Research Progress On The Characterization and Repair of Graphene Defects
Research Progress On The Characterization and Repair of Graphene Defects
Research Progress On The Characterization and Repair of Graphene Defects
Abstract: Graphene has excellent theoretical properties and a wide range of applications in metal-based composites. However, because of de-
fects on the graphene surface, the actual performance of the material is far below theoretical expectations. In addition, graphene containing de-
fects could easily react with a matrix alloy, such as Al, to generate brittle and hydrolyzed phases that could further reduce the performance of
the resulting composite. Therefore, defect repair is an important area of graphene research. The repair methods reported in the present paper in-
clude chemical vapor deposition, doping, liquid-phase repair, external energy graphitization, and alloying. Detailed analyses and comparisons
of these methods are carried out, and the characterization methods of graphene are introduced. The mechanism, research value, and future out-
look of graphene repair are also discussed at length. Graphene defect repair mainly relies on the spontaneous movement of C atoms or het-
eroatoms to the pore defects under the condition of applied energy. The repair degree and mechanism of graphene repair are also different ac-
cording to different preparations. The current research on graphene defect repair is still in its infancy, and it is believed that the problem of de-
fect evolution will be explained in more depth in the future.
Keywords: graphene; metal matrix composites; defect repair; characterization; repair mechanism
ID/IG
O
O 2
Reduction:
HI/TFA
1
60
20 μm 20
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic illustration of the reduction of graphene oxide by hydriodic acid (HI) and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), and
single vacancy defect healing during chemical vapor deposition (CVD) treatment. (b) Scanning electron micrograph of rGO flakes on
Si/SiO2. Raman maps of the same area (100 µm × 200 μm) showing the ID/IG ratio of rGO (c) before and (e) after CVD annealing.
Raman maps showing the full width at half-maximum (FWHM(2D)) of rGO (d) before and (f) after CVD annealing. Scale bars in
(c−f) are 20 μm. Arrows indicate the positions (1–3) of the single Raman spectra of monolayered rGO. Reprinted with permission
from S. Grimm, M. Schweiger, S. Eigler, and J. Zaumseil, J. Phys. Chem. C, 120, 3036-3041(2016) [18]. Copyright 2016 American
Chemical Society.
graphene, the thickness of the layer is close to the theoretical cannot improve the integrity of the graphene skeleton struc-
value of 0.34 nm. The thickness of single-layer graphene ture, and new defects may be introduced during the reduc-
could be used to judge the effect of functional group defect tion process. Therefore, further lattice defect repair is needed
repair. Rozada et al. [30] found that STM is appropriate for to obtain higher quality graphene.
analyzing the defect repair mechanism of graphene. Because Graphene lattice defects may be repaired in several ways.
STM is highly sensitive to electrons, some structural defects The major repair methods include chemical vapor deposition
not detected by AFM could be observed by atomic STM. (CVD), doping, liquid-phase repair, external energy graphit-
TEM is also a useful tool to determine the structure of ization (such as high-temperature, microwave, and irradi-
graphene [31]. Direct analysis of the number of graphene ation treatment), and alloying repair.
layers in composites through STM and AFM is difficult to
3.1. Chemical vapor deposition
achieve because the material of interest is dispersed in a mat-
rix. TEM allows the direct observation of the structure of The CVD process mainly repairs holes through the de-
graphene in this case [29]. STM is more advantageous in composition of molecules in the gas or carbon source by
analyzing the types of graphene defects. Rozada et al. [30] plasma at high temperature. Because carbon atoms at the de-
observed and analyzed hole defects on the surface of fect have higher activity than carbon atoms in other regions
graphene by STM in Fig. 3. of graphene, the repair and growth of graphene holes and
edges preferentially occurs [35]. The reaction temperature of
3. Research progress on graphene defect CVD ranges from 500 to 1000°C, and the gas sources used
control mainly include methane [36‒37], hydrogen [18], ethylene
[38], ethanol [39], and their plasma.
