Bearing Capacity Of

Shallow Foundation
Bearing Capacity Of Shallow Foundation

* A foundation is required for distributing

the loads of the superstructure on a large
area.
* The foundation should be designed
such that
a) The soil below does not fail in shear &
b) Settlement is within the safe limits.
Basic Definitions :

1) Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu) :

The ultimate bearing capacity is the
gross pressure at the base of the
foundation at which soil fails in shear.

2) Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu) :

It is the net increase in pressure at the
base of foundation that cause shear failure
of the soil.

Thus, qnu = qu – γDf (ovrbruden pressure)

3) Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns) :
It is the net soil pressure which can be
safely applied to the soil considering only shear
failure.
Thus, qns = qnu /FOS

FOS - Factor of safety usually taken as 2.00 -3.00

4) Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) :

It is the maximum pressure which the soil can
carry safely without shear failure.
qs = qnu / FOS + γ Df
5)Net Safe Settlement Pressure (qnp) :
It is the net pressure which the soil can
carry without exceeding allowable
settlement.

6)  Net Allowable Bearing Pressure (qna ):

It is the net bearing pressure which can be
used for design of foundation.
Thus,
qna = qns ; if qnp > qns
qna = qnp ; if qns > qnp

It is also known as Allowable Soil Pressure

(ASP).
Modes of shear Failure :
Vesic (1973) classified shear failure of
soil under a foundation base into three
categories depending on the type of
soil & location of foundation.

1) General Shear failure.

2) Local Shear failure.
3) Punching Shear failure
 General Shear failure –

Strip footing resting on surface Load –settlement curve

of dense sand or stiff clay
* The load - Settlement curve in case of footing resting on surface of dense sand
or stiff clays shows pronounced peak & failure occurs at very small stain.
* A loaded base on such soils sinks or tilts suddenly in to the ground showing a
surface heave of adjoining soil
* The shearing strength is fully mobilized all along the slip surface & hence
failure planes are well defined.
* The failure occurs at very small vertical strains accompanied by large lateral
strains.
* ID > 65 ,N>35, Φ > 360, e < 0.55
2) Local Shear failure -

Strip footing resting on surface Load –settlement curve

Of Medium sand or Medium clay
* When load is equal to a certain value qu(1),
* The foundation movement is accompanied by sudden jerks.
* The failure surface gradually extend out wards from the foundation.
* The failure starts at localized spot beneath the foundation & migrates out
ward part by part gradually leading to ultimate failure.
* The shear strength of soil is not fully mobilized along planes & hence
failure planes are not defined clearly.
* The failure occurs at large vertical strain & very small lateral strains.
* ID = 15 to 65 , N=10 to 30 , Φ <30, e>0.75
3) Punching Share failure -

* The loaded base sinks into soil like a punch.

* The failure surface do not extend up to the ground surface.
* No heave is observed.
* Large vertical strains are involved with practically no lateral
deformation.
* Failure planes are difficult to locate 222
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity Analysis –
Terzaghi (1943) analysed a shallow continuous footing by
making some assumptions –
* The failure zones do not extend above the
horizontal plane passing through base of footing
* The failure occurs when the down ward pressure
exerted by loads on the soil adjoining the inclined
surfaces on soil wedge is equal to upward
pressure.
* Downward forces are due to the load (=qu× B) &
the weight of soil wedge (1/4 γB2 tanØ)
* Upward forces are the vertical components of
resultant passive pressure (Pp) & the cohesion (c’)
acting along the inclined surfaces.
For equilibrium:

ΣFv = 0
1 γ B2tan ø + quxB = 2Pp +2C’× Li sinø’
4

where Li = length of inclined surface CB

( = B/2 /cosø’)

Therefore,
qu× B = 2Pp + BC’ tanø’ - ¼ γ B2tanø’ –------ (1)
The resultant passive pressure (Pp) on the surface
CB & CA constitutes three components ie. (Pp)r,
(Pp)c & (Pp) q,
Thus,
Pp = (Pp)r + (Pp)c + (Pp)q
qu× B= 2[ (Pp)r +(Pp)c +(Pp)q ]+ Bc’tanø’-¼ γ B2 tanø’

Substituting; 2 (Pp)r - ¼rB2tanø1 = B × ½ γ BNr

2 (Pp)q = B × γ D Nq
& 2 (Pp)c + Bc1 tanø1 = B × C1 Nc;
We get,
qu =C’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 γ B N γ

This is Terzaghi’s Bearing capacity equation for

determining ultimate bearing capacity of strip footing.
Where Nc, Nq & Nr are Terzaghi’s bearing capacity
factors & depends on angle of shearing resistance (ø)
ø General Shear Failure Local Shear Failure

Nc Nq Nr Nc’ Nq’ Nr’

