Howard Earl Gardner (born July 11, 1943) is an American developmental psychologist and

the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard
Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. He is currently the senior director of
Harvard Project Zero, and since 1995, he has been the co-director of The Good Project
Gardner has written hundreds of research articles and thirty books that have been translated into
more than thirty languages. He is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, as outlined
in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner
first outlined his theory in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences," where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences."
Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a
ninth known as "existentialist intelligence."
In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes
that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence,
including musical, interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.
While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he or
she most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in
verbal, musical, and naturalistic intelligence.
Howard Gardner of Harvard University originally identified seven distinct intelligences.
According to Gardner, this theory, which emerged from cognitive research, "documents the
extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember,
perform, and understand in different ways."
In greater detail, the theory proposes that "we are all able to know the world through language,
logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to
solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals and an understanding of
ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences and the ways in
which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse
problems and progress in various domains." Hani Morgan (2014) supports Gardner's theory.
Morgan's research indicated that differentiated instruction benefits all students, but must be
presented by well-prepared, experience and knowledgeable teachers.
This diversity, according to Gardner, should impact the way people are educated. He stated that
these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone can learn the
same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test student
learning." Joan Hanifin, an Irish researcher, determined in a 2014 publication that the outdated
system of education in Ireland was adversely affecting students in the long-term. By not
embracing multiple methods of teaching based on different intelligences, students often left
school feeling "under-valued." Gardner goes on to say that, "Indeed, as currently constituted, our
educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and,
to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a
contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in
ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students—and perhaps the society
as a whole—would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and
learning could be assessed through a variety of means." In 2010, Bas and Beyhan presented
findings based on their study of using Multiple Intelligences theory in learning English. They
determined that MI-based learning is more effective in terms of student achievement levels and
their attitudes toward learning. Their research supports Gardner's assertion that MI-based
learning will serve students well.
These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened or ignored and weakened.
While all people possess some level of each intelligence, most will experience more dominant
intelligences which impact the way they learn and interact with the world around them
Criticism
Gardner’s theory has come under criticism from both psychologists and educators. These critics
argue that Gardner’s definition of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different
"intelligences" simply represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also
suffers from a lack of supporting empirical research. Despite this, the theory of multiple
intelligences enjoys considerable popularity with educators. Many teachers utilize multiple
intelligences in their teaching philosophies and work to integrate Gardner’s theory into the
classroom.

Learning more about the multiple intelligences can help you better understand your own
strengths.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These
individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.
Characteristics
Characteristics of visual-spatial intelligence include:
Enjoys reading and writing Enjoys drawing, painting, and the visual arts
Good at putting puzzles together Recognizes patterns easily
Good at interpreting pictures, graphs, and
charts
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Architect Artist Engineer

Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence
Strengths: Words, language, and writing
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when
writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing
information, and reading.
Characteristics:
Characteristics of linguistic-verbal intelligence include:
Good at remembering written and spoken Good at debating or giving persuasive
information speeches
Enjoys reading and writing Able to explain things well
Often uses humor when telling stories
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Writer/journalist Lawyer Teacher
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing
patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about
numbers, relationships, and patterns.
Characteristics:
Characteristics of logical-mathematical intelligence include:
Excellent problem-solving skills Likes conducting scientific experiments
Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas Good at solving complex computations
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Scientist Computer programmer Accountant
Mathematician Engineer
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Strengths: Physical movement, motor control
Those who have high bodily-intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing
actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye
coordination and dexterity.
Characteristics:
Characteristics of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include:
Good at dancing and sports Tends to remember by doing, rather than
Enjoys creating things with his or her hands hearing or seeing
Excellent physical coordination
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Dancer Sculptor
Builder Actor
Musical Intelligence
Strengths: Rhythm and music
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and
sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition
and performance.
Characteristics:
Enjoys singing and playing musical Good at remembering songs and melodies
instruments Rich understanding of musical structure,
Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily rhythm, and notes
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Musician Singer Conductor
Composer Music teacher
Interpersonal Intelligence
Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with
other people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the motivations, desires, and intentions
of those around them.
