting the intellectual work of universities with community, business, and
government interests and priorities. While such a tendency is often welcomed by so-called
applied disciplines, it causes tensions between the more profitable applied subjects of science
and technology, and those of basic theoretical enquiry, particularly in arts and humanities. It
also creates institutional winners and losers.
28.1 Globalization of Education

Globalization is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those being
education. In the twentieth century, many developing countries have experienced growth in the
educational facilities available to them due to the entry of institutions from the West. Some
believe that this process is an invaluable opportunity for the people of the developing countries

to raise their skills and standards of education. Others fear that it is merely a modern version Notes
of cultural imperialism that will lead to the creation of a universal, ultimately Western society.
One aspect of the globalisation of education has been the creation of ‘twinning projects’ between
one Western and one non-Western university (www.ssn.flinders.edu.au).
European elites who entered India were accused of Western imperialism actually rediscovered
India’s languages and religions and identified the region’s social, legal and political traditions
and they also argued that the transplantation of Western institutions into developing countries
shapes the behavior of those involved and thus makes for greater similarity with the people in
which the institutions first evolved. In fact a study has shown that the process of transferring
such institutions results in an increasing similarity of outlooks and values.
Through Globalisation of education, which is being knowledge transfer from the

Western countries into developing countries, is intended to improve the skills and
capabilities of the people receiving it.
28.1.1 General Agreement on Trade in Service

Further, education, as a service industry, is part of globalization process under the umbrella of
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). However, there is every possibility that this
might force countries with quite different academic needs and resources to conform to systems
inevitably designed to service the interest of corporate educational providers, and thereby
breeding inequality and dependence. Thus, several teachers’ organizations are on record
opposing the inclusion of education in the GATS, on the ground that education was not a
commodity. Incidentally, there is an emerging threat from the process of globalization in the
recent times. “Globalization can lead to unregulated and poor quality higher education, with
the world wide marketing of fraudulent degrees or other so-called higher education credentials”.
It seems that countries like India, are likely to turn into “an increasingly attractive market for
foreign universities and hence other nations are going to use GATS’ provisions to their
advantage”.
28.1.2 Globalization Theory

Globalization is both a process and a theory. Roland Robertson, with whom globalization
theory is most closely associated, views globalization as an accelerated compression of the
contemporary world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a singular entity.
Compression makes the world a single place by virtue of the power of a set of globally
diffused ideas that render the uniqueness of societal and ethnic identities and traditions irrelevant
except within local contexts and in scholarly discourse.
The notion of the world community being transformed into a global village, as introduced in
1960 by Marshall McLuhan in an influential book about the newly shared experience of mass
media, was likely the first expression of the contemporary concept of globalization. Despite its
entry into the common lexicon in the 1960s, globalization was not recognized as a significant
concept until the 1980s, when the complexity and multidimensionality of the process began to
be examined. Prior to the 1980s, accounts of globalization focused on a professed tendency of
societies to converge in becoming modern, described initially by Clark Kerr and colleagues as
the emergence of industrial man.
28.1.3 Recent Trends

In the wake of globalisation process and to cope up with the changing priorities of the people
the planners are bound to revise their strategies in the education sector. Thus, several specialist
committees, involving the elites and captains of industry and education, constituted by the
Union ministry are engaged in the process. Whereas, the public interest demands a wider

Notes domain for the national debate on syllabus and curriculum reform among other related aspects.
As usual there are several viewpoints of conflicting nature expressed by the captains of industry
and education like Azim Premji, Prof. N.S. Ramaswamy, Kabir Mustafa and others. While there
is a broad consensus on some points, some are almost at variance with each other. The common
educational reforms that were endorsed by some of the eminent industrialists and academics
include.
28.1.4 Initiatives of Central Government

This urgent flood of activity within the existing lethargic education sector has ensured that the
vital importance of qualitative education has permeated down to the lowest income groups
across the country. As part of more than 500 residential schools were established in rural India.
Simultaneously it has focused public attention upon hitherto mysterious subjects such as syllabus
design and curriculum development and shifted national attention from ritual to really quality
education. Suddenly mere degrees are not as important as skills that school leavers and college
graduates must acquire within their institutions of learning.
In fact, the introduction of ‘cost recovery’ principles that results in a hike in fees contributes to
reduction in the burden of the government in financing higher education. But, what about
social obligations? Obviously, the composition of student population will change in favor of
the higher income groups. Further, privatization of higher education makes it expensive such
that it is beyond the reach of lower income groups. Inadequate income implies denial of
opportunity of the benefits of higher education whereas the denial of access to higher education
results in the lack of fair opportunities to improve income. Further, market needs should be
kept in view while developing the curriculum. The element of productivity orientation should
guide the formulation of curriculum framework.
It is also necessary that while deciding about the fee structure and other student
levies, the tendency towards commercialization of education should be guarded
against.
Self Assessment
(i) .................... is a process, which has affected education in every aspect of life.
(ii) Education, as a service industry, is part of globalisation process under the umbrella of
............................. .
(iii) According to ............................., globalization is an accelerated compression of the
contemporary world.
(iv) ......................... principle results in a hike in fee contributes to reduction is the burden of
the government in financing higher education.
28.2 Impact of Globalization in Higher Education

Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalisation. The effects of
Globalization on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications are
foreseeing changes within school systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge,
changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society from industrialisation
towards an information-based society. It reflects the effect on culture and brings about a new
form of cultural imperialism. It brings rapid developments in technology and communications
are foreseeing changes within school systems across the world as ideas, values and knowledge.

The rise of a global society, driven by technology and communication developments are shaping Notes
children, the future citizens of the world into ‘global citizens’, intelligent people with a broad
range of skills and knowledge to apply to a competitive, information based society. The future
of countries often lies within their ability to compete in a global market where industrial based
economies are giving way to knowledge based industries, realising the importance of
"knowledge, skills and the intellectual capacity to meet the challenges of accelerated change
and uncertainty"6. Education is becoming a lifelong learning and training process, developing
transferable skills and knowledge that can be applied to competitive markets where knowledge
and information is being traded as a commodity.
28.2.1 Use of Technology Under Globalization

The introduction of technology into the classroom is changing the nature of delivering education
to students is gradually giving way to a new form of electronic literacy , more programs and
education materials are made available in electronic form, teachers are preparing materials in
electronic form; and students are generating papers, assignments and projects in electronic
form". Video projection screens, books with storage device servers and CD ROMs as well as the
emergence of on-line digital libraries are now replacing blackboards. Even exams and grades
are gradually becoming available through electronic means and notebooks are starting to give
way to laptops. Also, students can be examined through computer managed learning systems
and do tutorial exercises on a computer rather than in a classroom. Such developments in
education portray that there has been a shift from industrialisation to information-based societies.
Subsequently, technology is foreseeing a change in the education environment towards a reliance
on electronic sources to deliver material. With such changes and the emergence of video
conferencing and the Internet, the barriers of distance are being broken down at a rapid rate,
due to the key aspect of globalisation. Children and adults can now learn in a variety of ways
and no longer have to be physically present in an education institution in order to learn, a
definite advantage of flexible delivery systems. It allows for exploration of new areas of learning
and thinking. The rapid growth of television services, with their immense influence as media
of mass communication, has been very relevant in the technological shift. Other large
contributions to this shift include the transistor and space satellites. Communication and
information based technology over the years is the Internet, which is a massive network of
computers located throughout the world.
Computers maintain libraries of text, images, computer software, and other forms of data that
can be accessed by anyone, anywhere, at any time. This implementation of technology and
communication to be successful and to educate a society, both the students and teachers need to
be technologically literate. Communication technology is offering new challenges for students
of all abilities as they can discuss issues of concern with their fellow students from around the
world, thus developing communication and interpersonal skills, fostering a mutual understanding
across countries and cultures. Developments in the delivery of education is allowing for
individuals to explore new areas of learning and thinking that could not be done with pen and
paper. They are discovering knowledge through inquiry and experimentation rather than
memorizing facts in a teacher dominated classroom setting. In fact, students no longer need to
be physically present to learn as education material is becoming readily available over the
Internet, through video conferencing, and tape recordings. Institutions are now turning towards
the use of the Internet to deliver courses to students. A shift in education is becoming evident
where more responsibility is being placed on the individual for his or her learning, instead of
solely on the teacher. Subsequently, the teachers themselves also need to be highly
technologically literate, needing the competence and confidence to prepare students for a global
information society.
A global education should teach about issues that cross national boundaries, and interconnected
systems on ecological, cultural, economical, political and technological grounds such as the
Globalisation program which draws upon expertise in many areas such as humanities, social

Notes science and environmental science. Globalization and technological advancements are delivering
and increasing access to the world and subsequently subjects should reflect this global outlook.
Lack of regulation is a major issue with the globalization of higher education.
Just because of technology and communication seems to be creating in human life between the
‘haves’ and the ‘have nots’, resulting in a bifurcated society of those who can afford such
information technology and those who can’t, so too does globalization. While education
institutions in western societies are embracing technology, developing countries are once again
left behind, too weak and fragile to implement development programs for education, let alone
introduce technology as well. While third world states encourage their citizens to seek more
education, severe limitations in delivering basic services are a problem. A lack of infrastructure
and funding makes it difficult to implement any technological and communication
advancements. However, despite differences in economy, political, culture and society, second
and third worlds have adopted educational ideals from western thought and are anxious to
appear modern and therefore promote education as a symbol of modernity and development
to their own population and the foreign countries.
The spread of education internationally, as a result of globalization, has clearly had effects on
cultures worldwide. The capitalist society is gradually becoming global with a strong emphasis
on free trade emerging. Educational institutions have reacted accordingly, by becoming more
market oriented, focusing their energy more on creating funds rather than providing sufficient
education for students. Due to this increasing free trade around the globe – to end protection in
many sectors so that there is more competition and privatisation, education is increasingly
being drawn into this global capitalist competition. The Internationalisation of education has
become one of the key themes of educational policy and planning in the 1990s and the integration
of worldwide capital and labour markets; educators are being forced to respond to a new set of
challenges. The internationalisation of education, particularly higher education, is a growing
phenomenon. Universities and colleges around the world are increasingly becoming forced to
compete in the global capitalist market and engage in entrepreneurial activity to sustain
themselves in an increasingly ' uncertain world '.
The internationalisation of higher education can be linked to various internal and external
changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labour market,
which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers, and workers with deeper
understandings of languages, cultures and business methods from all over the world. “Modern
education…is almost exclusively focused on preparing children for an urban future.
The role of education has become more linked to globally competitive positions. Subsequent
changes in university functions have lead universities toward “direct entrepreneurial activity
to sustain themselves." This in turn produces a change in institutional approaches to the
development of overseas education. University courses must now be cross-cultural in content,
which is in association with the growing number of students.
28.2.2 Employment Due to Globalization

