UNIT 11

ORE AND ORE DEPOSITS

Structure___________________________________________________________
11.1 Introduction Non-Metallic Ore Minerals
Expected Learning Outcomes 11.7 Strategic, Critical and Essential
Minerals
11.2 Scope of Economic Geology
Definitions
11.3 Concept of Ore and Ore Deposits
Applications of Minerals in War
Basic Terminology
11.8 Summary
Clarke and Clarke of Concentration
11.9 Activity
11.4 Processes of Formation of Ore
Deposits 11.10 Terminal Questions
11.5 Nature and Morphology of Ore Bodies 11.11 References
Discordant Ore Bodies 11.12 Further/Suggested Readings
Concordant Ore Bodies 11.13 Answers
11.6 Ore Minerals
Metallic Ore Minerals

11.1 INTRODUCTION

Economic geology had its inception with utilisation of metals and mineral products from
prehistoric time. However, long time period must have passed, before the early crude
knowledge which was undoubtedly utilitarian gave birth to an intellectual thinking by the Greek
philosophers. The first Earth materials used by primitive man were non-metallic minerals like
flint, chert, quartz, and certain hard and soft stones such as soapstone or limestone. The early
man used them in weapons, implements, utensils and for carving. The ancient Indians appear to
have practised the process of distillation and calcination of minerals and their ores. Apart from
this, clay was widely and extensively used for manufacturing pottery and bricks.
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................

Among the metals gold appears to have attracted the attention of early man even
before copper. There is a very ancient shaft about 640 feet deep in the Hutti mine area
of Raichur District in Karnataka state which appears to have been operating even
during the reign of Emperor Asoka (240 BC). There are frequent mention of gold and
silver in the Vedic mantras written probably 2000 BC. The evidences obtained from
Mohenjodaro and Harappa civilizations also indicate the abundant usage of metals like
gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc, iron and tin.

We have learnt in Unit 4 Minerals that mineralogy (or mineral science) is the study of
naturally occurring, inorganic solid substances called minerals. Now in this unit, we will
discuss various aspects pertaining to economic geology like concept of ore and ore
deposits, processes of ore formation, metallic and non-metallic minerals and origin,
occurrence and distribution of coal and petroleum.

Expected Learning Outcomes______________________

After reading this unit you should be able to:

 describe the scope of economic geology and its relationship with other branches of
geology;

 define ore and terminologies related to ore deposits;

 discuss the concept of ore and ore deposits:

 list processes of ore formation;

 discuss the morphology and nature of ore deposits; and

 describe metallic, non-metallic, strategic, critical and essential mineral deposits.

11.2 SCOPE OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

We have read the definition of economic geology in previous section now let us discuss
the scope of economic geology.

Economic Geology is the branch of geology that deals with the scientific study and
extraction of Earth’s resources like minerals, ores, rocks ground water etc. It leads us in
the search of new mineral deposits and in their detailed investigations (Pohl, 2011).
‘The discipline of ‘economic geology’ covers all aspects pertaining to the description
and understanding of mineral resources. It is also the discipline that underpins the
training of professional Earth scientists working in the minerals and related industries of
the world’ (Robb, 2015). Economic geology is one of the core components of Earth
science undergraduate and postgraduate curriculum.

Economic geology deals with the materials of the mineral kingdom that man derives
from the earth for his necessities of life and comfort. This search and discovery has
given rise to settlement of new lands. The ownership of mineral deposits has resulted in
commercial or political supremacy or has caused strife and war. We are witnessing in
present scenario that with the accelerating growth of world’s population and
improvement of living standards, the demands for all types of minerals and metals have
increased, which in future will continue to grow. Therefore the search for mineral
94
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
deposits is becoming more complex with the escalating urbanisation and
industrialisation. Thus man is continuously in the process to devise new geologic,
geochemical and geophysical exploration techniques and ideas to supplement the
existing ones, in order to obtain sufficient supplies for the future.

The recovery, recycling and mining techniques are being improved so that large bodies
of near-surface economic minerals in future can be explored with due regard for
ecological and environmental constraints. Hence a successful economic geologist must
develop ‘exploration thinking’ requiring originality in imagination with a degree of
optimism. The economic geologist should also possess a thorough knowledge of
structural geology, stratigraphy, petrology and mineralogy (Fig.11.1). Since the tools
like geochemistry and geophysics are becoming increasingly useful in the search for
buried deposits thus the economic geologists should also be familiar with their
fundamental techniques. Economic geologist is also required to be able to interpret the
field and laboratory significance of observable relationship of minerals deposits using
geologic, geochemical, geophysical, and mathematical and computer skills. We can
say this field of study of economic geology is concerned with the distribution of mineral
deposits, the economic considerations involved in their recovery, and the assessment
of available reserves. According to Lindgren (1933) ‘the broad domain economic
geology stands on the fundamental sciences of chemistry and physics. It is related to
theoretical geology, palaeontology, mineralogy, and petrography on one side; on
another side to mining, metallurgy, and many other technological arts; on still another
side to economics and finance’.

Fig. 11.1: Relationship of Mineralogy (economic geology) with mineral science and other
branches of Earth science. (Modified after, Shrivastava, 2009)

95
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................

11.3 CONCEPT OF ORE AND ORE DEPOSITS

We have learnt about the scope of economic geology in earlier section. Now in this
section we will learn the definitions about the basic terminology, and concepts of ore
and ore deposit.

