CHAPTER 1

Physical Model:
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A physical model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. The geometry of the model
and the object it represents are often similar in the sense that one is a rescaling of the other.A
physical model of something large is usually smaller, and of something very small is larger.

A physical model of something can move like a vehicle or machine, or may be completely static,
or can have parts that can be moved manually, or be powered. A physical model may show inner
parts that are normally not visible. The purpose of a physical model on a smaller scale may be
for testing purposes, as hobby or toy. The purpose of a physical model on a larger scale may be
to see the structure of things that are normally too small to see properly or to see at all, for
example, a model of an insect or of a molecule.

Instrumented physical models are an effective way of investigating the design or process.
Physical models are often coupled with Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to optimize the
design of equipment and processes. This includes external flow such as around buildings,
vehicles, people, or hydraulic structures.  Instrumented physical models can also examine
internal flows, for the design of ductwork systems, pollution control equipment, food processing
machines, and mixing vessels. Wind Tunnel and Water Tunnel testing is often used for these
design efforts. Transparent flow models are used in this case to observe the detailed flow
phenomenon. These models are scaled in terms of both geometry and important forces, for
example, using Froude number or Reynolds number scaling (see Similitude).

Types of physical model:

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mathematical-models/
a. Static Physical Model: Static physical model is the physical model which describes
relationships that do not change with respect to time. Such models only depict the
object’s characteristics at any instance of time, considering that the object’s property will
not change over time.
Eg : An architectural model of a house, scale model of a ship and so on
b. Dynamic Physical Model: Dynamic physical model is the physical model which
describes the time varying relationships of the object properties. Such models describes
the characteristics of the object that changes over time. Eg: A model of wind tunnel, a
model of automobile suspension (spring, shock absorbers, etc) and so on.

Mathematical Modelling:
A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language.
Mathematical model is a set of equations that represents the system accurately, or at least fairly
well. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modeling.
Mathematical model may help to explain and understand a system and to make predictions about
behavior.
It can be classified in two types:
 a. Static Mathematical Model: Static mathematical model is the mathematical model that
represents the system in equilibrium state. Such models are time-invariant. It is generally
represented by the basic algebraic equations. Eg: volume and radius of a cube relation,
supply and demand relationship model of a market and so on.
b. Dynamic Mathematical Model: Dynamic mathematical model is the mathematical model
that accounts for the time dependent changes in the logical state of the system. Such
models are time-variant. It is generally represented by differential equations or difference
equations.
Eg: The equation of motion of planets around the sun in the solar system.

Steps for Mathematical modeling:

1. Identify the physical problem or situation.
Identify and make the list of variables in the problems, constants, constraints, etc.
2. Convert the physical situation into mathematical model by introducing parameters
(variables) and using various known physical laws and symbols. Or, translate the given
problem system into mathematical terms. Here, relation between different parameters i.e.
variables, constants, etc. are made.
Assumption: To make the complex real world problem into simple model.
3. Find the solution of the mathematical problem.
We can find the solution analytically using the formula for the given mathematical
problems.
Or, Numerically or numerical methods by iterations to find the approximate solutions.
4. Validate the equation by comparing the result obtained with observations or experiments.
5. If the result is in good agreement, then accept the model. Otherwise modify the
hypothesis /asssumptions according to the physical situation and go to step 2.

Advantages of mathematical model:

1. They are quick and easy to produce.
2. They can simplify a more complex situation.
3. They can help us improve our understanding of the real world as certain variables can
readily, or easily be changed.
4. They enable predictions to be made.
5. They can help provide control - as in aircraft scheduling.

Disadvantages of mathematical model:

1. The model is a simplification of the real problem and does not include all aspects of the
problem.
2. The model only works for restricted range of values.
 CHAPTER 2

Describe the methods of optimization in brief.

