Introduction to Statistics and Data Presentation

1. Meaning of Statistics. Statistic defines as a body of methodology for the collection,

presentation, analysis and interpretation of quantitative data. Statistic can be used in making
correct decisions during the time of uncertainty. One may apply the different statistical
methods so as to arrive at the correct result with appropriate critical judgement.
2. Origin of Statistics.
The origin of statistic can be traced from two fields of interest, namely: the games of
chance, otherwise known and gambling and the second is political science.
Even in the early periods, there were incomplete estimates of the population in the
Philippines. Population estimates were based on church records, births, deaths, and marriages.
Another source of information about the population was the number of residence certificates
issued every year. It is a form of tax, compulsory to all citizens between 18 and 60 years old.
But during the American time, a more systematic way of collecting data was established.
Different statistical units were created such as the Bureau of Customs, which collects, tabulates
and disseminates statistics on imports and exports; the Bureau of Agriculture, which keeps
record on the number of farms, the cultivated land as well as irrigated areas; the Bureau of
Labor, which provides the government with the number of employed and unemployed citizens
as well as the different problems inherent in the work; and lastly, the National Statistics Office,
which undertakes the census of population and housing.
The second origin of statistics was the game of chance such as dice, playing card and toss
coins. The early gamblers suspected the occurrence of events in various game of chance
follows certain laws, but being unschooled, they can not deduct the laws from it. It starts with
famous gambler Chevalier de Mere, who proposed the well-known problem of points to a great
mathematician Blaise Pascal. Pascal found the problem challenging and so he worked it out
with Fermat, another mathematician. They used different method and solutions to many
problems which became the origin of mathematics of probability, upon which the theory of
modern statistics is founded.
3. Uses of Statistics
➢ Statistics is very essential in education, government, business, psychology, economics,
medicine, sociology, sports, banks and others. The youth is most familiar to the use of
statistics in sports such as basketball. At the end of every quarter, the newscaster would
report the scores of each team and who among the players are doing good which later
becomes the basis of their pay.
➢ Statistics is also vital and important in the field of education. Statistical tools are used
to get information on enrollment, physical facilities and finance, which are important
for an intelligent administration and management.
➢ Statistical tools are needed in the government to provide pertinent data for an effective
management of the affairs of the state. A good record of population, cost of living,
taxes, wages and other data are necessary for intelligent decisions and policy-making.
➢ Psychologist understands better human individuals if they can systematize analyze and
interpret data on the intelligence, personally traits and others.
➢ In sociology, statistics is very important in the study of the society in which man lives.
Observations are property analyzed and interpreted to have better effects for the
improvement and society.
 ➢ In business and economics, statistics plays an important role in business forecasting,
opening new business, market research as well as quality control. Forecasting is the
main function of the management but forecasting based on incorrect and unreliable data
will cause the collapse of the business enterprise.
➢ Statistics is also used in market research. Businessmen should be able to explore new
markets for his products because it will be used as guide to market expansion.
➢ Statistics is also important in banking institutions because they have research
department which gathers and analyzes statistical information concerning their
operations.
➢ Statistics is vital in personal relations. The business organizations which employ a large
number of employees wherein the executives have little chance to know their people,
can delegate the responsibility to a personnel director or personnel officer/manager.
4. Two Branches of Statistics
4.1 Descriptive Statistic. Is the branch that summarizes and organizes raw data into
meaningful information or the process of obtaining meaningful data from raw, often,
but not always, consisting of large sets of numbers too large to deal with directly.
4.2 Inferential Statistics. The process of obtaining information about a larger group from
the study of a smaller group or the science of drawing statistical conclusions about a
population from specific data using probability and specific statistical data prediction
techniques.
5. Four Basic Types of Data (Level of Measurement)
5.1 Nominal Level. This is characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or categories
only. The data cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. There is no criterion as to
which values can be identified as greater than or less than other values.
5.2 Ordinal Level. This involves data that maybe arranged in some order, but differences
between data values either cannot be determined or are meaningless. An example is the
grading system involving letter (A, B, C, D, and E).