11.3.1 Basic Terminology

Let us learn some basic definitions related to economic geology.
Ore: The word ore has been derived from the Middle English, oor, because of its
similarity to earlier names for copper ore and brass. Ore is defined as a naturally
occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which metal/metals could be extracted
with profit. It usually occurs with useless gangue mineral or mineral aggregates,
substance or unwanted substance. In simplified words, we can define ore as an
aggregation of one or more ore minerals and gangue from which one or more metals
are extracted profitably. After their mining the ores are further processed to extract the
elements of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Metal ores
commonly concentrated in the Earth’s crust are generally sulphides, oxides, silicates or
native metals (like gold). The term ore is generally confined to the sources of metallic
minerals. The minerals having appreciable concentration of metallic elements are called
as ore minerals.
Let us study an example of why a mineral is called as ore?
Chalcopyrite is a mineral (it is naturally occurring and has a fixed chemical composition-
CuFeS2), but also an ore of copper; when you find huge quantities of mineral
chalcopyrite confined in a place it constitutes an economic mineral or ore deposit of
copper. Thus the ore minerals are different from common rocks and minerals.
Ore deposits or mineral deposits are natural concentrations of useful minerals or
rocks, which can be economically exploited (Fig. 11.2 and 11.3). Concentrations that
are too small or too low-grade for mining are called occurrence or mineralisation (Pohl,
2011). The definition of ore deposits includes ores of metals and non metals, industrial
minerals, gemstones, rocks used as aggregate for building stone and coal and oil shale.
Let us discuss an example of ore deposit. Copper mineralisation in Malanjkhand mine
located in the Balaghat district of Chhattisgarh state (Fig. 11.2), is found within tonalite-
granodiorite plutonic rocks. The bulk of the mineralisation occurs in sheeted quartz-
sulfide veins and K-silicate alteration zones. This entire assemblage of rock types
together with copper mineralisation constitutes an ore deposit.

96
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Fig. 11.2: Panoramic view of Malanjkhand copper deposits.

Ore bodies: The ore deposit consists of the rock bodies or ore bodies (Fig. 11.3)
enclosing one or more ore minerals along with those natural materials which are not
ore. Not all the ore within the ore body will be extracted. Ore bodies are divided into
reserves and resources.
Gangue: It is the commercially worthless material that surrounds or is closely mixed
with wanted mineral in an ore deposits. Let us read about the difference between ore
and gangue. Minerals with high percentage of metal, that can be profitably extracted is
known as ore. The term gangue refers to the impurities like sand, soil that are removed
from the ores.
Reserves are ore that are economically feasible to mine and for which there are no
legal or engineering impediments to mining.
Resources are ores that may potentially be extracted at sometimes in the future.

Fig. 11.3: Malanjkhand copper deposits showing ore bodies marked by black arrows.

97
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................
Industrial minerals: They have been defined as any rock, mineral or other naturally
occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and
gemstones (Noetstaller, 1988). The non-metallic minerals are considered as industrial
minerals rather than ores. Thus, galena (PbS) is an ore mineral, while halite (NaCl) and
phosphorite or rock phosphate (Ca5FO12P3) (Fig. 11.4) are industrial minerals. Many
other minerals are mined for industrial uses, namely cement, building stone, abrasives,
fertilisers, fillers, fluxes, ceramics, glasses, etc. They are classed as industrial minerals.
Although practically all industrial minerals contain metallic elements and they are often
confused with non-metallic. Many metallic ores, such as bauxite, ilmenite, chromite and
manganese minerals are also considered important raw materials for industrial
minerals.

Fig. 11.4: Phosphorite/rock phosphate deposit at Jhamarkotra in Rajasthan. (Photo credit:

Ganga Singh Bhartiya)

Apart from metals and non-metals there is another category of economically important
natural energy resources commonly known as fossil fuel like coal, petroleum, natural
gas and the radioactive minerals. You have read in Unit 4 that as per the definition of
a mineral, coal, petroleum and natural gas are not considered as minerals however they
form significant economic deposits.

Host Rock: It is the rock which surrounds or encloses ore deposits and like gangue it
has no commercial value.