Characteristics:
Characteristics of interpersonal intelligence include:
Good at communicating verbally Creates positive relationships with others
Sees situations from different perspectives Good at resolving conflict in groups
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Psychologist Counselor Politician
Philosopher Salesperson
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection
Good at analyzing
Individuals who arehisstrong
or herinstrengths
intrapersonal
and intelligence
Excellent
are good
self-awareness
at being aware of their own
emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend
weaknesses to enjoy
Clearly self-reflection
understands and for
the basis analysis,
his or her
including
Enjoys analyzing
daydreaming,
theories
exploring
and ideas relationships withown
others,
motivations
and assessing
and feelings
their personal
strengths. Career Choices
Potential
Characteristics:
If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Characteristics of intrapersonal intelligence
Philosopher include:
Theorist
Writer Scientist
Naturalistic Intelligence
Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature
Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more
resistance than his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high
in this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing,
exploring the environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be
highly aware of even subtle changes to their environments.
Characteristics
Characteristics of naturalistic intelligence include:
Interested in subjects such as botany, May enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and
biology, and zoology exploring the outdoors
Good at categorizing and cataloging Doesn’t enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that
information easily have no connection to nature
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:
Biologist Gardener
Conservationist Farmer

What is Inquiry-based Learning

The Inquiry-based Learning Model emerged in the 1960s, during the “discovery learning”
movement and relies upon the idea that individuals are able to learn by investigating scenarios
and problems, and through social experiences. Rather than having to memorize information
from printed materials, instructors encouraged their students to conduct investigations that
would satisfy their curiosity, help them broaden their knowledge base and develop their skills
and mental frames.
It’s important to remember that inquiry-based learning is not a technique or practice per se, but a
process that has the potential to increase the intellectual engagement and deep understanding of
learners, urging them to:
 Develop their questioning, research  Solve problems, create solutions, and
and communication skills tackle real-life questions and issues
 Collaborate outside the classroom  Participate in the creation and
amelioration of ideas and knowledge
The 5 steps of inquiry-based learning
This is why inquiry-based learning includes the following steps:
1. Ask questions 4. Communicate findings, verbally or in
2. Probe into various situations writing
3. Conduct analyses and provide 5. Think about the information and
descriptions knowledge obtained
The principles of inquiry-based learning
There are certain principles that govern inquiry-based learning and can be summarized as
follows:
  Principle 1
Learners are in the center of the entire process, while instructors, resources and
technology are adequately organized to support them.
 Principle 2
All learning activities revolve around information-processing skills.
 Principle 3
Instructors facilitate the learning process, but also seek to learn more about their students
and the process of inquiry-based learning.
 Principle 4
Emphasis should be placed on evaluating the development of information-processing
skills and conceptual understanding, and not on the actual content of the field.
The 4 forms of inquiry
There are four forms of inquiry that are commonly used in inquiry-based instruction:
 Confirmation inquiry
Learners are given a question, as well as a method, to which the end result is already
known. The goal is to confirm the results. This enables learners to reinforce already
established ideas, and to practice their investigative skills.
 Structured inquiry
Learners are given the question and the method of achieving the result, but the goal is to
provide an explanation that is already supported by the evidence gathered during and
through the investigative process.
 Guided inquiry
Learners are only given a question. The main goal is to design the method of
investigation and then test the question itself. This type of inquiry is not typically as
structured as the previously mentioned forms.
 Open inquiry
Learners must form their own questions, design investigative methods, and then carry out
the inquiry itself. They must present their results at the end of the process.
In an instructional setting, inquiry-based learning can give instructors the opportunity to allow
students to fully explore problems and scenarios, so that they can learn from not only the results,
but also the process itself. They are encouraged to ask questions, explore their environments,
and obtain evidence that support claims and results, and design a convincing argument regarding
the way they reached to the end result.