Education is becoming more invaluable to individuals. In today's environment, education
provides individuals with a better chance of employment, which in turn leads to a better
lifestyle, power and status.
Under the prevailing global forces, higher education institutions everywhere are subject to
global trends. Universities now facing more challenges than ever before, the rise of a globalised
knowledgebased economy has brought universities in many countries under closer scrutiny for
the economic contributions they make. Governments have been particularly concerned that
universities serve national interests in the global marketplace. There is an international tendency

to emphasize the practical, technical value of higher education. The commodification of Notes
knowledge as intellectual property has occurred particularly with regard to connecting the
intellectual work of universities with community, business, and government interests and
priorities. While such a tendency is often welcomed by so-called applied disciplines, it causes
tensions between the more profitable applied subjects of science and technology, and those of
basic theoretical enquiry, particularly arts and humanities subjects. It also creates institutional
winners and losers.
Under the impact of globalising market forces, there has been a general trend towards the
reduction of per capita public funding to higher education, at a time when the system is still
expanding at both the initial and the ‘life-long learning’ levels. The burden of funding higher
education is being shifted more and more to the shoulders of the individual on a ‘users-pay’
basis. Even public universities are increasingly funded by non-governmental sources, especially
via student tuition and other fees, donations raised from alumni and others, and direct payment
from business for services provided by the universities.
The linkage of performance to allocation of operation funds leads to intense competition among
universities. Associated with that is the move to privatisation of higher education. Tensions
between academic and commercial based subject are increasing. Substantial decline in levels of
public funding, the current globalisation of higher education is mainly motivated by profits. Its
goal is to meet market demand and to create a market for a variety of educational products.
With substantial growth in the international student market, the issue of regulation of providers
arises. It is extremely difficult to regulate the trade in academic institutions, programs, degrees
or products across international borders.
The current globalisation of higher education creates both challenges and opportunities. The
relationship between universities education and globalisation gives special attention. Education
will be the answer to many problems raised by globalisation. Educational goals are seen to be
an area of great concern in the era of globalisation. It is here that universities play a crucially
important role, for create better society. It is impossible to ignore the global; universities need
to reflect on the impact of globalisation. They must engage with the issues of globalisation,
both theoretically as analysts and researchers, and practically as academic workers involved in
an increasingly globalised enterprise.
Universities providing a high quality education for the globalised world, despite its focus on
internationalism and cross-cultural communication, are still based on an individualistic model
of teaching. Education should not become a means of westernising the world. On the contrary,
it should treat each unique culture and society with due respect, realising that global education
is not only learning about the West, but also studying different cultures of the world, using
different approaches, ways of teaching and different media.
Globalisation has had many obvious effects on educational technology and communication
systems change the way education is delivered as well as roles played by both teachers and
students. The development of this technology is facilitating the transition from an industrial
based society to an information-based one. At the same time, there is a dark side to globalisation
and to the very openness of the new information systems. While the richest countries grow
richer, the poor are becoming poorer. Income, information and education gaps between the
rich and the poor are widening not narrowing; economic crises, trade imbalances and structural
adjustments have precipitated a moral crisis in many countries, tearing the basic social and
cultural fabric of many families and communities apart, resulting in increasing youth
unemployment, suicide, violence, racism and drug abuse and anti social behavior form schools.
In the 21st century, education systems face the dual challenge of equipping students with the
new knowledge, skills and values needed to be competitive in a global market while at the
same time producing graduates who are responsible adults, good citizens both of their country
and of the world. Thus globalisation challenges us to rethink not only how much education is
needed but also its ultimate purposes.

Notes
What is the role of computers in gobalization of education?
Self Assessment
(i) Video projection screens, books with storage device servers and CD ROMs are now
replacing blackboards.
(ii) Communication technology is offering new challenges for students of all abilities as
they can discuss issues of concern with their fellow students from around the world.
(iii) Income, information and education gaps between the rich and poor are narrowing.
(iv) The television services have not been very relevant in the technological shift.
28.3 Summary
• Globalization is a process, which has affected many areas of human life, one of those
being education.
• Education, as a service industry, is part of globalization process under the umbrella of
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).
• Thus, several teachers’ organizations are on record opposing the inclusion of education in
the GATS, on the ground that education was not a commodity. Incidentally, there is an
emerging threat from the process of globalization in the recent times. “Globalization can
lead to unregulated and poor quality higher education, with the world wide marketing of
fraudulent degrees or other so-called higher education credentials”.
• Globalization is both a process and a theory. Roland Robertson, with whom globalization
theory is most closely associated, views globalization as an accelerated compression of
the contemporary world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a singular
entity.
• several specialist committees, involving the elites and captains of industry and education,
constituted by the Union ministry are engaged in the process.
• As part of more than 500 residential schools were established in rural India. Simultaneously
it has focused public attention upon hitherto mysterious subjects such as syllabus design
and curriculum development and shifted national attention from ritual to really quality
education.
• Education is undergoing constant changes under the effects of globalization. The effects of
Globalisation on education bring rapid developments in technology and communications
are foreseeing changes within school systems across the world as ideas, values and
knowledge, changing the roles of students and teachers, and producing a shift in society
from industrialisation towards an information-based society.
• The introduction of technology into the classroom is changing the nature of delivering
education to students is gradually giving way to a new form of electronic literacy.
• Video projection screens, books with storage device servers and CD ROMs as well as the
emergence of on-line digital libraries are now replacing blackboards. Even exams and
grades are gradually becoming available through electronic means and notebooks are
starting to give way to laptops.
• Computers maintain libraries of text, images, computer software, and other forms of data
that can be accessed by anyone, anywhere, at any time. This implementation of technology
and communication to be successful and to educate a society, both the students and teachers
need to be technologically literate.

• A global education should teach about issues that cross national boundaries, and Notes
interconnected systems on ecological, cultural, economical, political and technological
grounds such as the Globalization program which draws upon expertise in many areas
such as humanities, social science and environmental science.
• A lack of infrastructure and funding makes it difficult to implement any technological and
communication advancements.
• The spread of education internationally, as a result of globalization, has clearly had effects
on cultures worldwide. The capitalist society is gradually becoming global with a strong
emphasis on free trade emerging. Educational institutions have reacted accordingly, by
becoming more market oriented, focusing their energy more on creating funds rather
than providing sufficient education for students.
• The internationalisation of higher education can be linked to various internal and external
changes in the international system. Externally, there have been changes in the labour
market, which have resulted in calls for more knowledge and skilled workers, and workers
with deeper understandings of languages, cultures and business methods from all over the
world.
• The role of education has become more linked to globally competitive positions.
Subsequent changes in university functions have lead universities toward “direct
entrepreneurial activity to sustain themselves."
• University courses must now be cross-cultural in content, which is in association with the
growing number of students.
28.4 Keywords
• Globalization : The process of covering or affecting the whole world.
• Impact : The powerful effect that something has on somebody/something.
• Imperialism : The fact of a powerful country increasing its influence over other countries
through business, culture etc.
• Initiative : A new for dealing with a particular problem or for achieving a particular field.

1. Write a note on Globalization theory.
2. Write the impact of globalization in higher education.
3. Write about initiatives of Central government taken for education system.
7. What is general agreement on trade in Service.

1. (i) Globalization (ii) General agreement on trade in service
(iii) Roland Robertson (iv) Cost recovery

2. Development of Educational System in India : Mel Ainscow , Alan Dyson , Susan
Goldrick.

Notes
Unit 29: Human Rights Education : Concept and
Importance of Human Rights Education and Role of
Education in Promoting Human Rights
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
29.1 Importance of Human Rights Education
29.2 Functions of Human Rights Education
29.3 Objectives
29.4 Some of the Common and most Acceptable Courses
29.5 The Role of Education in Promoting Human Rights
29.6 Muslim Countries
29.7 Aims and Objectives of Minhaj-ul-Quran
29.8 Aims of Education for Human Right
29.9 Contents of Education for Human Rights
29.10 Educational Methods Teaching Aids and Training Programmes
29.11 Recommendations
29.12 Human Rights Protection in India
29.13 Human Rights and Indian Constitution
29.14 A Comparative Study of Directive Principles of State Policy with the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
29.15 Summary
29.16 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about Importance of Human Right Education.
• to explain Functions Human Rights Education
• to discuss Objectives
• to describe Some of the Common and most Acceptable Courses
• to discuss The role of Education in Promoting Human Rights
• to explain Muslim Countries
• to discuss Aims and Objectives of Minhaj-ul-Quran
• to describe Aims of Education for Human Right
• to discuss Contents of Education for Human Rights
• to explain Educational Methods Teaching Aids and Training Programmes
• to discuss Recommendations

Unit 29: Human Rights Education : Concept and Importance of Human Rights Education and Role of Education ...
• to explain Human Rights Protection in India Notes

• to discuss Human Rights and Indian Constitution
• to desscribe A Comparative Study of Directive Principles of State Policy with the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Introduction
Human Right Education is the education that caters to the development of overall human
personality. It includes respecting of rights, fulfillment of basic needs, and ensuring fundamental
freedom to all human beings. The key purpose of venturing into this field of education is to
promote understanding of basic human needs and stimulate the need to spread humanity, love,
and brotherhood amongst nations.
In the words of UNESCO Director-General Koichiro Matsuura “Human rights education is
indispensable for every individual to fully enjoy and claim a life of security and dignity. It is
indispensable for public officials to give effect to human rights commitments by the State.
Finally, it is indispensable for the entire society to develop and nurture a human rights culture
as a prerequisite of harmonious and peaceful development”.
It’s true that this kind of education is of utmost important for one and all to ensure a secured,
respectful, and courteous life. It is one step that takes the world together with a desire to create
a strong foundation of universal culture of rights and freedom.
29.1 Importance of Human Rights Education

Education makes people easy to lead, but difficult to drive; easy to govern, but impossible of
enslave. ... Henry Peter
World is so beautiful. Human beings is the great and strongest animal in the world. With the
help of thing capacity he became a powerful person in the world. Every one has right to live
and right ot speak.
No we are living in the modern world. Human beings developed in all the fields. But there is
a lot of difference among the countries in the world. Co-operation and co-ordination are necessary
among these countries. It is necessary and important to educate every one in the world. It is
very important to know what is Human Rights.
29.2 Functions of Human Rights Education

1. Produces changes in values and attitudes
2. Produces changes in behaviour
3. Produces empowerment for social justice
4. Develops attitudes of solidarity across issues and nations.
5. Develops knowledge and analytical skills
6. Produces participatory education.
29.3 Objectives
Main objectives are:
1. Campaign for popular education.
2. Assistance of prison.
3. Create awareness and take actions to protect trafficking of women and Children for sexual
exploitation.