Tenor: It is the actual metal content present in an ore. Tenor in case of non-metallic
minerals refers to the percentage of metal content in an ore mined, whereas in case of
metallic minerals, it signifies metal content in an ore mined. For example, in case of
asbestos the tenor is 6%. It means that the occurrence of asbestos fiber in the ore is
6%. While metallic deposits, such as copper ore, it is referred to as 2%, it means that
the ore contains 2% copper metal. The tenor may reach up to 100% in the case of
native deposits. It may vary from deposits to deposit. The lower limit of tenor is
dependent upon the various techno-economic factors such as location, size, price, and
98
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
advancement of mining and extractive technology. It also depends upon the presence
of other recoverable substances. Tenor is described as economic indicator because it
has great economic significance, particularly to the life of a mine or deposit.
Ore Grade: The term ore grade is used in the commercial classification of ores which
takes into account the chemical and physical properties of an ore. It is usually
expressed as percentage or parts per million (ppm) for metal contents, e.g. Cr2O3 in
chromite ore, WO3 in tungsten ore and P2O5 in apatite and rock phosphate. While
penny weight, troy ounce, gram per unit weight is used for precious minerals. Ore grade
is also an expression of the quality of the deposit. The strength of the material and
colour are also important and taken into account for grading. Carbon concentration, ash
content, volatile matter, calorific value, moisture and caking quality all together
determine a grade in case of coal. In some cases, impurities also determine the grade
of an ore, e.g. presence of sulphur and phosphorous in iron and manganese ores and
coal. Shape and size of ore deposits affect the workable grade. Large, low grade
deposits which occur at the surface can be exploited by cheap open pit methods, whilst
thick tabular vein deposits require more expensive underground extraction methods.
Specification: It is another important term which is related with the grade. It focuses on
the tolerance limits of all constituents present in it and depends upon:
 Technique of manufacturing process adopted by individual units; and
 Grade of other raw material required to be used as whole or to obtain the end
product.
Beneficiation: It refers to improving the quality of an ore mineral before feeding
smelting or other operations. Different physical or chemical methods are used to
separate the gangue or undesired minerals from the ore minerals.
Ore magma: This term is used for the abnormally rich magma that crystallises out into
an ore most often in case of sulphide or oxide ore minerals.
Ore guides: The final aim of the geologist is to detect subsurface ore bodies. The
exploration for ore bodies is often done with the help of ore guides. Thus ore guides are
structural or other features and conditions which serve as clues to the location of ore
body. The most practical and definite type of guides are those that are capable of
representation on maps, sections or models. The ore guides include geological,
geochemical, botanical and biogeochemical observations or even biotic activity that
provides clue about sub-surface mineralisation.
Ore genesis: The ore deposits are formed by variety of geological processes and the
process of their formation is called ore genesis.
Ore shoot: This term is commonly used in mining operations. These are relatively rich
portions of mineralised body.
Ore microscopy: Most of the metallic ores are opaque. Therefore study of ore requires
a specially designed microscope called as ore microscope, where polished ore sections
or slabs are studied under the microscope in a reflected light.
Gossan: They are signboards that point to what lies beneath the surface. The word
‘gossan’ is a Cornish word and is used to designate the oxidised outcropping
comprising cellular mass of limonite. The outcropping of cellular mass of limonite or
capping is the leached upper part of a rock body that contains disseminated sulfide
minerals (Fig. 11.5). They are quite interesting and draw attention as to what they may

99
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................
mask. In other words, gossans are most significant indicators of the previous existence
of sulphide ore, including porphyry systems and other ore forming environment.

Fig. 11.5: Capping of the upper part of ore body shows oxidised outcropping of limonite.
(Photo credit: Ganga Singh Bhartiya)

11.3.2 Clarke and Clarke of Concentration

Let us consider a thorough mixture of all varieties of rocks (igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic) constituting around 30 km of crustal rocks. The data shows that all the
elements are present in the crust, though not in uniform distribution. The abundance of
different elements in such a mixture of rocks is referred to average crustal abundance
(Fig. 11.6). In such a hypothetical composition, only eight elements are worth
mentioning. In order of abundance, they are O (46.6%), Si (26.72%), Al (8.13%), Fe
(5.00%), Mg (2.09%), Ca (3.63%), Na (2.83%) and K (2.59%). Rest of the elements
constitutes only around 1% of the average crustal abundance. However, the Earth’s
crust does not have such an idealised composition.

Fig 11.6: Eight abundant elements in the Earth’s crust (Modified after Mason and Moore,
1982). Numbers in square brackets refer to coordination number. (Modified after
Klein, 2008)
100
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Let us discuss the two terms ‘Clarke value’ and ‘Clarke of concentration’. They are
important to understand concept of ore in comparison to average crustal abundance.
Famous Russian geochemists Fersman and Vernadsy introduces these two important
terms in honour of F.W. Clarke, who was Chief Chemist of United States Geological
Survey for 41 years (1884-1925). Clarke value refers to the average abundance of a
particular element in the Earth’s crust. Clarke values are synonymous with the crustal
abundances. Clarke of Concentration is the concentration of an element in a
particular rock compared with its average concentration in the Earth's crust, or of an
element within a particular mineral. It represents how many times the average crustal
abundance of a particular element needs to be enhanced to become an ore mineral.
Thus, ore is always defined in terms of its comparison with the average
percentage of an element in the Earth’s crust.

Let us study an example to understand these definitions. Clarke (abundance of that

particular metal in Earth’s crust) of copper (Cu) is about 55 ppm or 0.006%; in the
mineral chalcocite (Cu2S), Cu concentration is 79.8%. Thus, the Clarke of
Concentration within chalcocite mineral is 79.8/0.006, or 13,300. We will look at another
example. The average crustal abundance of Mn at 0.1% is termed as Clarke of Mn, but
when this is enhanced to 632 times due to various complex natural processes such as
in the ore mineral pyrolusite. Thus, the Clarke of Concentration of Mn in pyrolusite
(MnO2) is 632/0.1 or 6320. We should note that Clarke of Concentration values is not
same for all the elements and also differ for the same elements found in different ore
minerals (Table 11.1).

Table 11.1: Concentrations of some economically important metals in average upper

crust (Clarke values), and typical grades and enrichment factor of ores
(Clarke of concentration). Compositions are in ppm, except where indicated.
(Source: Ridley, 2013)

Metal Clarke=average Grade in Clarke of

concentration typical ore concentration=enrichment
in upper crust factor of average crust  ore

Al 8% 30% 4

Fe 5% 60% 12

Mn 950 5% 50

Cr 100 5% 500

Cu 55 1% 200

Ni 75 1% 100

Zn 70 10% 1000

Sn 2 1% 5000

Pb 12 10% 10,000

Au 0.004 5% 1200

U 3 0.1% 300

101
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................
Watch the following videos to know more about the classification and types of ore
deposits.