The Quintessential of Problem-Based Learning
The philosophy behind Problem-Based Learning is that knowledge and skills are acquired
through a progressive sequence of contextual problems, together with learning materials and the
support of the instructor. Its core lies in collaboration, as well as in personal reflection, as one of
its main objectives is to foster independent and lifelong learners, where, however, teamwork
substantially affects the quality of the work generated. As a form of active learning, Problem-
Based Learning encourages knowledge construction and integrates school learning with real life
dynamics, where learners learn how to develop flexible knowledge, and effective problem-
solving skills, acquire intrinsic motivation, exchange ideas and collaborate. Through
collaboration, learners are able to identify what they already know, what they need to know, as
well as the way and the source of information they need, to successfully reach to the solution of
the problem. Instructors facilitate learning, by supporting, guiding and monitoring their learners’
progress, building their confidence, encouraging them to actively participate and stretching their
comprehension. This method gives learners the opportunity to master their problem-solving,
thinking, teamwork, communication, time management, research and computing skills.
The 5 Key Techniques Of Problem-Based Learning
The five key techniques that are used in problem-based learning are the following:
1. Problems serve as a guide that motivates learners and grabs their full attention.
2. Problems take the form of a test, giving the opportunity to the instructor to determine if
the learners fully understand the concept.
3. Problems are just examples that illustrate the concepts that are being taught.
4. Problems are used by instructors to examine the process, which means that the problem-
based process becomes the lesson itself.
5. Problems serve are a stimulus for activity, which means that they are utilized as a way to
develop the skills required to solve them.
The Benefits Of Problem-Based Learning
Problem-based learning constitutes a method with a wide range of benefits. Some of them are:
 Learners have the opportunity to fully  Learners learn how to develop their
examine a problem and use their own people skills, but also to effectively
personal experiences to find the defend their position.
solution.  Learners can discover on their own
 Problem-based learning encourages what they need to know, something
teamwork, thus improving the that improves their self-directed
communication skills of the learners. learning skills.
The 4 Key Principles of a Problem-Based Curriculum
1. Through active learning
Learners can control their own learning, as well as submit and answer their own
questions.
2. Through integrated learning
Knowledge, understanding and skills go hand in hand, while classroom/book knowledge
is linked to the real world, and the problem is the focus.
3. Through cumulative learning
Knowledge is acquired gradually, and topics are revisited in progressively greater depth.
Over time, problems become more difficult, and the nature of the challenge more
complex.
4. Through learning for understanding
The process is the lesson itself and is more important than the facts delivered. Personal
reflection is mandatory, knowledge is put to the test and feedback is essential.

Project-Based Learning
Project-Based Learning (PBL) is an innovative, systematic teaching method that promotes
student engagement through deep investigations of complex questions. Put simply: It’s learning
by doing.
At its best, the PBL focuses on imparting specific knowledge and skills while inspiring students
to question actively, think critically, and draw connections between their studies and the real
world.
The PBL Model
PBL can vary from one school to another, and even from one project to another. Its defining
characteristics, however, remain constant. The PBL model:
 Is organized around an open-ended driving question or challenge
 Integrates essential abstract academic content and skills into the project development
 Requires inquiry to learn or create something new
 Requires critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, and communication (a
group often called "21st-century skills")
 Allows student voice and choice
  Incorporates feedback and revision
 Results in a presentation of the problem definition, process, and final project
Benefits of PBL
School can, at times, seem boring to many learners; PBL counters this reaction by actively
engaging students and encouraging their creativity. It revitalizes the classroom culture, enabling
educators to rediscover the joy of learning alongside their students.
The experience of questioning, making mistakes, and pursuing inquiries in an organized, guided
process makes PBL different from traditional teaching methods. As ArchForKids Co-Founder
Karen Orloff explains, “From the first day of the project, the kids become more receptive to
challenges. They are more open to looking at mistakes as positive things as opposed to negative
ones.”
PBL also provides opportunities for students who are not high academic achievers to become
team leaders. This shift in typical classroom dynamics is important for kids who have fallen into
set social roles — the prankster, the brain, the pet — and gives the entire classroom community
a chance to learn from one another in new and unanticipated ways.
PBL is an effective teaching method, arguably more so than traditional practices. An analysis
conducted by Purdue University found that PBL can increase long-term retention of learning
material and improve teachers' and students' attitudes toward learning. One explanation that
researchers suggest is that both educators and learners are more actively engaged with the
subject material.