Notes 4. Create awareness about violence associated with trafficking and sexual exploitation
includes depression, suicidal thought and attempts and physical injuries such as bruises,
broken bones, wounds, stab wounds, mouth and teeth injuries and even death.
5. Awareness creation for reproductive health and sexually transmitted diseases like
pregnancy, forced or unsafe abortions.
6. Awareness creation and knowledge sharing against corruption and to assist the people to
strength capacity to tackle corruption and to move closer to international stands.
7. Respect and work for the universal declaration of human right was adopted by the general
assembly of The United Nations in 1948.
8. To enhance awareness of poor female and male through organize them.
9. Leadership development at family as well as society level and enhance women
participation.
10. Establish rights and good governance at all levels.
29.4 Some of the Common and Most Acceptable Courses

Anyone who wishes to contribute to the strength of this foundation can opt for various courses
under the stream. There are many options available for students to gain access to the kind of
culture. Some of the common and most acceptable courses are as follows :
• Foundation course is a one that imparts learning of values and norms with regards to
justice, fraternity, and equality. It also includes awareness of civil society organizations
and special initiatives or measures that can be taken to promote human rights.
• Certificate course is specially designed for special groups like civil segments, law
enforcement personnel, and social groups.
• Under-graduate course gives the basic understanding of human rights and its importance
in the social life.
• Post-graduate diploma course is more advanced and progressive with regards to the culture
of human rights and fundamental freedom.
• Post-graduate degree is interdisciplinary in nature and undertakes research and case studies
on thrust areas.
Self Assessment
(i) The key purpose of ............................... is to promote understanding of basic human needs
and stimulate the need to spread humanity, love and brotherhood amongst nations.
(ii) ......................... is a one that imparts learning of values and norms with regards to justice
fraternity and equality.
(iii) .......................... is interdisciplinary in nature and undertakes research and case studies on
thrust areas.
(iv) It is necessary and important to ............................ everyone in the world.
(v) Human right education produces ............................. for ............................ .
29.5 The Role of Education in Promoting Human Rights

Binding UN human rights covenants, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the principles of
the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on
the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the
Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture and many more. The Declaration

continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates and constitutional courts Notes
and individual human beings who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised
human rights.
It must be remembered that these health professionals have also been victimized
because of serving opponents of dictatorial regimes. Thus, they need to be critically
aware of how their role in human rights can affect government policies.
29.6 Muslim Countries

Most Muslim countries have signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other
human rights agreements. In 1948, Saudi Arabia didn’t sign the declaration, arguing it violated
Islamic law. However, Pakistan (which had signed the declaration ) criticized the Saudi position.
In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, said the the
UDHR was “a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition”, which could not be
implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law. On 30 June 2000, Muslim nations
that are members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of
Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in
Islam, an alternative document that says people have “freedom and right to a dignified life in
accordance with the Islamic Shari’ ah”, without any discrimination on grounds of “race, colour,
language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other consideration.” As a
secular state, Turkey has signed the declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and other European
Human Rights agreements.
Minhaj-ul Quran International (MQI) was founded by His Eminence Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-
• Qadri in October 1981 with a long term strategic vision to promote religious moderation,
peace, love, harmony and modern Islamic sciences. Dr Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, a professor
of international law and a prominent authority on Islam has authored more than 400 published
works on Islamic scholarship, law and Sufism. Dr Qadri developed his organisational network
in more than 90 countries in the span of just 30 years.
29.7 Aims and Objectives of Minhaj-ul-Quran

Since its establishment, Minhaj-ul-Quran has five main aims and objectives in the UK which are
the horizontals.
1. To promote peace, tolerance and interfaith harmony
2. To promote education, integration and working for community cohesion
3. To engage with young Muslims for religious moderation
4. To promote women’s rights, development and empowerment
5. To provide social welfare and promotion of human rights
Write any three main aims of Minhaj-ul-Quran.
29.8 Aims of Education for Human Right

The principal aims of education for human rights are :
• to strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental freedom ;
to develop fully the human personality and the sense of its dignity ;

Notes to develop attitudes and behaviour to promote respect for the rights of others;
to ensure genuine gender equality and equal opportunities for women in all spheres ;
29.9 Contents of Education for Human Rights

Education for human rights, should be aimed at full enjoyment of human rights and fundamental
freedoms and for that purpose have regards to the following :
All human rights are universal, indivisible, interrelated and interdependent, and all are
essential for the full development of human personality ;
While regional and national particularities are to be borne in mind, it is the duty of States,
regardless of their political, civil, economic and cultural systems, to promote and protect
all human rights and fundamental freedoms ;
Universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms contribute
to stability, security and well-being, necessary for socio-economic development;
Human rights, democracy, peace and development are interdependent and mutually
reinforcing;
Right of women and girl-child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal
human rights ;
29.10 Educational Methods Teaching Aids and Training Programmes

Appropriate methodology and materials for the teaching of human rights should be developed
in full conformity with the human rights principles and standards.
Special attention should be given to the elaboration of educational materials suitable for formal
and informal settings, and adapted to the needs and demands of various target groups. Such
materials should be made available in various national and local languages, in different forms
and in sufficient number. Bearing in mind, the special characteristics of the region and prevailing
high level of illiteracy, innovative audio-visual programmes should be prepared. An effort should
also be made to reach the population especially in the remote and rural areas.
29.11 Recommendations
With a view to accelerate the process of promoting education for human rights, the Asia and
Pacific Regional Conference on Education for Human Rights adopted the following
recommendations:
(i) Appeal to the States in the Asia and Pacific region
(ii) Request elected representatives
(iii) Urge non-government organizations
(iv) Invite mass media
(v) Demand national human rights institutions
29.12 Human Rights Protection in India

Human Rights as commonly understood are the rights that are inherent in all persons. These
are considered important due to their characteristics-inalienability and universality. Obligations
related to ensuring that these rights are enjoyable by all equally and without any discrimination
rests primarily with the State. There are numerous instruments at international level agreed
upon by states which enumerates these rights. In this paper I will look at the state of Human
Rights protection in India with an optimistic view. To argue that in India various steps have
been taken for the protection of Human Rights the reference to both legislations enacted by the
legislature (Parliament) of India and also to the cases decided by the Courts forming a part of
Higher Judiciary (Supreme Court and High Courts) in India is made wherever required.

29.13 Human Rights and Indian Constitution Notes
Human Rights, intrinsic to all humans as members of humanity, are the modern and secular
version of the natural rights. All humans, being born equal are equally entitled to the Human
Rights without any distinction of birth, sex, race, status, religion, language or nationality.
Standing above the ideologies of the capitalism or communism, Human Rights reflect the
concern for democracy, development and peace.
The national awakening and social reform movements were for the equality, democracy and
social progress. During the freedom movement, the people of India fought against colonial rule
for their rights and liberties. Freedom fighter Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak proclaimed,
“Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.” Throughout the freedom struggle, the demand for
fundamental rights was always in the forefront.
The Indian National Congress at its Madras session in December 1927, resolved to draft a
“Swaraj Constitution for India, on the basis of the Declaration of Rights” and in 1928, an All
Parties Conference of representatives from Indian political parties proposed constitutional
reforms for India. Demanding dominion status and elections under universal suffrage, they
called for guarantees of rights deemed fundamental, representation for religious and ethnic
minorities and limitations on government powers.
Rane Cassin, the distinguished French Jurist who drafted United Nations
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
1968 for his works on Human Rights.
A broad distinction is often made between rights that are ‘justiciable’, capable of being invoked
in Courts of law and enforced by judges, and those that are not. It is argued that many Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights, such as the rights to food, housing, health, education and social
security, are by their very character, not justiciable rights. They are no doubt legally binding,
in that, they create obligations on states. However, they are not legal with regard to their
applicability.
It is frequently argued also that Courts cannot intervene to enforce these rights because States
are legally bound to discharge these obligations progressively based on the availbility of
resources. It is suggested that Civil and Political Rights require mainly abstentions by State
authorities, involving no costs, whereas Economic, Social and Cultural Rights require positive
action by the State, involving significant expenditure.
This distinction is overdrawn. Several Civil and Political Rights also do require expenditures,
such as for legal aid, regulators and ombudsmen. On the other hand, there are Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights that only require the State to abstain from encroachment on people’s
rights, such as from the compulsory acquisition of the land of indigenous communities or the
eviction of urban sequatters. Several laws against discrimination against women, children,
socially disadvantaged groups and mintories, involving primarily Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights, would also not involve more significant public expenditure as compared to Civil and
Political Rights.
However, in the end, it must still be admitted that some of the most vital Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights do involve substantial public expenditure, such as the
rights to food, housing, education, social security, work and health care.

Notes 29.14 A Comparative Study of Directive Principles of State Policy with

the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights
Directive Principle of State Policy in International Covenant on Economic, Social

Indian Constitution and Cultural Rights
Art. 38 : Art. 4 :
State to secure a social order for the The state parties shall recognize that the
promotion of welfare of the people. nature of rights should be solely for
promoting the general welfare in a democratic
society.
Art. 39 : Art. 11 :
The State shall direct its policy towards The state parties shall recognize the right of
securing : everyone to an adequate standard of living
(a) That the citizen, men and women including adequate food, clothing and
equally, have the right to an adequate housing and to the continuous improvement
means of livelihood. of living conditions for himself and his family,
and to
(b) That the ownership and control of recognize fundamental right of everyone to
material resources of the community be free from hunger by a developing or reforming
are so distributed as best to subserve agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve
the common good. the most efficient development and utilization
of natural resources.
(c) That the operation of economic system Art. 25 :
does not result in the concentration of Nothing shall be interpreted as impairing the
wealth and means of production to the inherent right of all peoples of enjoy and
common determent. utilize fully and freely their natural wealth
and resources.
Art. 39 Art. 7 :
(d) That there is equal pay for equal work The States to recognize the right of equal pay for
for both men and women. equal work for both man and woman;
Art. 3 :
The State shall ensure the equal rights of men
and women to the enjoyment of all economic,
social and cultural rights.
Self Assessment:
(i) The human rights are considered important due to their characteristics inalienability
and universality.
(ii) The Indian National Congress at its Madras session in December 1927, resolved to draft
a 'Swaraj' constitution for India, on the basis of thee "Declaration of rights".
(iii) It is suggested that civil and political rights require mainly abstentions by state
authorities, involving much cost.
(iv) Freedom fighter Subhash Chandra Bose proclaimed 'Swaraj is my birth right and I shall
have it.

(v) Several civil and political rights also do require expenditures, such as for legal aid, and Notes
regulators.
29.15 Summary
• Human Right Education is the education that caters to the development of overall human
personality. It includes respecting of rights, fulfillment of basic needs, and ensuring
fundamental freedom to all human beings.
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was drafted by the United Nations
Commission on Human Rights chaired by, then first lady, Eleanor Roosevelt.
• Human rights education cannot be reduced to the simple introduction of human rights
content in already overburdened curricula.
29.16 Keywords
• Orbhan : A child whose parents are dead.
• Enshrine : To make a law, right.
• Elaborate : Carefully prepared and organized.
• Ambit : The range of the authority or influence.
• Bestows : To show how much they are respected.

1. Write the importance of Human Rights Education.
2. What is the role of Education in Pormoting Health and Human Rights?
3. Write about the aims and objectives of Minhaj-ul-Quran.
4. Write about the recommendations of the Asia and Pacific Removal Conference on Education
for Human Rights.
5. Write about the Human Rights during freedom movement.
6. Compare the Fundamental rights in Indian Constitution with Universal declaration of
Human Rights.
7. Write about educational methods teaching aids and training programmes.
8. Write about why human rights education is necessary?

1. (i) human right education (ii) Foundation course
(iii) Post graduate degree (iv) education
(v) empowerment, socialization
2. (i) True (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) True

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 30: Brief Historical Background of Human Rights
with Special Reference to Universal Decleration of
Human Rights, Human Rights Act in Indian
Legislation
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
30.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
30.2 International Human Rights Instruments and their Application in India
30.3 The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993
30.4 State Human Rights Commissions
30.5 Functions of State Human Right Commission
30.6 Summary
30.7 Keywords
Objective
• to discuss about the universal declaration of human rights
• to describe about international human rights instruments and their application in india
• to discuss about the the protection of human rights act, 1993
• to explain about state human rights commissions
• to discuss about the functions of state human right commission
Introduction
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly (10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris). The Declaration
arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and represents the first global
expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled. We will talk about it
this unit.
30.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a document which was drafted by the United
Nations Commission on Human Rights after the close of the Second World War. The document
was intended to more clearly define the "rights" mentioned in the charter of the United Nations,
while also providing a clear and general definition of human rights for all member nations.
The Declaration has since been translated into over 300 languages, and it is very widely referenced
all over the world.