 Introduction to ore deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53454

 Classification of ore deposits

Link: http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/53455

11.4 PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF ORE DEPOSITS

After having learnt about concept of ore deposits, we will read about processes of
formation of ore deposits. We can categorise the processes of ore formation into
endogenous and exogenous processes. Endogenous processes result from the
dynamics of the Earth’s interior that mainly result due to the heat flow of the Earth.
Such type of processes operative in the primary environment are characterized by high
pressure, high temperature and low oxygen conditions. Exogenous processes take
place on the surface of the Earth that is mainly due to the flow of energy from the Sun.
Let us list the endogenic and exogenic processes as given below in Table 11.2.

Table 11.2: Endogenic and exogenic processes.

Endogenous processes Exo Exogenous processes

Magmatic concentration / segregation Sedimentation

(early and late magmatic)

Sublimation Residual and Mechanical Concentration

Pegmatite / Pneumatolytic Oxidation and Supergene Enrichment

Hydrothermal Evaporation

Contact metasomatism and contact Bacteriogenic precipitation

metamorphism

Metamorphism Syn sedimentary volcanogenic

We will discuss these processes in detail in Unit 12 Processes of Ore Formation of this
course. In the previous sections we have studied about the concept of ore formation.
Before going to the next section spend 5 minutes to check how you are progressing.

SAQ 1
1. How metallic minerals are different from non-metallic /industrial minerals?
2. How economic geology is related to other disciplines of geology?
3. Define ores. How ore is different from gangue?
4. List endogenic and exogenic processes.

102
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11.5 NATURE AND MORPHOLOGY OF ORE BODIES

Now before we discuss the nature and morphology of ore bodies let us read two terms
which are often used by mining geologists, i.e. syngenetic and epigenetic deposits.
Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process and at
the same time as the enclosing rock in which it occurs is sometimes part of a
stratigraphical succession, such as an iron-rich sedimentary horizon.
Epigenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed after the formation of host rock
in which they occur, e.g. vein. These ore minerals have been introduced into pre-
existing country rock after their formation.
We can study the nature and morphology of ore deposits under two categories in the
same way as it is done for igneous rocks. You will study about igneous rocks in Unit 1
of BGYCT-135 course.
 Discordant ore body refers to ore body which cuts across the bedding plane or
banding.
 Concordant ore body refers to ore body which is parallel to the lithological bedding
plane or banding.

11.5.1 Discordant Ore Bodies

We can further divide the discordant ore bodies on the basis of their shape into:
 Regularly shaped ore bodies
 Irregularly shaped ore bodies

Let us read about them.

A) Regularly Shaped Ore Bodies

i) Tabular ore bodies: These bodies are extensive in two dimensions, but have a
restricted development in their third dimension. In this we find veins (sometimes
called fissure-veins) and lodes. Veins are considered to have resulted mainly from
the infilling of pre-existing open spaces. While the formation of lodes involve the
extensive replacement of pre-existing host rock. Veins of ore are deposited
between the layers of rock. Veins are often inclined and frequently pinch and swell
out as they follow up or down a stratigraphical sequence (Fig. 11.7a). Lode is a
deposit of metallic ore that fills or is embedded in the fissure or crack in the rock
formation. Stringer lode is a deposit of metallic ore which is permeated by
many irregular branching and anastomosing stringers and small veinlets (Fig. 11.7b
and b) so that the entire mass of ore and the host rock is mined (as it is inseparable
from the country rock).

103
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 11.7: a) Vein occupying a normal fault and exhibiting pinch and swell structure,
giving rise to ribbon ore shoots (Source Alexander, 2009); b) Outcrop containing
chalcopyrite deposits (golden yellow) are in form of stringers at 225m depth,
host rock is biotite chlorite schist (bluish grey); and c) Hand specimen of
copper ore in for of stringers (marked by red arrow) from Surda mine, Ghatshila.
Host rock is quartz. (Photo credit: Saurabh Sinha)

104
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii) Tubular ore bodies: As the name implies, tubular ore bodies are restricted in two
dimensions. They are extensive in the third dimension. When they are vertical or
subvertical they are called pipes or chimneys. ‘Mantos’ (Spanish word meaning
‘blanket’) are horizontal or subhorizontal tubular ore bodies. Mantos and pipes may
branch and anastomose as shown in Fig. 11.8. They are often found occurring in
association with the pipes which frequently act as feeders. Sometimes mantos pass
upwards from bed to bed by way of pipe connections. We also find discontinuous
pod shaped bodies when mineralisation takes place in some tubular deposits
formed by sub-horizontal flow of mineralising fluid.

Fig. 11.8: Cross section showing tubular ore bodies. (Source Alexander, 2009)

B) Irregular Shaped Ore Bodies

i) Disseminated deposits: When the ore minerals are scattered throughout the
body of the host rock they are known as disseminated deposits. Disseminated
accessory minerals like zircon or apatite in the igneous rocks can be considered
as analogy to recognise them. Disseminated deposits may wholly occur along
close-spaced veinlets cutting the host rock and form an interlacing network called
stock work (Fig. 11.9 and 11.10). This type of mineralisation generally fades
gradually outwards into sub-economic mineralisation and the boundaries of the
ore body are assessing limits irrespective of mode of occurrence. They are often
irregular in form ore body may cut across the geological boundaries. The overall
shapes of some are cylindrical and cap like. Stock works occur most commonly in
felsic to intermediate plutonic igneous intrusions, but they may cut across the
contact (Figs. 11.9 and 11.10) into the country rocks. World’s copper and
molybdenum deposits occur as disseminated deposits.