5.3 Interval Level. This is the same as the ordinal level, with an additional property to help
determined meaningful amounts of differences between data. Data at this level may
lack an inherent zero starting point. For example, temperature is an interval
measurement. There is am meaningful difference in one degree between each unit such
as 80 and 81 degrees. But a zero-degree temperature does not mean that there is no
heat.
5.4 Ratio Level. This is an interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point.
The difference and ratios of data are meaningful. This is also the highest level of
measurement. An example would be the measure of height, weight, or area. There is a
meaning between values, and a true zero exists.
6. Preliminary Steps in Statistical Study
A. Define the Problem.
B. Determine the population/subject of the study.
C. Devise the set of questions.
D. Determine the sampling design.
E. Prepare a manual of instructions.
F. Organize and train personnel.
7. Main Steps in Statistical Study
A. Collection of Data
B. Presentation of Data
C. Analysis of Data
D. Interpretation of Data
8. Sampling Techniques
8.1 Probability Sampling. In probability sampling, the sample is a proportion of the
population and such sample is selected from the population by means of systematic
way in which every element of the population has a chance of being included in the
sample.
8.1.1 Types of probability Sampling
➢ Pure Random Sampling (Simple Random Sampling). This type of sampling is
one in which everyone in the population of the study has an equal chance of
being selected to be included in the sample. This is also called lottery sampling,
which may be used if the population has no differentiated levels, sections or
classes. This is carried out by assigning number to every member of the
population.
➢ Systematic Sampling. This is a technique of sampling in which every nth name
in the list may be selected to be included in the sample. This is used when
respondents in the study are alphabetical arrangement, residential or house
arrays, geographical placement and etc.
➢ Stratified Random Sampling. It is more efficient sampling procedure wherein
the population is grouped into a more or less homogenous classes or strata in
order to avoid the possibility of drawing samples whose members come from
one stratum.
➢ Cluster Sampling. It is sometimes called area sampling because it is applied
on geographical basis. On this basis, districts or blocks of a municipality or
city are selected. These districts or blocks comprise the clusters. This method
is useful when the samples in a community are occupied by heterogeneous
groups.
8.2 Non-Probability Sampling. In a non-probability sampling, the sample is not a
proportion of the population and there is no system in selecting the sample. The
selection depends on the situation.
8.2.1 Types of Non-Probability Sampling
➢ Accidental Sampling. In this type of sampling, there is no system of selection
but only those whom the research or interview meets by chance are included
in the sample.
➢ Quota Sampling. In this type of sampling, specified number of persons of
certain types in included in the sample. Suppose the reactions of the people for
a particular issue, such as the effects of drug addiction in a certain locality, can
be decided from a sample that constitutes 10 doctors, 9 lawmakers, 15 parents
and 20 drug addicts.
➢ Convenience Sampling. Convenience sampling is a process of picking out
people in the most convenient and fastest way to get reactions immediately.
 ➢ Purposive Sampling. It is based on certain criteria laid down by the researches.
People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. Purposive sampling is
determining the target population of those who will be taken for the study.
9. Advantages of Sampling.
9.1 More Economical. Expenses will be less if data are obtained from only a part of
aggregate than if census is conducted. If the interview method will be used in collecting
data from the respondents, then fewer interviewers will be needed and trained in a
sample survey than in a complete enumeration.
9.2 Accomplished Faster. In sampling, small part of the population will be considered
hence, data can be collected and presented more quickly.
9.3 Wider Scope. Scope refers to the amount of information and data that will be obtained
from the respondents. In census survey, because of the great number of respondents, a
researcher will not have all the time and money to ask many questions within the
specified time. In sampling, using the same time and moneme. In sampling, using the
same time and money, the researcher can ask more questions and get more information
from the respondents thus, the scope will be broadened.
9.4 More Accurate. In a sample survey, the information gathered are often more accurate
because with the number of respondents to be asked and using the same resources, the
researcher can hire the services of few but qualified selected personnel. Mistakes and
errors ca be minimized because there can be a better control and supervision in the
sample survey.