Methods of optimization:
1. Optimization by evolution.
2. Optimization by intuition.
3. Optimization by trial and error approach.
4. Optimization by numerical algorithm.
a. Optimization by Linear programming.
b. Optimization by Differential Calculus.
c. Search Methods
i. Deterministic Search
ii. Stochastic Search
iii. Simultaneous Search
iv. Sequential Search
d. Non-linear optimization method:
a. Unconstrained Multivariable Optimization
i. Newton’s Method:
ii. DFP (Davidon, Fletcher, and Powell) method:
b. Constrained Multivariable Optimization (More difficult than
unconstrained)
i. Sequential Linear Programming (SLP)
ii. Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP): This used qurdratic
programming (QP) in determining the step size and provide
balance between efficiency (minimal CPU time) and
robustness. The problem with the robustness in SLP is removed
here so we can say modified version of SLP. So, This is the
best overall choice for nonlinear for multivariable
optimization.
Search Methods:
When we find that there are many feasible solutions to a design problem, it is necessary to use
some method which search through the space to find the best one. Finding the globally optimal
solution i.e. the absolute best solution to a design problem can be difficult. There is always the
option of using brute calculation power to identify all design solutions and evaluate them (which
is the best solution). Unfortunately, there are thousands of ways to approach a problem (design
options reach into the thousands) and design performance evaluation (to know which approach is
giving as better answer) can become complicated (as results are available from various methods).
These factors makes the full-scale (complete i.e. including all elements or aspects) search of the
problem space impossible.
Also, there are design problems that do not have one best solution. Instead the given problem
(objective function) may have variables where each variable may have different set of values
rather than one which would produce same overall performance. In this case, we seek a set of
best solution. This set is called a Pareto set.
We can classify the search problem into different classes as under:
Deterministic search: Deterministic search is one in which there is little variation on the results
and all problem parameters are known.
Stochastic Search: In a stochastic search there is a degree of randomness in the optimization
process. Here, we can search through space for only one single variable, we can do the more
complicated and more realistic search which involves a search involving multiple variables.
Simultaneous Search: In this search, the conditions for every experiment are specified and all
the observations are completed before any judgment regarding the location of the optima is
made. (hawa type)
Sequential Search: The search in which future experiments are based on past outcomes.

NOTE: Many search problems involve constrained optimization, where certain combinations of
variables are forbidden. Linear programming and dynamic programming are techniques that
deal well with situations of this nature (constrained optimization).

What are the applications and limitations of optimization by differential calculus? (4)
Application of optimization by differential calculus:
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calculus-to-optimisation-problems-with-diagram/884
The process of optimisation often requires us to determine the maximum or minimum value of a
function.
Application of optimization by differential calculus can be used in following areas:
a. Use in profit maximization: Business manager facing problem related to
optimization i.e. how much units of products to produce so that it maximizes
firm’s profit. Also, how to use resources so that cost for producing the given level
of output is minimized. These problems of maximization and minimization can be
solved with the use of the concept of derivative or differential calculus. E.g. in
copy.
b. They are used in various management decision making.
Limitation of optimization by differential calculus.
a. Not applicable for non-differentiable or discontinuous functions.
b. It doesn’t say what happens if maximum and minimum occurs at end points.
 CHAPTER 3

Shot Blasting: (General Information so look only)

Shot blasting is a surface treatment process using high velocity steel abrasive. Shot blasting is
method through which it is possible to obtain excellent cleaning and surface preparation for
secondary finishing operations. In general shot blasting concentrates abrasive particles at high
speed (65-110 m/second) in a controlled manner at the material thereby removing surface
contaminates due to the abrasive impact.
Shot blasting is commonly used for:  The cleaning of iron, steel, non-cast parts, forgings, etc. 
Mechanical cleaning of sheets, rods, coils, wire, etc.  Shot peening to alter mechanical
properties (increasing resistance to fatigue for springs, gears, etc.)  Preparing surfaces to be
painted, coated, etc.