105
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................

Fig. 11.9: Stock work of ore bearing quartz veinlets in granite. (Source Alexander, 2009)

Fig. 11.10: Sketch of stock work showing the occurrence of disseminated ore bodies in
the form of veinlets. (Source Alexander, 2009)

ii) Irregular replacement deposits: They are the ore deposits formed by the
replacement of pre-existing rocks carbonate rich sediments (e.g. magnesite
deposits). These replacement processes often occur at high temperatures,
contacts with the medium to large size igneous intrusions. Such deposits have
therefore been called contact metamorphic or pyrometasomatic deposits;
however, skarn is a more popular term. You will read about them in unit 12 of this
course.

11.5.2 Concordant Ore Bodies

We can classify them depending upon their host rock which can be of igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic origin.
Concordant ore bodies in sedimentary rocks are very important for several different
metals, e.g. base metals and iron ore deposits. As the name implies they are
concordant or parallel with the bedding. They can be an integral part of the

106
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
stratigraphical sequences, as is the case with Phanerozoic ironstones. They may be
epigenetic infillings of pore spaces or replacement ore bodies. Usually these ore bodies
show a considerable development in two dimensions, i.e. parallel to the bedding with
limited development perpendicular to it. Therefore, these deposits are also referred as
stratiform. These deposits are concentrated within one or more strata of volcano-
sedimentary and sedimentary rock formations. This must not be confused with
stratabound. Stratabound refers to any type(s) of ore body, concordant or discordant,
which are restricted to particular stratigraphic column.

A) Sedimentary Host Rocks

Now we can categorise the sedimentary host rocks depending on their origin as follows:
i) Limestone host rock: Limestone is very common host rocks for base metal
deposits. They often provide zones in which permeability has been increased by
dolomitisation or fracturing. Limestone because of their solubility and reactivity can
become favourable horizons for mineralsation.
ii) Argillaceous host rock: Shale, mudstone, argillite and slate are important host
rocks in case of concordant ore bodies. For example, Kuperschiefer deposit of
Germany has Upper Permian shale as host rock. World’s largest, single lead-zinc
ore body occurs at Sullivan, British Columbia wherein the host rocks are Late
Precambrian argillites.
iii) Arenaceous host rock: Some ore bodies occur in altered feldspathic sandstones
such as in the Mufulira copper deposit in Proterozoic rocks of Zambia (Fig. 11.11).

Fig. 11.11: Mineralisation in arenaceous host rocks. Cross section through the Mufulira
ore bodies, Zambia. (Source: Alexander, 2009)

iv) Rudaceous host rock: Alluvial gravels and conglomerates also form important
recent and ancient placer deposits. World’s gold is found in Precambrian deposits of
this type occurs in famous Witwatersrand goldfields in South Africa. Uranium is
recovered as a byproduct.

107
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................
v) Chemical sedimentary host rocks: Sedimentary iron, manganese, evaporates
and phosphorite deposits occur scattered throughout the stratigraphical column
forming very extensive beds.

(B) Igneous Host Rocks

We can classify igneous host rock depending upon their origin, viz volcanic and plutonic
origin.
i) Volcanic host rock: The principal type of deposits found in volcanic rocks are:
 vesicular filling deposits, and
 Volcanic-associated massive sulphide deposits.
The vesicular filling type of deposit is not very important but the volcanic-associated
massive sulphide deposits more widespread type of ore deposits (Fig. 11.12). They
are generally stratiform bodies, lenticular to sheet like developed at the interfaces
between volcanic units or at volcanic sedimentary interfaces.

Fig. 11.12: Schematic cross section through an idealised volcanic- associated massive
sulphide deposit showing underlying feeder stock work and typical
mineralogy. Py=pyrite, sp=sphalerite, ga=galena, cp=chalcopyrite. (Source:
Alexander, 2009)

ii) Plutonic host rock: Many plutonic igneous intrusions possess rhythmic layering
which is particularly well developed in some mafic intrusions. Mostly layering takes
in the form of alternating bands of mafic and felsic minerals. Minerals of economic
interest such as chromite, magnetite and ilmenite, may form discrete mineable
seams within such layered complexes. These seams are usually stratiform and
extend for kilometers as in the case of the chromite seams in the Bushveld Complex
of South Africa.

C) Metamorphic Host Rocks

We have already discussed about the irregular replacement deposits which can be of
metamorphic origin. The deposits can be generated in contact metamorphic aureoles,
e.g. wollastonite, andalusite, garnet, graphite.

108
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11.6 ORE MINERALS

We all know that prosperity and status of a nation depends on the mineral resources as
they are considered to be requisite for nation building. We have read the definitions of
metallic and non-metallic ores in the Section 11.3. In this section we will read about
metallic and non-metallic ore minerals.

11.6.1 Metallic Ore Minerals

Metals have always played a crucial in the evolution of our civilisation, development and
industrialisation because of their unique properties. Ore is defined as a natural material
or ore rock from which metals or minerals can be profitably extracted. Metallic minerals
as the name suggests are mineral containing metals. The most common metals which
are chemically active and commonly alloyed are called as base metals, e.g. copper,
lead and zinc. Whereas precious metals as gold, silver and platinum are also known as
rare or noble metals. They are commonly in demand in their native form. The term ore
is applied to metalliferous minerals in a rock e. g. chromite in dunite rock or magnetite in
gabbroic rock. When metallic minerals are mined they are called ores. The ores must
be processed further to extract metals. First, the ore is crushed and then, the metallic
minerals are separated from unwanted rock to form a concentrate. The metals in the
concentrate are then separated from the non-metals. In ancient times, this process
used to take place in camp fires or ovens. Today, we have smelters for this process.
The concentrate is then heated to a high temperature, which releases the metals. The
molten metal is then cooled.