Unit 30: Brief Historical Background of Human Rights with Special Reference ...
One of the champions of the document was Eleanor Roosevelt, who sat as Chairwoman on the Notes
Commission when the document was drafted. Roosevelt also contributed a substantial amount
of text to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. On 10 December 1948, the document was
officially ratified by 48 member nations, while eight abstained from voting.
Altogether, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes 30 articles which clearly outline
basic human rights such as freedom from torture and slavery. The Declaration is intended to
clearly and simply lay out all of the rights to which people are entitled around the world, and
it serves as an advisory statement rather than a legally binding document. Member countries of
the United Nations are encouraged to support these rights, while making copies of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights widely available.
Many of the articles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights are drawn on the already
existing bills of rights of several nations. The Declaration is intended to promote equality and
liberty, and it includes a number of articles which focus on basic legal protections, such as the
right to a fair trial. Women, children, and families are also addressed in several articles, because
these groups face specific issues. In addition, Article 29 indicates that humans and governments
have responsibilities to each other, to ensure that human rights are preserved and protected.
30.1.1 Meaning of Human Rights

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason
and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Declaration of Human Rights: The basic idea of human rights is that every person possesses
dignity by the fact alone of being a person. Human rights, which are inalienable and indivisible,
protect this dignity. The concept of human rights is based on a universal system of values
shared by all peoples, which offers a framework for the construction of a human rights system
with internationally recognised norms and standards. Human rights norms regulate the
relationship between the state and the people living under its responsibility. Governments
have the obligation to respect, protect and guarantee the rights and freedoms of people through
appropriate legislation and measures.
For example, the state must respect the freedom of opinion or privacy of the individual. Not
only is it not allowed to intervene in peaceful demonstrations, but it must also take active steps
to protect demonstrators from aggression by counter-demonstrators. Through preventive
measures and the punishment of violence it also safeguards the prohibition on torture and
inhuman or cruel treatment. Finally the state has the task of providing schools, hospitals,
teachers and doctors so as to guarantee the right to education and health care.

During the Second World War the allies adopted the Four Freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom
of assembly, freedom from fear and freedom from want, as their basic war aims. The United
Nations Charter “reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the
human person” and committed all member states to promote “universal respect for, and
observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race,
sex, language, or religion”.
When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became apparent after the Second World War,
the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not
sufficiently define the rights it referenced. A universal declaration that specified the rights of
individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter’s provisions on human rights.
The Commission on Human Rights, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to
undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.
The membership of the Commission was designed to be broadly representative of the global
community with representatives of the following countries serving: Australia, Belgium,
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Chile, China, Egypt, France, India, Iran, Lebanon, Panama,
Philippines, United Kingdom, United States, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Uruguay and
Yugoslavia. Well known members of the Commission included Eleanor Roosevelt of the United

Notes States, who was the Chairperson, Jacques Maritain, René Cassin and Stephane Hessel of France,
Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P. C. Chang of the Republic of China, among others. Humphrey
provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission.
Canadian John Peters Humphrey was called upon by the United Nations Secretary-
General to work on the project and became the Declaration’s principal drafter. At the
time Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights
within the United Nations Secretariat.
30.1.3 Rights under Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The first comprehensive and universally valid human rights document was the United Nations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was adopted in 1948 in the aftermath of the
horrors of the Second World War. The Declaration contains all the various categories and
principles of the human rights system.
There are civil and political rights; economic, social and cultural rights; and solidarity rights.
Certain basic human rights principles apply to all these rights. For example, no one may be
discriminated against on the grounds of origins, colour, religion, sex, age, language or assets.
Moreover, states must provide every person with effective legal recourse to assert guaranteed
rights. Finally, all people should be in a position to determine the way in which their rights are
realised. For example, the right to education includes the right of parents to decide whether
their children attend a state school or a Montessori school.
The main civil and political rights are:
• right to life, liberty and security of person
• prohibition of slavery
• prohibition of torture
• right to a fair trial
• protection of privacy and family life
• freedom of movement
• freedom of opinion and religion
• freedom of assembly and association
• right to vote
The main economic, social and cultural rights are:
• right to work, reasonable pay and free choice of employment
• right to form trade unions
• right to a reasonable standard of living, right to food
• right to reasonable health care
• right to education
• right to participate in cultural and social life
The main solidarity rights are:
• right of peoples to self-determination
• right to peace
• right to a clean environment
• right to development
Civil and political rights are sometimes called first-generation human rights. They arose during
the Enlightenment in the 18th century and reflect the idea of individual freedom with respect to
the state and the democratic idea of participation. Second-generation human rights are the
economic, social and cultural rights that developed during the labour movements of the 19th

and 20th centuries. The third generation of human rights, solidarity rights, have existed since Notes
the mid-1980s. They are contingent on international cooperation and aim at the formation of a
community.
30.1.4 Human Rights Important

Adopted by the General Assembly on December 10, 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) is one of the first major achievements of the United Nations. The United States
is a charter member of the United Nations and the U.S. Representative to the U.N., Eleanor
Roosevelt, was a lead drafter of the UDHR.
The author States of Declaration, from different regions of the world, sought to ensure that the
text would incorporate values common to all communities.
The States affirmed the universal respect for inalienable rights and fundamental freedoms of
each and every person, including the principles of the prohibition against arbitrary detention,
the right to due process and other civil and political rights as well as social, cultural and
economic rights.
Significant development in thinking about human rights had already taken place in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
These fundamental human rights should be "a common standard of achievement for all peoples
and nations" - UDHR Preamble. They are the basic rights that all human beings should enjoy,
respect and protect.
The UDHR, together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), its
two Optional Protocols, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR), form what is known as International Bill of Human Rights.
International human rights law lays down obligations which States are bound to respect. By
becoming parties to international treaties, States assume obligations and duties under
international law to respect, to protect and to fulfill human rights.
The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the
enjoyment of human rights.
The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human
rights abuses.
The obligation to fulfill means that States must take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment
of basic human rights.
Through ratification of international human rights treaties, Governments undertake to put into
place domestic measures and legislation compatible with their treaty obligations and duties.
Universal human rights should be applied to all persons without distinction of any kind: we
are all human beings, so we are all entitled to enjoy these rights.
Remember that, as Eleanor Roosevelt said, "the destiny of human rights is in the hands of all
our citizens in all our communities."
What is the meaning of three terms (i) respect (ii) protect (iii) fulfilled under the
universal declaration of human rights?
Self Assessment
1. Multiple choice questions: Choose the correct option:
(i) The universal declaration of human right is a document which was drafted by the .......
(a) United Nations (b) General Assembly
(c) European Union (d) Saarc Nations

Notes (ii) The Universal declaration of human rights was officially ratified on ...................... .
(a) 11 November, 1945 (b) 10 December, 1948
(c) 2 October, 1940 (d) 7 September, 1946
(iii) The declaration of human rights includes ....................... articles which clearly outline
basic human rights such as freedom from torture and slavery.
(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 30 (d) 40
(iv) The prohibition of slavery is a .................... right.
(a) civil and political (b) economic
(c) social (d) cultural
(v) Right to pace is the main .......................... right.
(a) civil (b) social (c) solidarity (d) educational
(vi) Civil and political rights are sometimes called ................ human rights.
(a) first generation (b) second generation
(c) third generation (d) fourth generation
(vii) The National Council for teacher educations has introduced a self learning module on
"Human Rights" and national values on 11 March .......................... to train the teachers on
human rights.
(a) 1990 (b) 1993 (c) 1996 (d) 1997
30.2 International Human Rights Instruments and their Application

in India
The Chart of Ratification of International Instruments, provided by the United Nations, should
ideally form the corpus of international customary law, applicable in all democratic countries.
Once an instrument is ratified a signatory is bound to bring in laws that conform to United
Nations standards. Even if these instruments are not legally binding, they are morally
compelling.
India has yet to ratify a host of international instruments.
Its adherence to them is, at best, ambiguous. The mandate of the National Human Rights
Commission (NHRC), established under the Human Rights Protection Act of 1993, provides a
lens through which the situation can be better understood.
According to the Statement of Objects and Reasons of the Human Rights Protection Bill, the
NHRC would review the existing laws, procedures, and the system of administration, and
emphasize that India is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR) as well as the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR).
However, India is not a signatory to many other international conventions or mechanisms like
the UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment, the Convention on the Status of Refugees, Optional Protocols to the ICCPR and
the Protocol relating to the status of refugees. The UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement
Officials, the UN Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons under Any Form of
Detention or Imprisonment, and the UN Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation
of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions also form the basic tenets of customary
international law.
On 18 January 1994, South Asia Human Rights Documentation Centre (SAHRDC) wrote to the
National Human Rights Commission to reiterate SAHRDC's desire to seek clarification on
Clause 1, Sub Clause (d), of the Human Rights Protection Act which states "human rights means

the right relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Notes
Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India".
"Human rights", as defined in the sub-clause (d) of Clause 1 of the Human Rights Protection Act
of 1993, is extremely restrictive and does not adhere to the international instruments; so
restrictive, in fact, that it goes against the very spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.
For example, while ratifying the International Covenants on 27 March 1979, India expressed its
reservation to Article 9 of the ICCPR relating to preventive detention. The delegation from
India stated, "With reference to article 9 of the ICCPR, the Government of the Republic of India
takes the position that the provisions of the article shall be so applied as to be in consonance
with the provisions of the clauses (3) to (7) of the article 22 of the Constitution of India. Further,
under the Indian legal system, there is no enforceable right to compensation for persons claiming
to be victims of unlawful arrest and detention against the State." However, the Supreme Court
of India in recent judgements has been attempting to broaden the scope of compensation.
30.2.1 Human Rights Education

Over the years, the government has taken very few steps to increase human rights awareness at
either the institutional level or informal level. This has been one of the major contributing
factors to persistent human rights violations, particularly by law enforcement officials, who are
not given any human rights training.
The National Council for Teachers Education has introduced a self learning module on "Human
Rights and National Values" on 11 March 1996 to train the teachers on human rights. The
National Human Rights Commission also organized a seminar on Human Rights Education on
16 February 1996 in collaboration with Canadian Human Rights Commission. The National
Human Rights Commission in cooperation with the National Council of Educational Research
and Training has brought out a source book on human rights eduction. The NHRC's programme
evoked mixed reaction. Although, human rights activists welcomed the NHRC's initiatives, it
has not been modeled as to attract the students.
However, human rights eduction of the law enforcement personnel is yet to be comprehensively
discussed. On 6 February 1996, personnel of several para-military forces at a debate asserted
that undue stress on adherence to human rights would make them inactive thereby crippling
anti-terrorist operations. Organized by the National Human Rights Commission, in collaboration
with the Border Security Forces, the debate on "Security forces observing human rights are
better equipped to combat organized violence" evoked divergent views with speakers opposing
the proposition forcefully making the point that the language of love would not work with
terrorists.
Stating that para-military forces would be rendered ineffective if they were more worried
about human rights, the speakers said it had become a fashion to speak of human rights and its
violation. They emphasized that terrorism and organized violence could be annihilated only
through barrel of guns.
However, there were many who spoke the language of Gandhi and tried to bring home the fact
that long-term remedy for terrorism and violence lay in persuasive efforts and observance of
human rights. They said that by violating human rights short-term success might be possible.
30.3 The Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993

The Protection of Human Right Act, 1993 has been enacted pursuant to the directive under
Article 51 of the Constitution and also the commitments taken at Vienna conference. It defines
human right as the right relating to liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed
by the Indian constitution as embodied in the fundamental rights and the International covenants.