The repair of functional group defects, especially oxygen- Zhu et al. [36] used H2 to assist CH4 in graphene repair
containing functional group defects, has been extensively and found that the latter could decompose at high temperat-
studied. Several reducing agents, such as hydrazine hydrate ures to generate CHx (x = 1, 2, 3) plasma, which has high re-
[32], alcohols [33], and sodium borohydride [34], are used pair activity. Zhu et al. [36] used H2 to corrode the edges of
for thermal reduction. This reduction method has been graphene, promote the growth of new graphene, and inhibit
widely used in the large-scale preparation of reduced the formation of sp3 C; the scholar observed excellent defect
graphene and could achieve the stable dispersion and surface repair effects. Introduction of H2 could effectively reduce the
modification of graphene sheets while eliminating oxygen- temperature of the CVD process, reduce instrument require-
containing functional groups. However, the reducing agent ments, and save experimental costs. Zhou et al. [40] ex-
1182 Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. , Vol. 27 , No. 9 , Sep. 2020
C-sp2-G
C-sp2-G SiC 3 284.63 eV
Intersity / a.u.
Intersity / a.u.
2 284.66 eV 283.71 eV
SiC
283.71 eV
2 C-sp3
285.1 eV
1
S2-sp2
285.5 eV S1-sp3 1 S2-sp2
285.5 eV S1-sp3
285.04 eV CF3 C-OR 285.0 eV
292.84 eV 286.58 eV
0 0
292 290 288 286 284 282 292 290 288 286 284 282
Binding energy / eV Binding energy / eV
1
0
C=O–N–O=C
0
696 694 692 690 688 686 684 404 402 400 398 396
Binding energy / eV Binding energy / eV
Atomic concentration of C-sp3 / %
Atomic concentration of F 1s / %
(e) Before After 1.0
deposition deposition 7 (g)
Monolayer graphene
Binding energy / eV
Binding energy / eV
0 0
C-sp3 0.8
6 F 1s
5 0.6
−1 −1
4
0.4
3
−2 −2 0.2
−0.4 0 0.4 −0.4 0 0.4 20 40 60 80
k// / Å−1 k// / Å−1 Dipping duration / h
deposition
Binding energy / eV
0 0 1.0
Bilayer graphene
VFa/VFb
0.9
−1 −1
0.8
−2 −2
−0.4 0 0.4 −0.4 0 0.4 0 20 40 60 80
k// / Å−1 Dipping duration / h
k// / Å−1
Fig. 2. Global measurements (XPS and angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES)) of graphene before and after reaction
with fluorinated maleimide (FMAL) molecules (dipping duration, 80 h). (a, b) Deconvoluted C 1s spectra (a) before and (b) after dip-
ping. The successful reaction of FMAL molecules is represented by a change in the sp2 component, which is associated with graphene
and sp3 (dotted lines). (c) F 1s spectra corresponding to the CF3 groups of the FMAL molecule, and (d) N 1s components correspond-
ing to the C=O–N–O=C group, which ensures that the molecule is intact. (g) Evolution of the sp3 component of the C 1s and F 1s
spectra as a function of dipping time. (e, f) Band structures of monolayer and bilayer graphene measured by ARPES (e) before and
(f) after the Diels−Alder (D–A) reaction. The constant momentum dispersion curve shows a dip in intensity as a tendency for open-
ing of a gap. (h) Evolution of the Fermi velocity of monolayer (ML) graphene as a function of the immersion time. Reprinted with
permission from L. Daukiya, C. Mattioli, D. Aubel, S. Hajjar-Garreau, F. Vonau, E. Denys, G. Reiter, J. Fransson, E. Perrin, M.L.
Bocquet, C. Bena, A. Gourdon, and L. de Laborderie Simon, ACS Nano, 11, 627-634(2017) [24]. Copyright 2017 American Chemical
Society.