The table 11.3 shows some important and common metallic ore minerals along with
their category, composition and tenor.

Table 11.3: Common metals and their ore minerals.

SN Metal Ore Mineral Category Composition Tenor

Magnetite Oxide Fe3O4 74% Fe

Iron Hematite Oxide Fe2O3 70% Fe
Goethite Hyd. Oxide
1 FeO(OH) 68.5% Fe
Siderite Carbonate
Pyrite Sulphide FeCO3 48.3% Fe

FeS2 46.8% Fe

Manganese Pyrolusite Oxide Mn2O3 63% Mn

Braunite Oxide MnO2H2O 64.3% Mn

2
Psilomelane Hyd. Oxide MnO2 40-60% Mn

Rhodochrosite Carbonate MnCO3 47.8% Mn

3 Chromium Chromite Oxide Fe2Cr2O4 46.4% Cr

Aluminium Bauxite AI Hydroxide Variable

4
(Mixture of)

109
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................

5 Tin Cassiterite Oxide SnO2 78.8%

Copper Native Copper Native Pure Cu Upto 100% Cu

Chalcopyrite Sulphide CuFeS2 34.5% Cu

Chalcocite Sulphide Cu2S 79.9% Cu

6 Bornite Sulphide Cu5FeS2 63.3% Cu

Covellite Sulphide CuS 66.4% Cu

Malachite Hyd. Carbonate Cu2CO3(OH) 57.4% Cu

Azurite Hyd. Carbonate Cu2CO3(OH)2 55.3% Cu

7 Load Galena Sulphide PbS 86.6% Pb

Zinc Sphalerite Sulphide ZnS 67.1% Zn

8
Smithsonite Carbonate ZnCO3 52% Zn

Nickel Pentlandite Sulphide (Fe,Ni)S

9
Nicolite Arsenide NiAs

Sulphur Arsenopyrite Sulphide FeAsS 46.0% As

10 Orpiment Sulphide As2S3 61% As

Realgar Sulphide As2S2 70.1% As

11 Gold Native gold Native Au. Ag 80-98 % Au

11.6.2 Non-Metallic Ore Minerals

You have read in the previous section that non-metallic minerals are considered as
industrial minerals rather than ores. Industrial minerals can be defined as any Earth
material of economic value which is not a metal, ore or fuel. Gypsum, clays, barite and
fluorite, magnesite, asbestos, mica, talc (Fig. 11.13) are some of the common industrial
minerals. They form important constituents of manufactured products, or they are
employed in the production of other industrial products. The non-metallic mineral
resources are mainly processed by physical methods as compared to metals. Several
metallic ore minerals such as chromite, bauxite and rutile also have industrial
applications however their bulk of production feeds metal industry. Most of the non-
metallic minerals infact are abundantly distributed throughout the world. Their value
depends less on the material itself but their proximity for usage in nearby areas. Thus
largely the cost of transportation and usage determines their economic value. Mostly
the non-metallic minerals are used in the form they are extracted. The gross value of all
non-metallic products annually greatly exceeds that of metallic ores. Table 11.4 shows
the list of common non-metallic or industrial minerals.

110
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Table 11.4: Common non-metallic or industrial minerals

Agate Gypsum

Andalusite Jasper

Baryte Kaolin
Asbestos Laterite
Limestone Mica
Halite Ochre

Garnet Pyrophyllite

Corundum Quartz

Diaspore Quartzite

Dolomite Glass Sands

Graphite Shale

Wollastonite Magnesite

Feldspar Slate
Fireclay Steatite / Talc / Soapstone
Industrial Diamond Phosphate

Fig. 11.13: Hand specimens of few non-metallic minerals: a) Magnesite; b) Clay;

c) Barite; d) Quartz; e) Mica; and f) Gypsum.

111
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................
In the previous sections, we have studied about the nature and morphology of ore
deposits and metallic and non-metallic minerals. Before going to the next section spend
5 minutes to check how you are progressing.

SAQ 2
a) What do you understand by concordant and discordant ore bodies?

b) Define epigenetic and syngenetic deposits.

c) Mention about important types of host rocks for ore deposits associated with the
sedimentary rocks.
d) Give names of few metallic minerals.

11.7 STRATEGIC, CRITICAL AND ESSENTIAL

MINERALS
We have been introduced to metallic and non-metallic or industrial minerals. Now we
will read about the strategic, critical and essential minerals. They are the outcome of
emergency in relation to their supply position necessary during war. The war time is
witnessed by the shooting rates of minerals, metals and other materials used for
ammunitions and destructive operations on land, sea and air. The materials or minerals
required during war can be categorised into two groups

 War minerals

 War supporting minerals

War minerals include those which are absolutely essential for warfare, armaments,
communication and transport as they provide the fighting power at the war front. On the
other hand, war supporting minerals are those which supplement the war efforts. There
is hardly a mineral which can be differentiated between those required during war and
those required during peace. All the minerals and metals that are needed for the
production of arms and ammunitions and other equipments for fighting war are also
required various machineries, plants and vehicles for usage during peace time.
However the use of a particular mineral during war is quite different than in peace. The
lack of particular mineral does not significantly affect us during the times of peace. But
during war the lack of sufficient supply of certain minerals, even though required in a
small quantity, may prove a great hazard to the security of the country.