Notes Section 37 of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 empowers the Government to constitute
one or more special investigative teams consisting of such police officers as it thinks necessary
for the purpose of investigation and prosecution of offences arising out of violations of human
rights. The Commission's power to utilize the services of any officer or investigating agency of
the Government for conducting any investigation pertaining to the inquiry is however made
dependent on the concurrence of the Government by section 14(1).
The Human Rights Courts constituted under section 30 of the Protection of Human Rights Act,
1993 is competent to entertain any complaint or take cognizance of any case complaining
violation of right to privacy due to obtrusive surveillance of police and give appropriate relief
both under criminal as well as civil law. Human Rights Court is also competent to award
compensation under section 357, Cr.P.C.
Under the Human Rights Protection Act of 1993 (amended in 2006), the NHRC has the power to
"visit, notwithstanding anything contained in any other law for the time being in force, any jail
or other institution under the control of the State Government, where persons are detained or
lodged for purposes of treatment, reformation or protection, for the study of the living conditions
of the inmates thereof and make recommendations thereon to the Government."
On 14 December 1993, Vide Letter No. 66/SG/NHRC/93, NHRC issued directions on "Custodial
Deaths/Rapes which are as under:
"In view of the rising number of incidents and reported attempts to suppress or present a
different picture of these incidents with the lapse of time, the Commission has taken a view
that a direction should be issued forthwith to the District Magistrates and Superintendents of
Police of every district that they should report to the Secretary General of the Commission
about such incidents within 24 hours of occurrence or of these officers having come to know
about such incidents. Failure to report promptly would give rise to presumption that there was
an attempt to suppress the incident."
On 10 August 1993, responding to concerns over the poor quality of post mortem inquiries the
NHRC further instructed Chief Ministers of States that all postmortems of custodial deaths
would now need to be videoed and sent to the Commission. The NHRC stated that:
"Scrutiny of the reports in respect of all these custodial deaths by the Commission very often
shows that the postmortem in many cases has not been done properly. Usually the reports are
drawn up casually and do not at all help in the forming of an opinion as to the cause of death."
30.3.1 The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

Protection of Human Rights Act has also helped focused on the issue of custodial violence
committed by police in India and ill-treatment of detainees, constituting a serious denial of
basic human rights by the police. The NHRC took prompt measures to monitor incidents of
custodial violence leading to death. It ordered that all cases of death or rape in custody should
be reported to it within 24 hours. The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984 passed by the UN General Assembly on December
10, 1984 and came into force on June 26, 1987. India signed the convention ten years later, in
1997. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) obliges signatory states
to "ensure" that rights set out in that treaty, including the right to freedom from torture is
available to one and all.
30.3.2 Objectives of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

Relevant objectives of the Commission's Previsions which have bearing on custodial violence
are as under-
1. To study, investigate and review all matters relating to the safeguards provided under the
Constitution and the Laws for protection and promotion of Human Rights of all sections
of the Society, and make recommendations on the steps necessary for effective
implementation of the safeguards provided for this purpose.
2. To study and review existing constitutional and legislative provisions relating to the
preservation and promotion of Human Rights, and recommend amendments thereto so as
to overcome any lacunae, inadequacies or shortcomings in such legislation.

3. To recommend enactment of new laws, as may be considered necessary by the commission, Notes
to further strengthen the legal framework for protection and preservation of human rights
of all sections of society.
4. To look, suo-moto or on complaint, into matters relating to deprivation, of human rights,
non-implementation of Laws enacted to provide protection and prevention of violation of
Human Rights, and non-compliance of police decisions, guidelines, or instructions issued
to ensure the protection of human rights of the Citizens.
5. To inquire on complaint by the victim or anyone else on his behalf, into specific complaints
of violations of the civil and political rights, abetment thereof or negligence in performance
of duties connected therewith
6. To study and make recommendations in respect of the system of criminal administration
and prison reforms etc., which may be relevant in the context of prevention of violation of
human rights.
Major thrust seems to lie in elevating awareness on human rights issues in general and the
objective of inculcating the rights values amongst the bureaucratic wings in particular.
30.3.3 Powers of the National Human Rights Commission

The Commission shall while enquiring into complaints under this Act, have powers of a civil
court trying a suit under the Code of Civil Procedure and particularly of the following matters
namely-
1. Summoning and enforcing the attendaance1ce of witnesses and examining them on oath.
2. Discovery and production of any document;
3. Receiving evidence on affidavits;
4. Requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or office;
5. Issuing commissions for the examination of witnesses of documents;
6. Any other matter which may be prescribed
The National Human Right commission (NHRC) has been conferred a wide
range of tasks in securing basic freedom to all citizens. It has called for "Stringent
action against those who are responsible for perpetrating inhuman treatment
and torture" to persons while in custody and award of immediate relief to the
victim's family.
30.4 State Human Rights Commissions
30.4.1 Constitution of State Human Rights Commissions

1. A State Government may constitute a body to be known as the ....................... (name of the
State) Human Rights Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform
the functions assigned to, a State Commission under this chapter.
2. The State Commission shall consist of
(a) a Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of a High Court;
(b) one Member who is, or has been, a Judge of a High Court;
(c) one Member who is, or has been, a district judge in that State;
3. There shall be a Secretary who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the State Commission
and shall exercise such powers and discharge such functions of the State Commission as it
may delegate to him.

Notes 4. The headquarters of the State Commission shall be at such place as the State Government
may, by notification, specify.
5. A State Commission may inquire into violation of human rights only in respect of matters
relatable to any of the entries enumerated in List II and List III in the Seventh Schedule to
the Constitution:
30.5 Functions of State Human Right Commission

The functions of the SHRC include considerable scope and range of the functions envisaged for
the Commission under sec 12 of the Act, "all or any" of which except what is stated under clause
(f) of the section relating to treaties and other International instruments on Human Rights
which can be dealt with by the National Human Rights Commission only, are to be performed
by this Commission. These functions are to:
(a) inquire suo motu or on a petition presented to it, by a victim, or any person on his be into
complaint of
(i) Violation of human rights or abetment thereof;
(or)
(ii) negligence in the prevention of such violation by a public servant.
(b) Intervene in any proceeding involving any allegation of violation of human rights, per
before a Court with the approval of such Court.
(c) visit under intimation to the State Government, any jail or any other institution under the
control of the State Government where persons are detained or lodged for purposes of
treatment, reformation or protection to study the living conditions of the inmates and
make recommendations thereon:
(d) review the safeguards provided by or under the constitution of any law for the time being
in force for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their effective
implementation.
(e) Review the factors, including acts of terrorism that inhibit the enjoyment of human rights
and recommend appropriate remedial measures.
(f) Not applicable to State Human Rights Commission.
(g) undertake and promote research in the field of human rights.
(h) spread human rights literacy among various sections of society and promote awareness
of the safeguards available for the protection of these rights through publications, the n
seminars and other available means.
(i) encourage the efforts of Non-Governmental organisations and institutions working in the
field of human rights.
(j) such other functions as it may consider necessary for the promotion of human rights.
30.5.1 Objectives of State Human Rights Commission

Protection and promotion of human rights constitute the principal concern of the Commission.
Pursuant to this objective, the Commission is committed to discharge its functions assigned to
it under the Act with transparency and autonomy. The autonomy of the Commission emanates,
inter alia, from the procedures relating to the appointment of the Members, the security of their
tenure, their stature, the safeguards provided under Section 23 and 24 of the Act and the status
accorded to the Commission under overall scheme of the Act. The financial autonomy of the
Commission is implied under provisions of Section 33 of the Act. The procedures adopted by
the Commission to conduct its proceedings, the suo motu action taken on complaints regardless
of the sources received, the openness of its proceedings and the placement of its reports before
the State Legislature are key to the strength and transparency of the Commission's functioning.


(i) The protection of human rights act 1993 has been enacted to the directive under ..................
of the constitution and also the commitments taken at Vienna conference.
(ii) The human rights courts constituted under ................ of the protection of human rights
act, 1993.
(iii) The establishment of the .......................... under the protection of human rights act has
helped focused on the issue of custodial violence committed by police in India.
(iv) The functions of the state human rights commission include considerable scope and
range of the functions for the commission under ..................... of the act.
(v) .......................... of human rights constitute the principle concern of the state human rights
commission.
30.6 Summary
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a document which was drafted by the
United Nations Commission on Human Rights after the close of the Second World War.
• One of the champions of the document was Eleanor Roosevelt, who sat as Chairwoman on
the Commission when the document was drafted. Roosevelt also contributed a substantial
amount of text to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. On 10 December 1948, the
document was officially ratified by 48 member nations, while eight abstained from voting.
• Altogether, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes 30 articles which clearly
outline basic human rights such as freedom from torture and slavery.
• The basic idea of human rights is that every person possesses dignity by the fact alone of
being a person. Human rights, which are inalienable and indivisible, protect this dignity.
The concept of human rights is based on a universal system of values shared by all
peoples, which offers a framework for the construction of a human rights system with
internationally recognised norms and standards.
• There are civil and political rights; economic, social and cultural rights; and solidarity
rights.
• The main civil and political rights are: (i) right to life, liberty and security of person; (ii)
prohibition of slavery; (iii) prohibition of torture; (iv) right to a fair trial; (v) protection of
privacy and family life; (vi) freedom of movement; (vii) freedom of opinion and religion;
(viii) freedom of assembly and association; (ix) right to vote.
• The main economic, social and cultural rights are: (i) right to work, reasonable pay and
free choice of employment; (ii) right to form trade unions; (ii) right to a reasonable standard
of living, right to food; (iv) right to reasonable health care; (v) right to education; (vi)
right to participate in cultural and social life
• The main solidarity rights are: (i) right of peoples to self-determination; (ii) right to peace;
(iii) right to a clean environment (iv) right to development.
• The States affirmed the universal respect for inalienable rights and fundamental freedoms
of each and every person, including the principles of the prohibition against arbitrary
detention, the right to due process and other civil and political rights as well as social,
cultural and economic rights.
• The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing
the enjoyment of human rights.
• The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human
rights abuses.
• The obligation to fulfill means that States must take positive action to facilitate the
enjoyment of basic human rights.

Notes • The Chart of Ratification of International Instruments, provided by the United Nations,
should ideally form the corpus of international customary law, applicable in all democratic
countries. Once an instrument is ratified a signatory is bound to bring in laws that conform
to United Nations standards.
• The National Human Rights Commission (NHRC), established under the Human Rights
Protection Act of 1993, provides a lens through which the situation can be better understood.
• According to the Statement of Objects and Reasons of the Human Rights Protection Bill,
the NHRC would review the existing laws, procedures, and the system of administration,
and emphasize that India is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (ICCPR) as well as the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ICESCR).
• "Human rights", as defined in the sub-clause (d) of Clause 1 of the Human Rights Protection
Act of 1993, is extremely restrictive and does not adhere to the international instruments;
so restrictive, in fact, that it goes against the very spirit of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
• Section 37 of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 empowers the Government to
constitute one or more special investigative teams consisting of such police officers as it
thinks necessary for the purpose of investigation and prosecution of offences arising out
of violations of human rights.
• A State Government may constitute a body to be known as the ....................... (name of the
State) Human Rights Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform
the functions assigned to, a State Commission under this chapter.
• The functions of the SHRC include considerable scope and range of the functions envisaged
for the Commission under sec 12 of the Act, "all or any" of which except what is stated
under clause (f) of the section relating to treaties and other International instruments on
Human Rights which can be dealt with by the National Human Rights Commission only,
are to be performed by this Commission. These functions are to:
(a) inquire suo motu or on a petition presented to it, by a victim, or any person on his be
into complaint of
(b) Intervene in any proceeding involving any allegation of violation of human rights, per
before a Court with the approval of such Court.
(c) visit under intimation to the State Government, any jail or any other institution under
the control of the State Government where persons are detained or lodged for purposes
of treatment, reformation or protection to study the living conditions of the inmates and
make recommendations thereon.
(d) review the safeguards provided by or under the constitution of any law for the time
being in force for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their
effective implementation.
• Protection and promotion of human rights constitute the principal concern of the
Commission. Pursuant to this objective, the Commission is committed to discharge its
functions assigned to it under the Act with transparency and autonomy.
30.7 Keywords
• Universal : Done by or involving all the people in world or true or right at all times
and in all places.
• Declaration : A statement about sometimes officially or publicly.
• Solidarity : Support by one person or group of peoples for another because they
share feelings, opinions aims.