Challenges of PBL
To prevent PBL from becoming disorganized or a less-than-rigorous activity, its implementation
must include detailed guidelines and measures of efficacy. Educators need to design project
plans that outline key content areas; they also need to create schedules that are structured but
allow for flexibility. Teachers need defined benchmarks and methodologies that will serve to
evaluate in-progress goals as well as the final results. The wide array and variety of PBL
choices can be challenging for many teachers. Projects vary in content and skill level, structure,
duration, topic, and educator involvement. In some schools, project-based learning drives the
entire curriculum, while in others, educators may choose to implement just a couple of hands-on
projects each year — or none at all. PBL can involve the entire class, or it can be undertaken
individually or by small groups. Another common issue that teachers using PBL face is social
loafing — i.e., when some team members don’t pull their weight, or when the standards of the
group are lowered to maintain a friendly atmosphere. Because educators often only evaluate the
finished product, they may overlook the social dynamics of the group. To avoid this pitfall,
teachers must actively monitor the distribution and execution of work among team members.
Educator Anne Shaw recommends an organizational strategy known as “expert groups,”
wherein each team member is assigned or chooses an expert role and is responsible for
researching her particular topic. For example, a PBL project on environmental issues could be
divided into four different expert groups — air, land, water, and human impact. By holding each
student accountable for researching a specific topic, teachers can intervene early with those who
are not contributing fully. ArchForKids uses a similar strategy to alter imbalanced group
dynamics. As our projects are grounded in architecture, we often assign each child real-life roles
so everyone has a job. As Karen Orloff explains, “Each student has a title with her own
responsibilities. There is an architect, a designer, an engineer, a contractor, a surveyor.” This
structure mirrors that of an architectural team and ties academic content to real-world roles.
Project-based learning activities should always culminate in a final product. There should be a
sense of finality in the overall unit of study — students need to be motivated to complete their
work and to answer essential questions. A public audience — their classmates, guest experts, or
family members — offers an opportunity for teams to present their work, describe the
challenges they faced, explain the decisions they made, and answer questions posed to them.
Such experiences provide students with further instances of real-world applications of their work
and prepare them for the demands of higher education and today’s workplace.
That said, the final project should not overshadow the essential questions and learning that occur
throughout the process. Unless educators create engaging, ongoing activities that assess student
achievement along the way, they risk students becoming more involved in creating the final
poster or model than in understanding the concepts that underpin it.
PBL Through the Grades
All learners benefit from the creative thinking that PBL involves, whether they are elementary
schoolers in an after-school program or biologists in grad school. PBL can draw on subject areas
as diverse as architecture, literature, environmental science, or history; it can be
multidisciplinary or single-subject.
Here are a few sample projects:
For elementary schoolers:
A class of first-graders is studying how New York City has evolved. The project asks students to
investigate modes of transportation over the past four centuries. Students create a timeline
showing the various transportation methods throughout a series of eras, and they make a 3-D
model of a particular mode of transportation.
For middle schoolers:
A group of eighth-graders is studying earth science. They are given a project to design a
sustainable dream house for a particular climate and setting. They must incorporate what they
have learned about climate, topography, and geology as they design their sustainable houses, as
well as apply math concepts as they calculate the dimensions of their scaled models.
For high schoolers:
In ArchForKids’ Chair Masters Design Studio, an afterschool program for high schoolers,
students learn the fundamentals of structure, the properties of various building materials, the
difference between strength and stability, and the effects of force on the components of their
project. They use the Design Process — identifying a challenge, theorizing solutions, designing
and testing a product, iterating on its successes or failures, and presenting a final work — to
design and build life-sized cardboard chairs that hold the weight of an adult.
The Long-Term Effects
At the college and graduate levels, critical thinking is paramount. This is an essential outcome of
PBL — students should go beyond rote memorization and pose questions, propose and test
solutions, and argue persuasively for their choices.
PBL marries the practical application of abstract academic concepts to critical 21st-century
workplace values. Students assume collaborative responsibilities as they work in teams to
address identified needs. They learn empathy, passion, compassion, and resiliency. They create
products together, and in so doing they benefit themselves, their teacher, their classroom, and
their larger community.