11.7.1 Definitions
We have read about the two categories, viz. war and war supporting minerals which
can further be classified depending upon total inadequacy, deficiency and sufficiency in
resource position as:

 Strategic minerals

 Critical minerals

 Essential minerals

112
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Strategic minerals are those for which a country has to depend upon outside sources
as less or negligible resources available within the country, e.g. molybdenum,
chromium, graphite, boron, rare earth elements gypsum, tungsten, gold, antimony and
platinum group materials.

Critical minerals are those for which a country is deficient in supply, but known
occurrences are such that irrespective of the cost they can be worked during war time.
The critical minerals including germanium, beryllium, rare earths (light and heavy),
rhenium, tantalum etc. are used in industries like automobiles, aerospace, cameras,
defence, laptops, smart phones, entertainment systems, medical imaging and nuclear
energy.

Essential minerals include all those for which known resources are quite large and
they are produced in sufficient quantities. It is evident that essential minerals are all
those which do not fall under the category of strategic and critical minerals.

The minerals, to be categorised under each, vary for different countries. The strength of
a nation depends upon how best it has developed capability of utilising its resources
and processing, metallurgical and fabrication industry.

11.7.2 Applications of Minerals in War

Let us list and discuss the minerals required during war.

 Iron ore and subsidiary minerals required for the production of steel are of vital
importance. Steel is the important industry as its production (takes place in millions
of tons) effects all the industries.

 Manganese ore is essential for the manufacture of steel which is used in the form of
ferromanganese.

 Tungsten is required for the manufacture of ammunitions, heavy guns and armour
plates.

 Molybdenum is a good substitute for tungsten and is most commonly used as

refractory metal as it has melting point of about 2623oC. It is one of the most
important alloying elements used in steel.

 Vanadium alloys beat the best titanium alloys and gives strength to stainless steel.

 Cobalt is one of the ferro alloy metal which improves the magnetic qualities in iron.
It is used in the electronic industry for producing permanent magnets.

 Antimony is used in the manufacture of antifriction metals and hardening of lead

required for making shrapnel (fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object thrown out
by an explosion).

 Cadmium is used in the processing of uranium and in the manufacture of special

steel. Magnesium is used for making light metal alloys for planes, automobiles and
trains.

 Zirconium alloyed with steel was used to manufacture a number of equipments

during the last world war.

113
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................
 Aluminum came into market in commercial quantity in 1939. Since then it has
caught up rapidly as light structural metal for military use. Its abundance has
replaced copper, lead, zinc, tin and also steel to great extent.

 Beryllium metal is used extensively as a moderator in atomic piles and nuclear

reactions. It has a property of slowing down neutrons without absorbing them.
Beryllium and copper alloys develop a high tensile strength and ability to withstand
repeated stress.

 Mica is very useful for its dielectric and insulating properties. It is used in the
manufacture of electronic equipment.

 Piezoelectric quartz crystals and mica have a great significance in radio,

telecommunication and electronic industry.

 Germanium metal has led to the invention of transistorised radio communication.

With the use of this metal, it has been possible to make smallest sets which can be
carried even in pockets for communicating between the army in front.

 Sulphur is used in the manufacture of so many products which help to mobilise

essentials of war.

 Phosphorous is used in manufacture of inflammable bombs, bullets, smoke

screens. Lithium and its compounds, after the Second World War, have become
important during war and peace times.

 Strontium compounds have many war time applications. Strontium oxalate finds use
in tracer bullets to control the burning rate of the trace composition.

 Uranium is known for its destructive power and also possess tremendous power for
peaceful purposes.
Now, it may be understood that all the minerals cannot be grouped into war group.
There are few number of minerals whose presence or absence may not effect the war
period. These are diaspore, pyrophyllite, garnet, ochre, chalk, wollastonite, precious
stones (excluding industrial diamond), etc. Some minerals belonging to the group of
aluminosilicate, e.g. kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite, may not attract much military
significance.

11.8 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about ore, its concept, morphology of ore deposits and
metallic and non-metallic minerals. Now let us summarise about what we have learnt in
this unit:

 Economic geology covers all aspects pertaining to description and understanding of

mineral resources.

 Ore is defined as a naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from which

metal(s) could be extracted with profit. Gangue minerals comprise all non-
economic, unwanted, worthless, metallic or non-metallic materials or minerals
associated with an ore. Host rock surrounds the ore and gangue and like gangue it
has no commercial value. Ore deposits or mineral deposits are natural
concentrations of useful minerals or rocks, which can be economically exploited.

114
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 Industrial minerals have been defined as any rock, mineral or other naturally
occurring substance of economic value, exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and
gemstones.
 Tenor is the actual metal content present in an ore. Ore grade is used in the
commercial classification of ores which takes into account the chemical and
physical properties of an ore.

 Clarke value refers to the average abundance of a particular element in the Earth’s
crust; Clarke values are synonymous with the crustal abundances. Clarke of
Concentration (KK) is the concentration of an element in a particular rock compared
with its average concentration in the Earth's crust, or of an element within a
particular mineral.
 Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process and at
the same time as the enclosing rock. Epigenetic deposit is the ore deposit which
has formed after the formation of the host rock in which they occur.
 Discordant ore body refers to ore body which cuts across the bedding plane or
banding. They can be regularly shaped ore bodies forming tabular and tubular ore
bodies. While irregularly shaped ore bodies grouped as disseminated deposits and
irregular replacement deposits.
 Concordant ore body refers to ore body which is parallel to the lithological bedding
plane or banding. The host rock can be sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic.
 The most common metals which are chemically active and commonly alloyed are
called as base metals. Minerals can also be classified depending upon total
inadequacy, deficiency and sufficiency in resource position as strategic minerals,
critical and essential minerals.