• Covenant : A promise to somebody, or a legal agreement especially one to pay a Notes

regular amount of money to someone.
• Ratification : The process of making an agreement officially valid by voting for.
• Enforcement : Make something happen or force somebody to do something.
• Commission : An official group of people who have been given responsibility to control
something.

1. Give the meaning of human rights and explain the universal declaration of human rights.
2. What are the main rights under universal declaration of human rights?
3. What are educational human rights?
4. Explain the protection of human rights act, 1993.
5. What are main objectives powers of national human rights education?
6. Give the functions of NHRC.
7. Discuss the functions and objectives of state human rights commission.
8. Briefly explain the state Human Rights Commission.
9. Write the methods of removed of a member of the state commission.

1. (i) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (v) (a)
(v) (b) (vi) (a) (vii) (c)
2. (i) Article 51 (ii) section 30 (iii) National human rights commission
(iv) Section 12

Dash Bn.
3. Educational Regimes in Contemporary India : Radhika Chopra , Patricia M Jeffery

Notes
Unit 31: Environmental Education: Concept and Need
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
31.1 Concept of Environmental Education in India
31.2 Need for Environmental Education
31.3 Principles of Environmental Education
31.4 Summary
31.5 Keywords
Objectives
• to discuss about concept of Environment education.
• to discribe the need for environmental education
• discuss the principles of environmental education
Introduction
Our nation's future relies on a well-educated public to be wise stewards of the very environment
that sustains us, our families and communities, and future generations. It is environmental education
which can best help us as individuals make the complex, conceptual connections between economic
prosperity, benefits to society, environmental health, and our own well being. Ultimately, the
collective wisdom of our citizens, gained through education, will be the most compelling and
most successful strategy for environmental education.
31.1 Concept of Environmental Education in India

The Indian Constitution laid down the responsibility of Government to protect and improve the
environment and made it a "fundamental duty of every citizen to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife". On this background Department of
Environment was established by the Government of India in 1980 and a Ministry was formed in
1985. The Constitution and the Government's commitment to the environment along with the
environmentally sound practices is an important backdrop under which the Environment Education
(EE) strategy has been evolved.
31.1.1 Meaning and Definition of Environmental Education

The term ‘Environmental Education’ has been discussed in various national and international
seminars who tried to define it. Some of the definitions have been provided here to understand
the concept.
“Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to
develop skills and attitude necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelatedness among
man, his culture and his bio-physical surroundings. It also entails practice in decision making and
self formation of a code of behaviour about problems and issues concerning environmental quality”
UNESCO (1970) Working Committee

Unit 31 : Environmental Education : Concept and Need
“Environmental education is a way of implementing the goals of environmental protection. It is Notes

not a separate branch of science or field of study. It should be carried out according to the principles
of life-long integral education,”
UNESCO (1976) Seminar at Jammi
31.1.2 Characteristics of Environmental Education

The review of the definitions of E.E. indicates the following main characteristics :
1. It is a process of recognizing the interrelatedness among man, his cultural and biological
surroundings.
2. It appears to be a process the equips human with awareness, skills-attitudes, values and
commitments to improve environment.
3. It refers to the knowledge and understanding of physical, biological, cultural and
psychological environment and to perceive its relevance for real life situation.
4. It identifies the imbalances of environment an tries to improve it in view of sustainable
development.
5. It entails practice in decision making and self formulations of a code of behaviour about
problems and issues concerning environmental quality.
31.1.3 Objectives
The objectives of Environmental Educational are classified as follows:
(i) Awareness: to help social groups and individuals acquire and awareness of sensitivity to the
total environment and its allied problems.
(ii) Knowledge: to help social groups and individuals to gain a variety of experiences and acquire
a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems.
(iii) Attitudes: to help social groups and individuals to acquire a set of values and feeling of
concern for the environmental and the motivation for actively participating in environmental
improvement and protection.
(iv) Skills: to help social groups and individual to acquires the skills for identifying and solving
environmental problems are the objective of environmental education.
(v) Participation: to provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively
involved at all levels working towards the resolution of environmental problems.
However, these objectives can only be achieved and understood properly, if we know what our
environmental is, what is contained in it. Objectives of environmental education can be subsumed
in three domains discussed by Bloom in his book.
“Taxonomy of Educational objectives.” Cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
(i) The cognitive domain includes those objectives which deal with the recall or recognition of
knowledge of development of intellectual skills and abilities, which means, it includes the
following behaviors: remembering; problem solving; concept formation and to a limited extent,
creative thinking. In other works, this area includes all conscious mental processes from
ordinary recall or recognition to higher ones, like solving a problem which involves abstract
thinking.
The objectives of environmental education are very essential for the successfully
formulation, implementation and evaluation of its programme.


(i) ............... is the process of recognizing alues and classifying concepts in order to develop
skills and attitude necessary to understand and approciate the inter relations among man
hisculture and his bio physical surroundins.
(ii) A number of objectives of environmental education has been formulated for both formaland
non formal education at all levels at the ............... (1977) held at Tabilisi.
(iii) Environmental Education develops as ............... of environmental and sensitivity to the
total environmental and its a allied problem.
31.2 Need for Environmental Education

• All major natural resources in the country are in grave danger of irreparable damage.
• A society cannot survive if its natural resources are rendered unfit for use by its people.
• The only hope of salvaging this grave situation is by making the youngaware that they need
to proactively begin to protect the environment they will inherit.
• Science and Technology can help in a limited way but cannot deliver it.
• The moral and ethical education for changing people’s attitude.
• To protect children living in polluted regions, environmental education represents a relevant
means of prevention.
• There is a great need for environmental education.
• It is need for the hour to propose the environmental education with the essential elements of
moral philosophy.
• For conceptual change.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India started

The National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC) in 1986 with the aim of
creating environmental awareness at all levels of society.
31.3 Principles of Environmental Education

1. Environmental Education must involve everyone and be lifelong, environmental education
cannot be confined to any one group in our society. It is a responsibility for everyone -
government, industry, the media, educational institutions, community groups - as well as
individuals.
Information about environmental problems is always improving, as we learn from our past
experiences and mistakes. As we develop and apply better environmental technologies, the
ability of society and individuals to respond effectively also improves.
In order to move closer to achieving ecologically sustainable development as a nation, all
Australians need to continually refresh the knowledge and skills which they apply to the
environmental challenges we face.
Just as workplace learning and retraining are essential to continued productivity, the same
is true of education for sustainability, whether in formal or non-formal settings.
2. Environmental it must be holistic and about connections.
In order to address environmental challenges, people need to think broadly and understand
systems, connections, patterns and causes. The challenges themselves frequently have social,
scientific, cultural, economic and ethical aspects, all of which must be considered for their

effective management. Specialist discipline-based knowledge, while contributing critically, Notes

is no longer adequate by itself - an holistic appreciation of the context of environmental
problems is essential.
Meeting this need presents a dilemma to the formal education systems over whether
environmental education should be taught as a separate subject or incorporated into one or
more particular subject areas. The right answer may vary from situation to situation,
depending on what is most practical - suffice to say, a much stronger re-orientation of all
relevant areas of formal education towards issues of sustainability is required.
Equally important is the need to establish better communicative links between those people
working on, or learning about, similar or related environmental issues, but who come from
different professional or disciplinary backgrounds. Better grounds for communication and
partnerships are also required between formal and non-formal education settings, and between
various groups with competing interests on environmental issues.
In Australia the quality of our environmental education is enhanced by the opportunity to
appreciate and learn from our indigenous peoples' experience, particularly their affinity with
the environment in which they lived and continue to live.
4. Environmental Education must be practical.
One of the most fundamental defining characteristics of effective environmental education is
that it must lead to actions which result in better environmental outcomes, not simply the
accumulation of inert knowledge or impractical skills.
This is ultimately the yardstick by which the effectiveness of our efforts in environmental
education is measured.
5. Environmental Education must be in harmony with social and economic goals and accorded
equal priority.
Effective environmental education must also encourage the pursuit of environmental goals
in a way that acknowledges other powerful and legitimate social and economic goals - it
should not be taught in a vacuum, or simply equip people to pursue an agenda on the
margins of society.
Environmental education needs to incorporate this reality by providing people with the
knowledge, understanding and capacity to influence mainstream society in a way which
progresses environmental objectives along with other legitimate social and economic
objectives.
Similarly, one of the objectives of environmental education is to develop a fundamental
acceptance in the community that the nation's environmental objectives should be accorded
the same priority as its social and economic objectives.
What do you understand by the statement “Environmental education must be lifelong”.
Self Assessment
(i) All major natural resources in the country are in grave danger of irreparable damage.
(ii) Environmental education does not give any kind of information regardin the saving of
natural resources and population.
(iii) Environmental Education must be lifelong and involve everyone.
(iv) What environmental education integrated into a science curriculum, there is a lot of
improvement in student achievement in science.
(v) A society can survive without natural resources.

Notes 31.4 Summary

• “Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in
order to develop skills and attitude necessary to understand and appreciate the
interrelatedness among man, his culture and his bio-physical surroundings.
• It is a process of recognizing the interrelatedness among man, his cultural and biological
surroundings. It appears to be a process the equips human with awareness, skills-attitudes,
values and commitments to improve environment. It refers to the knowledge and
understanding of physical, biological, cultural and psychological environment and to perceive
its relevance for real life situation. It identifies the imbalances of environment an tries to
improve it in view of sustainable development.
• To help social groups and individuals acquire and awareness of sensitivity to the total
environment and its allied problems.
• To help social groups and individuals to gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic
understanding of the environment and its associated problems.
• To help social groups and individuals to acquire a set of values and feeling of concern for the
environmental and the motivation for actively participating in environmental improvement
and protection.
• To help social groups and individual to acquires the skills for identifying and solving
environmental problems are the objective of environmental education.
• To provide social groups and individuals with an opportunity to be actively involved at all
levels working towards the resolution of environmental problems.
• All major natural resources in the country are in grave danger of irreparable damage.
• A society cannot survive if its natural resources are rendered unfit for use by its people.
• To protect children living in polluted regions, environmental education represents a relevant
means of prevention.
• Environmental Education must involve everyone and be lifelong, environmental education
cannot be confined to any one group in our society. It is a responsibility for everyone -
government, industry, the media, educational institutions, community groups - as well as
individuals.
31.5 Keywords
• Environmental : the natural world in which people animals and plants live
• Awareness : knowing that something exists and is important
• Attitude : the way that you think and feel about something/somebody
• Participation : the act off taking part in a activity or event
• Taxonomy : a particular system of classifying carrying then into group

1. What is Environmental Education? Explain?
2. What are the objectives of Environmental Education?
3. Why is the need for environmental education in schools and colleges?
4. Give the principles of environmental education.