0 5.7 1.0 0.0 5.7 1.0 0.0

15 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9

45 172.3 173.3 297.5 51.2 35.1 37.7

Important points :

* Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity equation is applicable

for general shear failure.
* Terzaghi has suggested following empirical reduction to
actual c & ø in case of local shear failure
Mobilised cohesion Cm = 2/3 C
Mobilised angle of øm = tan –1 (⅔tanø)

Thus, Nc’,Nq’ & Nr’ are B.C. factors for local shear failure

qu = CmNc’+ γ Df Nq’+ 0.5 γ B Nr’

* Ultimate Bearing Capacity for square & Circular footing -Based

on the experimental results, Terzaghi’s suggested following
equations for UBC –
Square footing qu = 1.2c’ Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.4 γ BNr
Circular footing qu = 1.2c1Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.3 γ BNr
Effect of water table on Bearing
Capacity :
* The equation for ultimate bearing
capacity by Terzaghi has been
developed based on assumption that
water table is located at a great depth .
* If the water table is located close to
foundation ; the equation needs
modification.
 i) When water table is located above the base of
footing -

* The effective surcharge is reduced as the

effective weight below water table is
equal to submerged unit weight.
q = Dw.r +x.γsub
put x = Df-Dw
q = γsub Df +( γ- γsub )Dw
Thus,

qu = c’Nc + [γsub Df +(γ - γsub )Dw] Nq + 0.5 γsub BNr

When, Dw =0

qu =c’Nc + γsub Nc + 0.5 γsub BNr

& when x = 0

qu = c’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 γsub BNr

ii) When water table is located at depth y below base : 

* Surcharge term is not affected.

* Unit weight in term is γ = γsub + y ( γ – γsub )
B
Thus,
qu = c’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5B γ Nr

When y = B ; W.T. at B below base of footing.

qu = c’Nc + γ Df Nq + 0.5 B γ Nr
Hence when ground water table is at b ≥ B, the equation is not
Hansen’s Bearing Capacity Equation :

Hansen’s Bearing capacity equation is :

qu = cNcScdcic + qNqSqdqiq + 0.5 γ BNrSrdr ir

where,
Nc,Nq, & Nr are Hansen’s B.C factors which are
some what smaller than Terzaghi’s B.C. factors.
Sc.Sq &Sr are shape factors which are
independent of angle of shearing resistance;
dc,dq, & dr are depth factors ;
Ic, iq & ir are iodination factors
The same form of equation has been
adopted by I.S. 6403 –1971 & may be used
for general form as

qnu = c Nc Sc dc ic + q(Nq-1)Sqdqiq + 0.5 γ BNrSrdr ir W’

Settlement of foundation :
a) Settlement under loads
Settlement of foundation can be classified as-
1. Elastic settlement (Si): Elastic or immediate
settlement takes place during or immediately after
the construction of the structure. It is also known as
the distortion settlement as it is due to distortions
within foundation soil.

2. Consolidation settlement (Sc): Consolidation

settlement occurs due to gradual expulsion of water
from the voids at the soil. It is determined using
Terzaghi's theory of consolidation.

3. Secondary consolidation settlement (Ss): The

settlement occurs after completion of the primary
consolidation. The secondary consolidation is non-
significant for inorganic soils.
Thus,
Total settlement (s) = Si+ Sc + Ss

b) Settlement due to other causes

1. Structural collapse of soil.
2. Underground erosion.
3. Lowering of water table. .
4. Thermal changes.
5. Subsidence etc.
 Elastic settlement of foundation :
a) On Cohesive soils
According to schleicher, the vertical settlement
under uniformly distributed flexible area is,

Si = q B 1- μ2/Es I
 
 
 
where
q -uniformly distributed load.
B - characteristic length of loaded area,
Es - modulus of elasticity of the soil.
μ - poisson's ratio.
I - influence factor which dependent upon
elastic properties of base & shape at base.
Alternatively, the value of [1- μ2/Es] I can be
determined from the plate load test.
b) On Cohesionless Soils
According to Stuartmann & Hartman immediate
settlement on Cohesionless soils is given by -

ZB
I2
S i = C1C2 ( q − q ) ∫ ∆∈
E
Z =0 S

Where, C1 -Correction factor for depth of foundation

embedment

C2 - correction factor for creep is soils.

q - pressure at the level of foundation
q -surcharge (γ Df)
Es- modulus of elasticity = 766 N (KN/m2) from SPT
= 2qc from SCPT
Settlement of foundation on Cohesionless Soils

Settlement of foundations on Cohesionless soils are

generally determined indirectly using the semi-empirical
methods.