11.9 ACTIVITY
 List the minerals and metals used in manufacture of a bulb.
 Find out the metallic and non-metallic minerals mined in your state. You can take
help of the websites of Geological Survey of India, Indian Bureau of Mines and
Directorate of Geology and Mining of your state.

11.10 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is an ore? How would you explain ore or ore deposit with the help of Clarke
and Clarke of concentration values?
2. How and when the terms essential strategic and critical minerals have evolved?
What are the strategic minerals for India?
3. What are the important morphological features of sulphide ore bodies?
4. Give a list of common metals and their ores.

Audio/video material based questions

 Discuss briefly the historical classification of ore deposits.
 List the agencies responsible for formation of ore deposits.
 What are the sedimentary types of ore deposits?

115
Block 4 Economic Geology
..............................................................................................................................................................

11.11 REFERENCES
 Alexander, P.O. (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 656p.

 Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. John Wiley &
Sons, New York. 553p.

 Klein, C. K. (2008) Manual of Mineral Science. 23rd Edition. John Wiley, New York.
675p.

 Krishnaswamy, S. (1979) India’s Mineral Resources. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
PVT. LTD. New Delhi. 658p.

 Lindgren, W. (1933) Concentration and circulation of the elements. Econ. Geol.,

18, pp. 419-442.

 Mason, B. H. and Moore, C. B. (1982) Geochemistry. 4th Edition. Wiley. 344p.

 Noetstaller, R., (1988) Industrial minerals: A Technical Review. The World Bank.
Washington.

 Pohl, W.L. (2011) Economic Geology Principles and Practice. Wiley-Blackwell

John Wiley & Sons, LTD, Publication, 695p.
 Ridley, J. (2013) Ore Geology. Cambridge University Press. 397p.

 Robb, L., (2015) Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes. Wiley Publications. 389p.

 Shrivastava, J.P. (2009) Rock and Ore Forming Minerals (National Science Digital
Library, CSIR, New Delhi) http:hdl.handle.net/123456789/1086, CSIR, New Delhi,
254p.

 Sinha, R.K and Sharma, N.L. (1998) Mineral Economics. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. PVT. LTD. New Delhi. 410p.

11.12 FURTHER/ SUGGESTED READINGS

 Alexander, P.O. (2009) A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals Rocks and Ores. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. 655p.

 Evans, Anthony, M. (2015) Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals. 3rd Edition, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd., 345p.

 Jensen, M and Bateman, A.M. (1976) Economic Mineral Deposits. John Wiley &
Sons, New York. 553p.

 Sinha, R.K and Sharma, N.L. (1998) Mineral Economics. Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co. PVT. LTD. New Delhi. 410p.

 Shrivastava, J. P. (2009) Rock and Ore Forming Minerals (National Science Digital
Library, CSIR, New Delhi) http:hdl.handle.net/123456789/1086, CSIR, New Delhi,
254p.

116
Unit 11 Ore and Ore Deposits
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11.13 ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions

1. a) The minerals having appreciable concentration of metallic elements, viz. Fe

(iron), Mn (manganese), Cu (copper), Au (gold), Ag (silver) and Pb (lead) are
called as metallic ore minerals. The non-metallic minerals are considered as
industrial minerals rather than ores. Industrial minerals have been defined as
any rock, mineral or other naturally occurring substance of economic value,
exclusive of metallic ores, mineral fuels and gemstones.

b) Economic Geology is a sub discipline of the geology which devotes itself to the
scientific study of the Earth’s sources of mineral raw materials (used for
economic and/or industrial purpose) and to the practical application of the
acquired knowledge. It leads in the search of new mineral deposits and in their
detailed investigations.

c) Ore is defined as a naturally occurring mineral or aggregate of minerals from

which metal/metals could be extracted with profit. It usually occurs with useless
gangue mineral or mineral aggregates, substance or unwanted substance.
While the gangue minerals comprise all of non-economic, unwanted, worthless,
metallic or non-metallic materials or minerals associated with an ore.

d) Endogenous processes include magmatic concentration, sublimation, contact

metasomatism and contact metamorphism and pegmatite / pneumatolytic
processes.

e) Exogenous processes include oxidation and supergene enrichment deposits,

evaporation, residual and mechanical concentration and metamorphism

2. a) Concordant ore body is parallel to the lithological bedding plane or banding

whereas discordant ore body can defined as the ore body which cross cuts the
lithological bedding plane.

b) Syngenetic deposit is the ore deposit which has formed by the same process
and at the same time as the enclosing rock in which it occurs. Epigenetic
deposit is the ore deposit which has formed after the formation of host rock in
which they occur.

c) Limestone, argillaceous, arenaceous, rudaceous and chemical

sedimentary rocks

d) Fe (Iron), Mn (manganese), Cu (copper), Au (gold), Ag (silver), Pb (lead), Zn

(zinc), Ni (nickel), Co (cobalt), Sn (tin), W (wolframite), V (vanadium) are called
as metallic ore minerals.

Terminal Questions
1. Please refer to subsection 11.3.2.

2. Please refer to section 11.7.

117