Core hole in casting: A core is a device used in casting and moulding processes to produce
internal cavities. So, it is a sand shape that is inserted into the mold to produce the internal
features of a casting such as holes or passages for water cooling.
Q. Write in short about the categories of manufacturing processes. (4)
Manufacturing:
Manufacturing is the art of transforming the raw material into finished product. Manufacturing
can be considered as processing where the available materials is converted into useful
components i.e. products. E.g. converting a mild steel sheet into a car body, converting a billet of
cast iron into a machine tool bed, or a steel bar into transmission shaft.
The manufacturing process can be broadly classified into the following categories:
1. Solidification (Casting) processes: In this process, molten such as cast iron, cooper,
aluminum, etc. or non-metals like plastic, glass are poured into the mould and solidified
into the desired shape. Parts made using casting are housing of gearbox, engine blocks,
carburetors, flywheel, machine tools beds, etc.
2. Deformation processes: In these processes, a metal either hot or cold is plastically
deformed into the desired shape. Examples are forging, rolling, extrusion, press working
and wire drawing. Parts made using deformation process are I-section beams, springs,
crankshaft, connecting rods, etc.
3. Material removal or cutting (machining) processes: Material is removed from a work
piece with a sharp tool by a variety of methods such as drilling, turning, milling, shaping,
grinding, shaving, lapping, etc. Parts made using machining includes transmission shafts,
keys, bolts and nuts.
4. Polymer processing: Polymer processing is commonly defined as the “activity performed
on polymeric materials to increase their usefulness”. The special properties of polymers
have brought about the development of processes such as injection molding and
thermoforming.
 5. Particulate processing (Powder metallurgy): Powder metallurgy is a metal-forming
process performed by heating compacted metal powders to just below their melting
points. Bearings and various gear parts are examples of powder metallurgy
6. Joining process: Welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, riveting, bolting and
adhesive bonding are processes adopted for joining parts.
7. Heat treatment and surface treatment: To improve the mechanical properties, to clean
surface, for surface hardening, thermal heat treatment processes is undertaken. They
include anneling, carburizing, nitriding, etc.
8. Surface treatment: To protect surface against oxidization, corrosion, environmental
effects material surfaces are sprayed or hot dipped, electroplated or painted.
9. Assembly processes: This is usually the final step in manufacturing. A number of parts
are brought together and combined into a subassembly or finished part.

A number of manufacturing process are available to make the component. In such case, the
optimum manufacturing method is to be selected and following factor should be considered in
selecting the efficient manufacturing methods:
1. Material from which components is to be made.
2. How much cost or money is to be spend in manufacturing a certain part
3. What type of geometric shape is needed in the components
4. Surface finish and tolerance required in the components
5. How much volume is to be produced, mass production or what

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. Casting is most
often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to
make by other methods.
Design Consideration of Casting:

1. Always keep the stressed areas of the part in compression. Cast iron has more
compressive strength than its tensile strength i.e. the casting products are good at
resisting compressive force but poor at resisting tensile force.
E.g. We have casting product as shown below and this part is placed in two different
ways. In first figure, it has to sustain tension so it’s more likely to fail because of it’s poor
tensile strength.
To avoid this, we should make arrangement in such a way that the direction of force will
remain the same but now product will be in compression like in figure b and it will be
safe.
2. Whenever there are external edges try to make them round so we have to create a mould
in such a way that corners will be having fillets or round.
Avoid using sharp corners and angles as they act as stress raisers and may cause cracking
and tearing during solidification. Therefore, section changes in castings should be
blended smoothly into each other.

Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations.

3. Abrupt changes in the cross-section result in high stress concentration. If the thickness is
to be varied at all, the change should be gradual as illustrated in figure below.
First one is the original component where cross section is changed very fast but in 2 nd
figure the sharp corners are replaced by fillet so it will be good one. In last figure, the
middle and last edge are joined and the abrupt change of cross section is completely
removed so it’s the best design. These are the change in section thickness.

4. Avoid concentration of metal at the junction as shown below.

The metal on the surface solidifies faster than the central portion i.e. junction part so
central portion still remains in the molten state. At the center, the shrinkage cavity or
empty space may appear in the center as shown below.
This can be avoided by providing cored holes and by also we can providing staggered
ribs by means of which we can avoid concentration of metal.
 5. Maintain uniform cross sections in casting to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
Hot spots are sections of casting which have cooled down more slowly than the
surrounding material due to higher volume than its surrounding. This causes abnormal
shrinkage in this region, which can lead to porosity and cracks.
In figure b, d, e the thickness at the junction is greater so there is the possibility of hot
spot formation so to remove this defect, the figure below the defect figure creates more
uniform thickness so better design.

6. Shot blast the parts wherever possible. Shot blast process improved the endurance limit of
the component particularly in case of thin sections.
7. Core holes orientation in wedge or ribs. In first figure, the hole is in the form of oval so
here hole is almost at a right angle to the direction of force applied so poor design. In last
figure, core hole which is in the oval shape is in the direction of the force applied so good
design.