Answers: Self Assessment Notes

1. (i) Environmental education (ii) International Conference of UNESCO
(iii) Awareness
2. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True
(v) False

Dash Bn.

Notes
Unit 32: Role of Education in Generating
Environmental Awareness
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
32.1 Environment Education in India
32.2 Role of Education in Environmental Awareness
32.3 Summary
32.4 Keywords
Objectives
• to describe about environment education in India.
• to discuss about the role of education in environmental awareness.
Introduction
Environmental Education; of the Ministry of Environment and Forest, the Government of India;
can be defined as 'a process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop
skills and added tools necessary to understand and appreciate the interrelationships among man,
his culture and his biophysical surroundings.' Through this definition, it is clear that environmental
education can play a most significant role in building Awareness about- the relation between
modern development and environment; and the impact of developmental practices on the
surrounding environment among masses, if imparted properly. It is the educations which can
enable a person know about everything. Education is very portart to understand environmental
education. Education is must for achieving this.
32.1 Environmental Education in India

In 1986 environmental education became an integral component of National Policy on Education
for the first time after independence. The policy stated: “there is a need to create consciousness of
the environment which must permeate all ages and all sections of the society beginning with the
child. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools and colleges and should be
integrated in the entire education process”. Although there was no separate environmental
education policy and plan of action either at the Union or the State levels, environmental education
had been influenced by politics and plans of other sectors and strategies of environmental education
have been outlined stage-wise and subject-wise in the National Curriculum Frame Work 1987. By
scanning the curriculum evidence has been found that environmental education concepts in terms
of awareness and knowledge seem to be adequately covered, while the development of skills for
the study of environment and environmental ethics, attitudes and actions need strengthening.
32.2 Role of Education in Environmental Awareness

Environmental Education; according to the Annual Report (2004-2005) of the Ministry of
Environment and Forest, the Government of India; can be defined as 'a process of recognizing

Unit 32: Role of Education in Generating Environmental Awareness
values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and added tools necessary to understand Notes
and appreciate the interrelationships among man, his culture and his biophysical surroundings.'
The system of education in which education is carried out in accordance with some established or
prescribed rules, is called as Formal Education System. A vast section of population is found in
different schools and colleges. Minds of these people remain ready to learn and curious to know
about what is happening and what is likely to happen around their surroundings. The system of
education in which education is carried out without any pre-established and prescribed rules and
the body concerned with educating the public is free to design the course module, the activity
schedule or the programme concerning environmental awareness, is called as Non- Formal
Education.
32.2.1 Public Awareness through Formal Education

The system of education in which education is carried out in accordance with some established or
prescribed rules, is called as Formal Education System. In India, the formal education is the mandate
of the Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD). However, the Ministry of Environment
and Forests has been consulting and interacting with MHRD, National Council of Educational Research
and Training- the apical body of shaping education in schools in India, and HRD- departments of
different states to include the Environmental Education in the curricula at various levels.
I. Environmental Education in Schools Systems: A vast section of population is found in different
schools and colleges. Minds of these people remain ready to learn and curious to know about
what is happening and what is likely to happen around their surroundings. These people can be
motivated through proper formal education to take actions for environment. In view of these facts
the MHRD had also been interacting with the University Grant Commission (UGC) to take
appropriate steps for the inclusion of environmental education at the University Levels.
II. Environmental Appreciation Courses: A course module has been prepared by Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU) in India, under the direction of the Ministry of Human
Resources Development for Environmental Appreciation Courses. The Environmental Appreciation
Courses are conducted through the mode of Distant Education with the help of various study
centers located across the country. In pursuance of the directives of the Hon'ble Supreme Court of
India, the course module developed by IGNOU for appreciation courses is being used as compulsory
component of its Undergraduate Courses also.
III. Environmental Concepts in Management and Business Studies: The Central Ministry of
Human Resources Development, Government of India launched an initiative in the year 2002,
through which it integrated the environmental concepts and issues in the syllabi of Management
and Business Studies. Accordingly, the experts were assigned duties to examine the course content
and to conduct workshops to sensitize the faculty of Management Colleges towards the issues of
environment. A new curriculum was developed in a Curriculum Development Workshop in which
a Resource Base for Teaching Materials was also developed by the experts. After it, an inventory
of courses offered in India and other countries of the world was developed which was followed by
the development of an inventory of the Resource Materials for the Management and other
professional courses.
After the directives issued by Hon'ble Supreme Court of India, the MHRD as well as
State Departments of HRD have included the environmental education as a separate
and compulsory subject in the education curricula framed by NCERT, at all levels of
formal education, that is at primary, Secondary, Senior Secondary and College levels.
32.2.2 Public Awareness through Non- Formal Education

The system of education in which education is carried out without any pre-established and
prescribed rules and the body concerned with educating the public is free to design the course
module, the activity schedule or the programme concerning environmental awareness, is called as
Non- Formal Education.

Notes The Non-Formal Environmental Education for building of Environmental Awareness is imparted
through various means like- through Eco- clubs, Population Education Programmes, Environmental
Campaigns, and through other means.
I. Public Awareness through Eco- Clubs: Public Awareness Programmes for conservation of
environment can be done by students at school or Mohallah (residential colony) level also. For
this, students can form eco- clubs of like minded, responsible and disciplined students.
What is an Eco- club? An eco-club is a group of people who meet at regular intervals for planning,
designing and implementing activities for generating awareness among masses and for identifying
and solving ecological problems at the local levels.
At school level, students can form Eco- clubs by organizing students from different classes. Some
Non- governmental organisations like WWF that are busy in generating environmental awareness
since long, are running Nature -Clubs in some schools in different states of India and abroad. The
National Council of Science and Technology Communications (NCSTC) is also generating
Environmental Awareness through its various eco-clubs running across the country under different
names.
The National Green Corps: The Ministry of Environment and Forest started National Green Corps
(NGC) Programme in the year 2001 - 02. The objective of this National Programme is to generate
Environmental Awareness amongst school children through establishment of Eco-clubs in all the
districts of different states and Union Territories of India. The programme is being implemented
by different nodal agencies. The principal focus of the NGC Programme is the introduction of
action oriented studies of the problems of environment on different levels and finding out easy
solutions of these problems through students under the guidance and supervision of their teachers.
The basic objectives of NGCs are -
(i) To provide Environmental Education opportunities to school children and to make them
understand their local environment and Environmental Problems.
(ii) Stimulating awareness amongst school children through physical programmes of activities
about the Environmental Conservation and Protection Issues.
(iii) Visualizing the role of children as agents of change and dissemination of environmental
information among public.
(iv) To facilitate participation of school children in decision making in the areas of development
and environment.
(v) To involve children in action based programmes designed by them for solving
environmental problems at local levels.
II. Public Awareness through Population Education Programmes: Educating students about
human population; relationships between economic, social, cultural and biological processes that
influence a population; impacts of the growth of human population on these processes, and
Reproductive Health of men and women - is called as population education. The science of
population is called as Demography and one who is the expert of demography is called as a
Demographer.
(a) Importance of Population Education: The Population Education is a very important part of education
which acts as a powerful agent of building awareness regarding development and environment.
It encourages the learners to understand the impacts of population growth on environment in
general and about the impact of population growth on natural resourced in particular. It teaches
about the impact of population on civic amenities and spread of various types of general and
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) like Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).The
population education incorporates Sex Education which is essential for good reproductive health,
maintaining the size of the family and keeping away from STD.
(b) Impact of Population Growth on Development and Environment: The growth of human population
has great impacts on development. On the other hand development too, has great impacts on the
growth of human population. Hence it is important to generate awareness about the impacts of

development and population on each other and also about the collective impacts of both of these Notes
on the natural environment. This can be done through various population education Programmes
conducted on different levels. It is through population education Programmes also that awareness
regarding the impact of rapid growth of population on environment and development can be
built.
How does the Growth of human population affect development? Well, the production which is
essential for the economic development depends on Natural Resources and Human Resources.
Human resources are the Active Resources that help in the exploitation and utilization of natural
resources. The exploitation and utilization of natural resources finally lead to production and
economic development. Thus, human resources have greater importance in the overall process of
development.
When human population grows beyond a certain limit, the pressure on natural resources increases
due to the fact that the production is to be raised to meet the demands of the increasing population.
On the other hand, all the produce is finished in meeting the demands of the growing population
and savings become zero or very less. This condition does not allow the formation of Capital and
without capital there cannot be any production in future.
The economic development too, has great impacts on the growth of population. The per capita
increase in income of people leads to the rise in their living standards. When the living standards
of people rise, they start realizing the need and importance of keeping smaller families. This
thought encourages them to control the birth rate and the further growth of population is stabilized.
III. Public Awareness through Awareness Campaigns: A series of planned activities that are
intended to achieve a particular social, commercial or political aim- is called as a campaign.
Campaigns in environmental context are intended to generate awareness regarding the urgent
needs of the conservation of environment and its resources as well as to take up appropriate steps
through different activities for the recovery of the lost health of environment of a particular area
or locality. Environmental Awareness Campaigns are very important for generating awareness
regarding the actual status of various resources of the natural environment, the impacts of ongoing
processes of development on these resources and the effective measures to be taken up for the
recovery of that which has been lost during the course of development.
The environmental campaigns are usually conducted by government agencies or

by non- government bodies by making provisions of funding and by ensuring the
participation of the public.
National Environmental Awareness Campaign: The Multi-media Campaign launched during the
mid-1986 by the Ministry for Environment and Forest, Government of India, for the generation of
environmental awareness with active components for the recovery of the lost health of environment
is called as National Environmental Awareness Campaign.
The National Environmental Awareness Campaign is a large scale programme of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, which was started during mid-1986. It is organized every year on a
particular theme decided by the ministry. This campaign is designed to disseminate environmental
messages to a wide range of target groups utilizing conventional and non- conventional methods
of communication.
(i) Financial Assistance and Institutions that carry on Awareness Campaigns: Under the NEAC
nominal financial assistance is provided to registered NGOs , schools, colleges, universities,
research institutions, women and youth organizations, army units, state governments'
departments etc. through Nodal Agencies. These institutions organize awareness activities
fixes by the ministry for a particular year.
Presently, the campaign is implemented through 29 regional resource agencies (RRAs) for
specific states or region of the country. These agencies are responsible for the physical
monitoring of activities of different organizations. In the year 1986 the number of participating