1. Static Cone Penetration method

In this, the sand layer is divided into small layers such
that each small layer has approximately constant value
of the cone resistance. The average value of the cone
resistance of each small layer is determined.
The settlement of each layer is determined using the
following equation-

S = H/C Log (σ0+Δ σ) / σ0

Where, c = 1.5 qc/ σ0

in which qC - static cone resistance
σ0 - mean effective overburden pressure,
Δ
σ - Increase is pressure at center of layer
due to net foundation pressure.
H - thickness of layer.
The total settlement of the entire layer is
equal to the sum of settlements of individual layers.

2. Standard Penetration Test

IS 8009 (part I) 1976 gives a chart for the calculation of
settlement per unit pressure as a foundation of the width
of footing & the standard penetration number.

3. Plate Load Test

The settlement of the footing can be determined from the
settlement of the plate in the plate load test.
* The difference between the magnitudes of
settlements at any two points is known as
differential settlement.
* If there is large differential settlement
between various part of a structure, distortion
may occur due to additional moments
developed.
* The differential settlement may caused due
to tilting of a rigid base, dishing of flexible
base or due to non uniformity of loading.
* If S1 & S2 are the settlements at two
points,then differential settlement is
∆ = S1 -S2
Angular distortion = (S1- S2 ) / L =
* It is difficult to predict the differential
settlement.
* It is generally observed indirectly
from the maximum settlement.
* It is observed that the differential
settlement is less than 50% of the
maximum settlement is most of the
cases.
The differential settlement can be
reduced by providing rigid rafts,
founding the structures at great depth
& avoiding the eccentric loading.
Allowable Settlement
* The allowable maximum settlement
depends upon the type of soil, the type of
foundation & the structural framing system.

* The maximum settlement ranging from

20mm to 300mm is generally permitted for
various structures.

* IS 1904-1978 gives values of the maximum

& differential settlements of different type of
building.
 Sand & hard Plastic clay
Clay

Max.Settle. Diff.Settl Angular Max.Settle Diff. Angular

distortion Settle. distortion

Isolated
foundation
i) steel struct 50mm 0.0033L 1/300 50mm 0.0033L 1/300
ii) RCC struct 50mm 0.0015L 1/666 75mm 0.0015L 1/666
Raft foundation
i) steel struct
ii) Rcc struct. 75mm 0.0033L 1/300 100mm 0.0033L 1/300
75mm 0.002L 1/500 100mm 0.002L 1/500

Theoretically, no damage is done to the superstructure

if the soil settles uniformly.
However, settlements exceeding 150mm may cause
trouble to utilities such as water pipe lines, sewers,
telephone lines & also is access from streets.
Consolidation Settlement :
* Compressibility of soil is the property of the soil due to
which a decrease in volume occurs under compressive
forces.
* The compression of soils can occurs due to-
A) Compression of solid particles & water in the voids.
B) Compression & expulsion of air in the voids.
C) Expulsion of water in the voids.

* The compression of a saturated soil under a steady

pressure is known as consolidation. It is entirely due to
expulsion of water from the voids. Due to expulsion of
water, the solid particle shift from one position to the other
by rolling & sliding & thus attain a closer packing causing
reduction in volume.
 Consolidation of laterally confined soil:
When a pressure ∆ σ , is applied to a saturated soil
sample of unit cross- sectional area, the pressure is
shared by the solid particles & water as
∆ σ +u=∆ σ ,

Initially, just after the application of pressure, the

entire load is taken by water in form of excess
hydrostatic pressure ( u ), thus,
0+(u,)= ∆ σ ,
The excess hydrostatic pressure so developed sets
up a hydraulic gradient, & the water starts escaping
from the voids. As the water escapes, the applied
pressure is transferred from the water to the solids.
Thus at t = tf,
∆ σ +0=∆ σ ,
As the effective stress increases the volume of soil
decreases & consolidation completes under ∆ σ ,
load.
Laboratory Consolidation Test:

* The consolidation test is conducted in a laboratory study

the compressibility of soil.

* Consolidation test apparatus, known as consolidometer or

an odometer consists a loading device & a cylindrical
container called as consolidation cell. Consolidation cell are
of two types, i) free ring or floating ring cell &
ii) fixed ring cell

* The internal diameter of the cell is 60 mm & thickness of

sample taken is usually 20 mm.

* The consolidometer has arrangements for application of

the desired load increment,saturation of sample &
measurement of change in thickness of sample at every stage
of consolidation process
* An initial setting load of about 5 kN/ m 2 is applied to sample.

* The first increment of load to give a pressure of 10 KN/ m2 is then

applied to the specimen, the dial gauge readings are taken after 0.25,
1.0, 2,4,9,16,…… etc up to the 24 hours.