Forging:
https://www.ques10.com/p/38330/manufacturing-considerations-of-forging-1/
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using
localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or
a die. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold
forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot working). For the
latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can range in weight from less than
a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons.
Forging is a deformation process in which a solid metal is forced under pressure to undergo
extensive plastic deformation into finished or near-to-finished shape. The forging produces a
fiber structure. The fiber lines of the forged parts can be arranged in required direction. Hence it
improves the strength and the toughness in the required direction.

Parting line: (Only for looking)

When the die halves join together and confine metal in their cavities, the joining line of the die
halves around the edge of the forging surface is called parting line of the forging.
[[When the die halves join together and confine metal in their cavities, the surface of die halves
at the place of joining (where two surface of die halves meets) meets and forms a line at the
joining called parting line.]]

Design Consideration of Forging:

1. Keep fiber lines parallel to tensile and compressive forces and perpendicular to
shear forces:
While designing a forging, advantage should be taken of the direction of fiber lines. The
profile is selected in such a way that fiber lines are parallel to tensile forces and
perpendicular to shear forces.
Grain structure in the forging is almost continuous lines that means tensile strength of
forged parts is larger than machined and cast and machined component have more tensile
strength than cast but less than forged component.
2. Keep the parting line in one plane:
The parting line should be in one plane as far as possible and it should divide to forging
into two equal parts. The parting line is the plane where two die halves meet. When the
parting line is not in one plane, the unbalanced forging forces tend to displace the two die
halves (sidewise I think).

3. Keep the vertical surfaces of forged parts tapered :

The vertical surfaces of a forged parts must be tapered to permit the removal of forging
from the die cavity (#removal is easy as during pulling out no contact of forged part shaft
with die cavity surface). The draft angle of 5to 7 is provided on the external surface and
7to 10 on the internal surfaces.

4. Provide adequate fillet and corner radii

5. Avoid thin sections:
The forged parts should not be thin. The thin sections require excessive forging forces,
and hence also reduce the die life. Removal of such parts from the die cavity is also
difficult. For steel forgings, the minimum permissible thickness is 3 mm3 mm.
6. The sufficient machining allowance or tolerances should be provided to the forged
components.
Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used to shape and finish
components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish obtained
through grinding can be up to ten times better than with either turning or milling. 
Reamer, rotary cutting tool of cylindrical or conical shape used for enlarging and finishing to
accurate dimensions holes that have been drilled, bored, or cored. A reamer cannot be used
to originate a hole.
Shoulder and Undercuts: A square corner is simply what is left when making a shoulder, and
no machining is needed. Undercuts are the reductions in diameter machined onto the center
portion of workpieces (Figure 7-55) to lighten the piece or to reduce an area of the part for
special reasons, such as holding an oil seal ring.

Design considerations for machining:

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documents/571728f58ae36cba6722587f_INFIEP_230/64/ET/230-64-ET-V1-S1__lec1.pdf
What things should be considered during machining of parts?
1. Avoid Machining: Machining operations increase cost of the component. Components
made by casting or forming (forging) methods are usually cheaper. Therefore, as far as
possible, the designer should avoid machined surfaces.
2. Specify flexible tolerances: The secondary operations like grinding or reaming are costly.
Closer the tolerance, higher the cost (if we want to approach very close to the fixed
specification i.e. less error then the higher will be the cost) so the designer should design
the parts to cope or manage for the wide range of tolerance (flexible tolerance) so that
any common fast tools can be used.
3. Avoid Sharp corners: Sharp corners result in stress concentration. Therefore, the designer
should avoid shapes that requires sharp corners.
4. Use Stock dimension: Use raw materials that are available in (#or near to) standard sizes.
OR, Design the sizes of machined parts, which are close to the standard available stock.
Using stock dimensions eliminates machining operations. E.g. if we have to built a
hexagonal nut then we can buy the hexagonal bar and make a hole and make the inner
thread. Here, we don’t have to make hexagonal surfaces as it’s already there so cost is
saved.
5. Parts should be rigid enough to withstand the forces of clamping and machining without
distortion. Workpiece on the left is very thin so can bend or deflect from the force of
cutting tool during machining so these must be avoided.

6. Work piece is to be designed in such a way that standard cutters can be used. If we design
the parts to use the standard cutters which are easily available in market then it becomes
cheap and easy.