B.Y. Ju et al., Research progress on the characterization and repair of graphene defects 1183
0.3 nm
100 nm 20 nm
25 nm
3 nm 300 nm 200 nm 25 nm
Fig. 3. (a) Nanometer-scale STM image of a highly reduced graphene oxide sheet folding over itself and supported on a pristine
highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) surface after annealing at 1923 K. (b) Schematic of the possible configurations of a pit in
the region of overlap of highly reduced graphene oxide sheets. (c) Nanometer- and (d) atomic-scale STM images of the region of over-
lap shown in (a). Nanometer-scale images of highly reduced graphene oxide sheets deposited on top of an HOPG substrate previ-
ously exposed to dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)-generated plasma (e) before and (f) after annealing at 2073 K. The insets in (e)
and (f) show detailed images of the HOPG substrate modified with the DBD-generated plasma before and after annealing at 2073 K,
respectively. Imaging conditions: (a) 0.2 nA (tunneling current) and 800 mV (bias voltage), (c) 0.3 nA and 500 mV, (d) 1.5 nA and 5
mV, and (e, f) 1 nA and 100 mV. Reproduced from Ref. [30] with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry.
plored whether CF4 could be connected with graphene-de- could be filled by CVD. The ID/IG ratio determined by Ra-
fective C atoms to form highly dispersive fluorinated GO man spectroscopy was also greatly improved. It was due to
(FGO) with a tunable atomic ratio of F/O (RF/O); the group the large mismatch between the lattice parameters of the
discovered that RF/O could be readily manipulated by simply newly grown CVD graphene and that of the original lattice
adjusting the reaction time. structure. Lattice mismatches could cause defects leading to
López et al. [38] used conductivity and Raman experi- an increase of D peaks. Kim et al. [41] used CVD to grow
ments to characterize graphene defects and observed that the graphene balls on a Ni surface and then applied graphene
conductivity of graphene repaired by CVD is remarkably im- hollow spheres after Ni removal to repair defects, as shown in
proved compared with the original material. This result con- Fig. 4. The resulting material had an electrical conductivity of
firms that the defects in graphene are carbon vacancies that 18620 S/m and specific surface area of 527 m2/g.
Graphene Graphene
ball ball
Fig. 4. (a–c) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of repaired graphene oxide sheets/multi-layered graphene balls 3D hybrids
(RGGB) [41].
3.2. Doping and liquid-phase repair Cao et al. [42] intercalated ethanol molecules between
During liquid-phase and doping repair, atoms are diffused graphene layers and performed heat treatment in a mi-
into graphene defects in the liquid phase to achieve carbon crowave environment. The authors found that the graphene
atom-filled or heteroatom-doped graphene structures. layers separate during the decomposition of ethanol. The car-
1184 Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. , Vol. 27 , No. 9 , Sep. 2020
bon atoms in ethanol were calibrated by means of isotope tra- istry and found that samples repaired at high temperature
cing. After treatment, the content of 13C atoms in the show high cyclic stability and low alternating current imped-
graphene structure remarkably increased, thereby proving ance. Raman spectroscopy and XPS further demonstrated the
that carbon atoms in ethanol enter the graphene lattice to re- disappearance of graphene defects (Fig. 5).
pair its defects. The study also found that methanol does not Rozada et al. [47] used two-step heat treatment to per-
repair the graphene via the same process. Under the experi- form graphene repair and conducted a detailed study on the
mental conditions, methanol could not be broken down sim- thermal defect repair mechanism of graphene. Increasing the
ilarly to ethanol to repair graphene defects. This work con- heat treatment temperature remarkably decreased ID/IG and
firmed that the repair of graphene defects occurs on an atom- greatly increased Lc, which is the crystal size calculated by
ic, rather than molecular, basis. XRD, and La, which is the crystal size calculated by Raman
Tung et al. [43] used poly(1-vinyl-3-ethylimidazolium spectroscopy. The performance of the graphene treated at the
bromide) as a raw material to prepare an N-doped graphene highest temperature (HG1500-2700) was close to that of
structure. Subsequent TEM observation revealed that the re- highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, and nearly all defects were
paired graphene has a large area and complete lattice struc- repaired. Obvious stacking structures were found under high-
ture. XPS confirmed N doping into the graphene lattice struc- resolution STM characterization, and a 3° difference between
ture. Omidvar et al. [44] prepared GO/Pd, characterized the the angle of the stacked graphene and the original region was
repair status of oxygen-containing functional groups by IR, observed. These results suggest that graphitization of the
and found that Pd doping redshifts the original functional graphene structure occurs via continuous and layer-by-layer
groups. This result reflects an interaction between Pd atoms crystallization.
and graphene. A photoluminescence spectrum test revealed Sun et al. [48] carried out research on Ni etching-assisted
that the luminous intensity of GO/Pd is significantly higher graphene thermal repair and found that Ni atoms are ad-
than that of GO, which demonstrates an increase in the sp2 sorbed around the saturated hydrocarbon structure and des-
structure of the graphene and indirectly proves that Pd re- troy the C–H bond to act as a catalyst and promote growth of
paired the defects of the material. graphene.