* The second increment of load is then applied. The successive

pressures usually applied are 20,40, 80, 160 & 320 KN/ m 2 etc till the
desired maximum load intensity is reached.
( Actual loading on soil after construction of structure)

* After consolidation under final load increment is complete, the load

is reduced to ¼th of final load & allowed to stand for 24 hours. The
sample swells & reading of dial gauge is taken when swelling is
complete. The process is repeated till complete unloading.
Immediately after complete unloading, the weight of ring & sample is
taken. The sample is dried in over for 24 hours & its dry mass Ms is
taken.
Consolidation test results

1) Dial gauge reading time plot :

• Plotted for each load increment
• Required for determining the coefficient of consolidation.
• Useful for obtaining the rate of consolidation in field.
2) Final void ratio – effective stress plot:
• Plotted for entire consolidation process under
desired load.
• Required for determination of the magnitude of
the
consolidation settlements in field.
3) final void ratio – log σ plot
4)Loading, unloading & reloading plot
Important Definations
1) Coefficient of compressibility ( av) is defined as
decrease in void ratio per unit increase in effective stress.
av = -de/dσ = -∆ e/ ∆ σ ( slope of e - σ curve units – m
2
/KN )
2) Coefficient of volume change ( mv) is defined as the
volumetric strain per unit increase in effective stress.
mv = - (∆ v / v o)/ ∆ σ in which,
vo – initial volume,
∆ v – change in volume
∆ σ - change in effective stress

a) mv = -(∆ e / 1+ eo)/ ∆ σ
b) for one dimension, ∆ v = ∆ H
mv = - (∆ H / Ho) / ∆ σ
also mv = av / (1+ eo )
in which, eo- initial void ratio.
∆ e - change in void ratio.
Ho initial thickness.
3) Compression index ( Cc) is equal to the slope
of the linear portion of the void ration versus log
σ plot.
Cc = - ∆ e/ log 10 (σ 0 + ∆ σ ) / σ 0
in which, σ 0 = initial effective stress.
∆ σ - change in effective stress.

Empirical relationship after Terzaghi & Peck;

a) for undisturbed soils Cc = 0.009 ( W L- 10 )
b) for remoulded soils Cc = 0.007 ( W L- 10 )
c) Also Cc = 0.54 ( eo – 0.35 )
Cc = 0.0054 ( 2.6 wo- 35 )
• Normally consolidated soil :- A normally
consolidated soil is one which had not been
subjected to a pressure greater than the
present existing pressure. The portion AB
of loading –unloading curve represent the
soil in normally consolidated condition.
• Over consolidated soil: - A soil is said to
over consolidated if it had been subjected in
the past to a pressure in excess of the
present pressure. The soil in the range CD
(loading –unloading curve) when it
recompressed represent overconsolidated
condition.
 • Normally consolidated soils &
Overconsolidated soils are not different types of
soils but these are conditions in which a soil
exists.
• Preconsolidation Pressure- The maximum
pressure to which an overconsolidated soil had
been subjected in the past is known as
preconsolidation pressure or overconsolidation
pressure ( σ c)
• When a soil specimen is taken from a natural
deposit, the weight of overlying material is
removed. This causes an expansion soil due to
reduction in pressure. Thus the specimen is
generally preconsolidated.
Final Settlement Of Soil Deposit In The Field
• For computation of final settlement, the coefficient of
volume change or compression index (Cc) is required. For
time rate of computation, the Terzaghi’s theory is used.
• Final settlement using coefficient of volume change :
Let Ho = initial thickness of clay deposit.Consider a small
element of thickness Δz at depth z.
∆ σ = effective pressure increment causing settlement.
Then ∆ H = mv Ho (∆ σ )
Representing the final settlement as ∆ sf & taking Ho = ∆ z
Thus, total settlement of the complete layer,
−
Ho
sf = ∫ 0 ∆SF = ∫ H Ho
mv ∆ ∂ ∆z
−
if both mv & ∆ ∂ are cons tan t ,
−
SF = mv ∆ ∂ Ho ........ ( 1)

alternatively
n -
Sf = ∑ ( mv ) i ( ∆ ∂ ) i ( ∆z ) i ........(2)
i =1
Final Settlement Using Void Ratio

The value of ∆ e corresponding to the

given load increment is read off from e – σ
plot & substituted in –

∆ H = Ho (∆ e / 1 + eo )

i.e Sf = Ho (∆ e / 1 + eo )……. (1)

where eo is the initial void ratio. The usual

practice is not to use ∆ e but to use the
coefficient of compression (Cc) or
coefficient of recompression index ( Cr)
a) Normally Consolidated Soils - The compression index of
a normally considered soil is constant.

Cc σ0+Δ σ
Sf = Ho Log
1+e0 10
σ0

b) Pre Consolidated Soils -

Cr σ0+Δ σ
Sf = Ho Log
1+e0 10
σ0

The above equation is applicable when (σ0+Δ σ) < σc.