10. Advantages of Tabular over Textual Presentation
➢ Statistical tables are concise and convenient because data are systematically arranged.
➢ They are brief and reduce and explanatory matter to the minimum.
➢ Tables give the whole information without combining text with figures. Tables are
constructed such that the ideas are easily understood even without reading the textual
presentation.
➢ Data are easily read and readily understood because of the systematic and logical
arrangement into columns and rows.
➢ The arrangement of data into columns and rows makes comparison easier. It allows the
reader to easily understand and interprets the data accurately and see the relationship
of data at once.
➢ The use of table can facilitate the study and interpretation of data, as well as making
inferences and implications of the relationship of statistical data.
11. Types of Tables
11.1 General-Purpose (or Primary) Tables. It is a full presentation of the collected facts
in the original units that is published for general use.
11.2 Special-Purpose (or Analytical) Tables. It is used to analyze data shown in business
reports; such tables are limited in size because they are effective when few facts are
presented at a time.
 11.3 Graphical Presentation. The most effective way to present results in a study since it
shows the statistical values and relationship in a pictorial or diagrammatic form.
When data are shown in terms of visual representations, the reader sees essential facts
and relationships and grasps significant proportions differences, similarities or even
trends.
12. Advantages of the Graphical Method
➢ It attracts attention more effectively than tables and is less likely to be overlooked.
Readers may skip table but pause to look at graphs or charts.
➢ The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list figure in business reports more
meaningful.
➢ It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a line exerts a
more powerful effect on the reader’s mind than the tabulated data. It shows what is
happening and what is likely to take place.
➢ Graphs enable the busy executives of a business concern to grasp the essential facts
quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not readily seen from the figures
themselves is easily discovered from the graph. Illustrations including attractive charts
and graphs are now considered by most businessman as indispensable
accomplishments to good business reports.
➢ Their, general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the presentation of numerical
data.
13. Disadvantages in the use of graphic method
➢ Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.
➢ Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
➢ Charts require more skill and the time and cost to prepare than tables.
➢ Graphs can not be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
➢ Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.
14. Types of Graphs
14.1 Bar Graphs. The most commonly used graphic presentation. It is used for comparing
magnitudes. Each bar is drawn to a height (length) proportional to the quantity it
represents.
A. Single Bar Graph
B. Grouped (Multiple Bar Graph)
C. Duo-Directional Bar Graph
D. Subdivided Bar Graph
E. Histogram
14.2 Linear Graph. Is a practical and effective device to show changes in values over
successive period of time. Variations in the data are indicated by the changes and
differences in the movement of the linear curves. The linear graph shows data as a
continuous line thus its effect is continuous. At a glance, the reader can tell the trend
as shown in the linear graph, it is easier to prepare thus it requires less time and skill.
A. Time Series Chart
B. Frequency Polygon
C. Composite Line Chart
D. Ogive
14.3 Hundred Percent Charts. It is used to show the relative sizes of the component parts
to make up the whole. This is useful when the component parts are compared among
themselves.
A. Subdivided Bar or Rectangular Chart
B. Pie Chart
14.4 Statistical Maps. Are used to show geographical distribution of magnitudes in which
shades, bars or dots may be used to indicate variation in magnitude in different areas.
Shading or cross-hatching indicates the varying relative magnitude in different areas.
The darkest shade indicates the highest magnitude while the shade becomes lighter
and lighter as the magnitude decreases.
14.5 Pictograms. Are usually called pictograph. These are effective device in showing
data by pictures and symbol. Pictograms does not attempt to show details but it
facilitates comparison of approximate quantities. It can easily attract the reader’s
attention and show important relationship better and faster than any type of graph.
The symbols or pictures should suggest the nature of the data being presented. The
symbols should be self-explanatory. Large quantities should be presented by more
symbols or pictures of the same size and not be bigger symbols.
14.6 Ratio Charts. Are widely used in the analysis of data. It is also used in comparing
relative changes. If the study deals in the absolute magnitude of changes, an
arithmetic-scaled graph should be used. Ratio charts cannot show zero or negative
value.