Notes organizations was 115 which increased up to 7588 in 2004. Up to 2005 the number of
participating organizations rose up to 9566.The RRAs help the ministry in the conduction,
supervision and monitoring of the NEAC Campaign across the country.
(ii) Activities done under the NEAC Campaign: The institutions that receive financial assistance
for conducting Programmes under the NEAC, disseminate information through various types
of activities. Most of these activities are seminars, workshops, training programmes, camps,
pad- yatras, rallies, public meetings, exhibitions, competitions, folk dances, and songs, street
theaters, puppet shows, distribution of EE -resource materials etc. Activities- like tree
plantation, waste management, cleaning of water sources etc., are also done during the
campaign.
IV. Public Awareness through Other Programmes:
(i) Publication and Distribution of Resource Materials: This programme has been designed to
prepare resource materials for the utilization in various Environmental Education and
awareness programmes. The expertise available with professional societies, voluntary
organizations, institutions etc. is utilized for printing and publication of the resource materials.
(ii) GLOBE: It is an International Science and Education Programme which was started in 1995
by USA. In expanded form, it is known as Global Learning and Observation to Benefit the
Environment. This programme is being conducted in 108 countries including India. This
global programme facilitates the worldwide research through a worldwide research team
formed by students, teachers and scientists.
The students of GLOBE carry out important researches and learn about scientific protocols.
They perform environmental activities already taught to them in theory classes. This
programme helps students to perform activities based on text book- contents and assists
them in gaining complete knowledge of environment.
(iii) Green Olympiad: It is a written Quiz Programme conducted by Tata Energy Research Institute
(TERI) New Delhi (India), on the Global Level. The number of participants in this global
programme for students is increasing gradually. About 70,000 school children appeared in
the quiz from India, Russia, and UAE during 2005. A televised quiz programme named
TERRA QUIZ was telecast on the national channel of Doordarshan also. Thus, this programme
is very important for sensitizing children about environmental issues.
(iv) Seminars, Symposia and Workshops: The Ministry of Environment and Forests provides
financial assistance to universities, NGOs, voluntary Organizations (VOs) and other
institutions for the organization of seminars, symposia, workshops and conferences etc. and
for publication of their proceedings. These programmes provide platforms to scientists and
researchers to share knowledge on the environmental issues. This facilitates the transfer of
knowledge to people.
(v) Awareness through Print and Electronic Media: Positive changes in attitudes and behaviors
of public are necessary for a sustainable development and balanced environment. For this,
people should be made aware of different issues of environment and government programmes
through print and electronic media. The governments conduct many different programmes
on radios and television for the mass awareness regarding developmental and environmental
issues. Some organizations prepare films on different issues of environment. These films
generate Environmental Awareness in big ways. Some of the important films made for
generating Environmental Awareness are-Ozy Ozone (an animation film); Ecotoons (a cartoon
film by WWF), Listen, the Nature is crying here( a film made by the children of a school of
Himachal Pradesh), Navo Jamano Navi Harifai(an animation film produced by the Gujrat
State Energy Development Agency), Waste Not Want Not, I care for the Environment,
Littering, Cloth Bags are in, Plastic Bags are Out, Cans Add to Garbage, Garbage- Our Problem,
and Clean up Kodagu etc.

(vi) Media Action Plan: The Ministry of Environment and Forests has formulated a Media Action Notes
Plan which comprises a number of activities.
(vii) Environmental Information System (ENVIS): The Central Ministry of Environment and
Forests has started an Environmental Information System which is responsible for the
collection, collation, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of environmental Information to
decision makers, research scholars The ENVIS has a network of 78 subject- specific and state-
centers located across the country. Academicians, policy planners, environmental scientists
etc. can receive information for their work from these centers. The networking of all these
ENVIS centers have been made through a portal at URL http://www.envis.nic.in Sponsoring
of 'Bhoomi'- a weekly Environmental Magazine on Doordarshan, Launching Awareness
Campaign on selected environmental themes through different private T V channels,
Launching of a 15 minute programme entitled 'Yeh Gulistan Hamara' in twelve languages
on All India Radio.
What is Globe programe?
Self Assessment
(i) Environmental education became an integral component of National Policy on Education
in ................ .
(a) 1980 (b) 1986 (c) 1990 (d) 1995
(ii) The Environmental appreciation causes has been prepared by ................ in India under the
direction of the Ministery of human resources.
(a) Indira Gandhi National Open University
(b) Delhi University
(c) Aligarh Muslim University
(d) Banaras Hindu University
(iii) The population education program emphasized on various .............. types of ..............
(a) Genetical disorder (b) Environmental diseases
(c) transmitted diseases (d) Infections diseases
(iv) Presently the National Environmental awareness compaign is implemented through
................ regional resource agencies for specific states or regionsof the country.
(a) 20 (b) 25 (c) 29 (d) 32
(v) Green Olym paid is a ................ programme conducted by Tata energy Research Institute,
New Delhi
(a) Quiz (b) Research (c) Activity (d) Workshop
(vi) Environment Information System (ENVIS) has a network of ................ subject specific and
state center located across the country in which academocians, policy planness etc. can
receive information for their work form these centeres.
(a) 60 (b) 70 (c) 78 (d) 88
(vii) The ................ for building of environmental awareness is imparted through various means
like through eco clubs population education programmes, environmental compaigns
(a) Non Formal Environment Education(b) Formal Environment education
(c) Literal Environment Education (d) National Science Education

Notes 32.3 Summary

• The system of education in which education is carried out in accordance with some established
or prescribed rules, is called as Formal Education System. In India, the formal education is
the mandate of the Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD).
• These people can be motivated through proper formal education to take actions for
environment.
• A course module has been prepared by Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)
in India, under the direction of the Ministry of Human Resources Development for
Environmental Appreciation Courses.
• Concepts in Management and Business Studies: The Central Ministry of Human Resources
Development, Government of India launched an initiative in the year 2002, through which it
integrated the environmental concepts and issues in the syllabi of Management and Business
Studies. Accordingly, the experts were assigned duties to examine the course content and to
conduct workshops to sensitize the faculty of Management Colleges towards the issues of
environment.
• The system of education in which education is carried out without any pre-established and
prescribed rules and the body concerned with educating the public is free to design the
course module, the activity schedule or the programme concerning environmental awareness,
is called as Non- Formal Education.
• The Non-Formal Environmental Education for building of Environmental Awareness is
imparted through various means like- through Eco- clubs, Population Education Programmes,
Environmental Campaigns, and through other means.
• An eco-club is a group of people who meet at regular intervals for planning, designing and
implementing activities for generating awareness among masses and for identifying and
solving ecological problems at the local levels.
• The National Green Corps: The Ministry of Environment and Forest started National Green
Corps (NGC) Programme in the year 2001 - 02. The objective of this National Programme is
to generate Environmental Awareness amongst school children through establishment of
Eco-clubs in all the districts of different states and Union Territories of India.
• Educating students about human population; relationships between economic, social, cultural
and biological processes that influence a population; impacts of the growth of human
population on these processes, and Reproductive Health of men and women - is called as
population education.
• A series of planned activities that are intended to achieve a particular social, commercial or
political aim- is called as a campaign.
• Campaigns in environmental context are intended to generate awareness regarding the urgent
needs of the conservation of environment and its resources as well as to take up appropriate
steps through different activities for the recovery of the lost health of environment of a
particular area or locality. Environmental Awareness Campaigns are very important for
generating awareness regarding the actual status of various resources of the natural
environment.
• The Multi-media Campaign launched during the mid-1986 by the Ministry for Environment
and Forest, Government of India, for the generation of environmental awareness with active
components for the recovery of the lost health of environment is called as National
Environmental Awareness Campaign.
• Under the NEAC nominal financial assistance is provided to registered NGOs , schools,
colleges, universities, research institutions, women and youth organizations, army units,
state governments' departments etc. through Nodal Agencies.
• The institutions that receive financial assistance for conducting Programmes under the NEAC,
disseminate information through various types of activities. Most of these activities are
seminars, workshops, training programmes, camps, pad- yatras, rallies, public meetings,
exhibitions.

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road (NH-1)
Phagwara, Punjab (India)-144411
For Enquiry: +91-1824-300360
Fax.: +91-1824-506111
Email: [email protected]
• Publication and Distribution of Resource Materials: This programme has been designed to Notes
prepare resource materials for the utilization in various Environmental Education and
awareness programmes.
• GLOBE: It is an International Science and Education Programme which was started in 1995
by USA. In expanded form, it is known as Global Learning and Observation to Benefit the
Environment.
• The students of GLOBE carry out important researches and learn about scientific protocols.
They perform environmental activities already taught to them in theory classes.
• Green Olympiad: It is a written Quiz Programme conducted by Tata Energy Research Institute
(TERI) New Delhi (India), on the Global Level.
• Seminars, Symposia and Workshops: The Ministry of Environment and Forests provides
financial assistance to universities, NGOs, voluntary Organizations (VOs) and other
institutions for the organization of seminars, symposia, workshops and conferences etc. and
for publication of their proceedings.
• The governments conduct many different programmes on radios and television for the mass
awareness regarding developmental and environmental issues.
• Media Action Plan: The Ministry of Environment and Forests has formulated a Media Action
Plan which comprises a number of activities.
32.4 Keywords
• Awareness : Knowing something; knowing that something exists and is important
• Mode : a particular way of doing something
• Ogebinebib : a fact or an event in nature or society

1. What are the advantages of education?
2. What do you mean by environmental education?
3. Explain the public awareness through non-formal education?
4. What is important of population education?
5. Describe the impact of population growth on development and environment.
6. Describe the public awareness through other programmes
7. Write the short descriptions about supporting “vatavaran Film Festival” on wildlife.
8. Write the objectives of environmental education
9. What is “National Environmental Awareness campaign”?
Answer : Self Assessment

1. (i) (a) (ii) (a) (iii) (c) (iv) (c)
(v) (a) (vi) (c) (vii) (a)
1. Development of Education Systems : Dash Bn, SC Shaoo, Briykithore Dayal.

2. Development of Educational System in India : A K Agrawal, Radhika Chopra ,
Patricia M Jeffery, Dash Bn.

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
Jalandhar-Delhi G.T. Road (NH-1)
Phagwara, Punjab (India)-144411
For Enquiry: +91-1824-300360
Fax.: +91-1824-506111
Email: [email protected]

Dedu501 Development of Education System English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dedu501 Development of Education System English

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dedu501 Development of Education System English

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Development of Education System

Produced & Printed by

Sr. No. Content

Unit 7: Programme of Action, (1992) 61

Unit 1: Education in India During Ancient Period: Notes

Vedic and Buddhist Education

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 1

1.1 About Vedic Education

1.1.1 Sources of the Vedic Age Education: Vedic Literature

The Vedic literature consists of the following

2 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1.1.3 Aims, Ideals and Objectives of Vedic Education

1.1.5 Student in Vedic Education

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 3

1.1.6 Process of Instruction

1.1.7 Admission and Evaluation System

1.1.8 Autonomy of Educational Institutions

4 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1.2 Education In India During Buddhist Period Notes

1.2.1 Aims of Education

1.2.3. Philosophy of Buddhism and Teaching of Buddha

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 5

Notes (iii) The suppression of desire leads to the extinction of suffering.

1.3. Basic Principles of the Philosophy of Education as Based on the

1.4. Main Features of Buddhist Education

6 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1.5 Educational Implications of Buddhist Philosophy

1.5.1 Admission in a Monastery

1.5.2 Pabbajja Ceremony (First Ordination)

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 7

1.6 Methods of Teaching

8 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1.6.1 Role of Teacher in Budhist system

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 9

10 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

1.9 Review Questions

Answer: Self Assessment

1.10 Further Readings

1. Development of Education Systems : J.C. Aggarwal, Dash Bn, Shipra Publications.

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 11

12 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

2.1 Aims of Education

The purpose of education, according to the muslims is the attainment of

2.2 Main Features of Medieval Education

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 13

2.3 Educational System

2.3.1 Teacher-Taught Relationship

14 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

2.3.2 Centres of Learning of Muslim Education

2.4 Education of Mughal Period

2.5 Contact between Hindus and Muslims

2.6 Teacher and Students in Medieval Period

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 15

2.7 Limitations of Medieval System of Education

16 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

What are the herits and demerits of Medieval system of education?

2.8 Relevance of Muslim Ideals in India

2.9 A Critique of Muslim Education

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 17