7. Avoid undercuts to avoid separate operation of specially ground tools as shown in figure.
 8. Avoid hard materials: Hard materials are difficult to process and machine. They require
complex operations and also reduce the efficiency of the components. Always avoid use
of hard materials to get better product. Avoid machining of hardened or difficult-to-
machine materials unless until their functional properties are essential for the part to be
machined.
9. It is recommended to reduce the number and the size of the shoulders as these usually
require extra operational steps and additional material.
Q. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of two designs of shafts shown below.
Which one of them is correct in the context of machining surface A? Give logical reasons.
(4+2) Figure (2069 Chaitra)
Undercut: This is the example of undercut. The main concern with undercuts is how much they
reduce the thickness of the parent metal. This thickness reduction then leads to a loss of quality
and strength. To do undercut also requires additional steps which increase the cost of
manufacturing. Undercuts can significantly increase tool complexity to make the undercut and
cost.

Rapid change in cross section: Rapid decrease in the cross section leads to stress concentration
and can lead to failure at that undercut part. There is also sharp edges in the figure (b) of
questions, which is the source for stress concentration.
Welding:
Welding is the most important method of joining the parts into a complex assembly.
Design considerations for welding:
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1. Select the material with high weldability: In general, a low carbon steel is more easily
welded than a high carbon steel. High carbon content tends to harden the welded joint, as
a result of which the weld is susceptible to cracks.
2. Use minimum number of welds: Distortion is a serious problem in welded assemblies. It
creates difficulties in maintaining correct shape, dimension and tolerances of finished
assemblies. Since, distortion always occurs in welding due to uneven expansion and
contraction in the adjoining area, the design should involve a minimum number of welds.
3. Do not shape the parts based on casting or forging: In designing a welded assembly to
replace a casting, it is incorrect to duplicate its appearance or shape by providing
protrusions, brackets and housing. A correctly designed welded assembly are much
lighter, flexible and economical than corresponding casting or forging.
4. Select proper location for the weld: The welded joint should be located in an area where
stresses and deflection are not critical and where the welder and welding machine has
unobstructed access to that location so easy for pre-weld, post-weld and weld-inspection.
5. Select Correct Sequence of welding: The designer should consider the sequence in which
the parts should be welded for minimum distortion. This is a particularly important for a
complex job involving a number of welds. An incorrect sequence of welding causes
distortion.
6. Select the same thickness for the parts to be welded together.

Sheet metal forming: (For general information only)

https://www.custompartnet.com/wu/sheet-metal-forming
Sheet metal forming processes are those in which force is applied to a piece of sheet metal to
modify its geometry rather than remove any material. The applied force stresses the metal
beyond its yield strength, causing the material to plastically deform, but not to fail. By doing so,
the sheet can be bent or stretched into a variety of complex shapes. Sheet metal forming
processes include the following: 1. Bending 2. Roll forming 3. Spinning 4. Deep Drawing 5.
Stretch forming
1. Bending is a metal forming process in which a force is applied to a piece of sheet metal,
causing it to bend at an angle and form the desired shape.
2. Roll forming, is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is progressively shaped
through a series of bending operations. The process is performed on a roll forming line in
which the sheet metal stock is fed through a series of roll stations. Each station has a
roller, referred to as a roller die, positioned on both sides of the sheet. The shape and size
of the roller die may be unique to that station, or several identical roller dies may be used
in different positions. The roller dies may be above and below the sheet, along the sides,
at an angle, etc. As the sheet is forced through the roller dies in each roll station, it
plastically deforms and bends. Each roll station performs one stage in the complete
bending of the sheet to form the desired part. The roller dies are lubricated to reduce
friction between the die and the sheet, thus reducing the tool wear. 
3. Spin forming, is a metal forming process used to form cylindrical parts by rotating a
piece of sheet metal while forces are applied to one side. A sheet metal disc is rotated at
high speeds while rollers press the sheet against a tool, called a mandrel, to form the
shape of the desired part. Spun metal parts have a rotationally symmetric, hollow shape,
such as a cylinder, cone, or hemisphere. Examples include cookware, hubcaps, satellite
dishes, rocket nose cones, and musical instruments.
4. Deep drawing is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is stretched into the
desired part shape. A tool pushes downward on the sheet metal, forcing it into a die
cavity in the shape of the desired part. The tensile forces applied to the sheet cause it to
plastically deform into a cup-shaped part.

5. Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched
and bent simultaneously over a die in order to form large contoured parts.
Design consideration of Sheet Metal Forming:
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%20be%20at%20least,half%20of%20the%20material%20thickness.

1. Wall Thickness:

While designing any geometry, it is always a good idea to maintain uniform wall thickness
throughout the body. Parts with different thicknesses will have different bend parameters
which may result in the inaccuracy of the desired shape.

2. Bend Radii:

To avoid any fractures or distortions, it is necessary to keep inside bend radius at least equal
to sheets thickness. The bend radii should be maintained consistently throughout the part as
keeping the same bend radii across all bends makes the part cost effective. Whenever making
a bend, it is always preferred to make bends in a single plane as this will avoid any additional
reorientation while manufacturing that part.

3. Orientation of Holes & Slots:

Keep holes and slots diameter at least as large as sheet metal thickness. Holes diameter less
than the sheet metal thickness results in higher punch loading, longer burnish in the holes and
excessive burr. If the hole gets too close to an edge a bulge can appear near an edge. Spacing
between holes should be at least two times the sheet metal thickness.

4. Hems are folds at the end of a part to create a rounded edge and it is recommended to
have the minimum inside diameter is same as the material thickness and the hem return
length should be minimum four times the sheet thickness.
 Figure 4: Hemming
5. Bend Reliefs:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxrkClGJVH4&ab_channel=RAPID
If designer wanted to create 90 degrees bend of given configuration as shown below then
it won’t be possible as material at the 90 turn edges would have to be deformed. So, to
prevent from this bend reliefs are created.

Bending reliefs are important as they prevent from tearing and deformation during
bending, separate bent and non-bent material and help ensure forming accuracy. Bend
reliefs should be at least same as the thickness of sheet metal in terms of width and
should be equal to or greater than inside bend radius in terms of depth.

6. Corner Fillets:
Filleting or rounding the corners of sheet metal is done in order to provide a smooth finish.
Fillets remove sharp corners making them easier to handle and preventing cuts and scratches.
 CHAPTER 6

Belleville Spring
http://www.valleyspring.com/3-18.pdf
Disc springs are conical shaped washers, designed to be loaded in the axial direction “F” only.

Advantages:

The ability to change the

force/deflection characteristic, by way
of varying the cone height to thickness
ratio, is a particularly useful feature of
the disc spring.

Stacking:

If a bolted joint requires multiple

Belleville spring washers to be used at a
place then the washers can be assembled
in two possible ways:

1. Butting the concave surface of the

top washer to the convex surface
of the bottom washer which is called “Parallel” stacking.

2. Butting the convex surface of the top washer to the convex surface of the bottom washer
or vice versa which is called “Series” stacking.
IN SERIES –is a means of multiplying the deflection of a single disc spring, the force element
remains as that for a single spring. E.G. A disc spring that requires a force of 5000N to deflect
1mm, when assembled to form a column of 10 disc springs in series, will require a force of
5000N to deflect 10mm.
IN PARALLEL – The resultant force for such a column is the force element of a single disc
spring multiplied by the number of “nested” disc springs in the column, whilst the deflection
remains the same as for that applicable to a single disc spring. E.G. A disc spring that requires a
force of 5000N to deflect 1mm, when assembled of 3 disc springs in parallel, will require a force
of 15900N to deflect 1mm.
IN SERIES AND PARALLEL – The combination of both series and parallel stacking, see
stacking illustation 4 , is a means of multiplying both force and deflection.
Belleville Spring Washer 
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/machine-design/44937-what-is-a-belleville-spring-
washer/

Advantages:

 Belleville spring washer offers continuous clamping pressure to the bolted joint, as a
result the bolted joint does not become loose while operating in a vibration prone
environment. After the tightening is done, the spring action of the Belleville spring washer
protects the joint from loosening even in a rough environment.
 As compared to a helical spring washer, it takes less space for installation.
 Belleville spring washers can be assembled in parallel to increase the load-withstanding
capacity of the joint.
 Similarly, deflection of the joint can be increased by assembling multiple washer in
series.