The liquid-phase and doping repair processes have the ad- Besides traditional heating, irradiation and microwave
vantages of simple equipment, high yield, and low cost. Be- heating could also be used to provide energy for graphene re-
cause the process conditions of these methods are similar to pair. Chen et al. [49] found that the interlayer spacing of GO
those of the thermal repair process, they are often performed decreases while that of amorphous C–C increased after elec-
together in functional group repair. These methods are widely tron-beam irradiation. Shi et al. [50], Xu et al. [51], and
used in the large-scale reduction of graphene oxide. Zhang et al. [52] reported that γ-rays could etch the edge de-
However, these two repair methods can only partially fill fects of graphene and promote the combination of graphene
holes; they cannot achieve atomic diffusion and rearrange- with metals or polymers to control edge defects. Restoration
ment in the defect area. Therefore, the theoretical strength of of the sp2 structure could also be achieved by γ-rays. Shi et al.
graphene repaired by these methods may be insufficient for [53] prepared a graphene-reinforced PVA material and char-
some applications. acterized its properties. As the radiation intensity increased
from 0 to 100 kGy, the tensile properties of the material
3.3. External energy graphitization
gradually improved; 2D peaks were also observed in
The high-temperature repair of graphene is a stable and re- graphene. This finding indicated the repair of the lattice
liable method for repairing lattice defects. The graphene structure of graphene. Xu et al. [54] found that irradiation
structure could be graphitized through the self-diffusion of could cause graphene ID/IG values to increase, which could be
carbon atoms in a high-temperature (>2000°C) environment, beneficial to the large-scale functionalization of graphene.
and defects, such as holes, in the material could be repaired. However, inappropriate irradiation conditions could also
Xin et al. [45] prepared graphene sheet fibers under high- cause graphene defects to increase [55]. Voiry et al. [56] used
temperature conditions. Performance testing of the obtained microwave heating to repair the defects of graphene oxide
graphene revealed an increase in thermal conductivity from (Mw-rGO). The repair effect of Mw-rGO was significantly
400 to 1300 W/(m·K) after heating and an increase in elec- higher than that of ordinary chemically reduced graphene and
trical conductivity from 0.8 × 10–5 to 2.2 × 10–5 S/m. slightly lower than that of CVD-grown graphene and highly
Moreover, the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of the oriented pyrolytic graphite. These results showed that the mi-
sample were greatly improved. The D peak of the samples crowave repair method has excellent repair effects. The ori-
treated at 2850°C could not be observed by Raman charac- ginal graphene structure was irregular, and oxygen-contain-
terization, which proved that the graphene defects were ba- ing functional groups and holes could be found on the
sically eliminated at high temperatures. Ruan et al. [46] car- graphene surface; these characteristics affected the compre-
ried out graphene thermal repair research using electrochem- hensive performance of graphene. The repaired graphene had
B.Y. Ju et al., Research progress on the characterization and repair of graphene defects 1185
Intensity / a.u.
D G
5 μm
Intensity / a.u.
O 1s
a very ordered lattice structure, and functional group defects Al4C3 was greatly reduced and the tensile strength of the
and lattice defects were minimized. This excellent repair ef- composite material was improved. Guan et al. [58] studied
fect was attributed to the rapid heating of GO, which decom- Ni@graphene reinforced Al and found remarkable improve-
poses functional groups and rearranges planar atoms, during ments in the mechanical properties of the composite material.
the microwave process. Growing graphene on a metal matrix by CVD could also
High-temperature graphitization repair is one of the most form the metal@graphene structure. Liu et al. [59] and Wang
effective methods for minimizing graphene skeleton defects et al. [60] respectively prepared Ni@GNS/Al and Cu@GNS/
and is suitable for repairing most carbon material structures. Al via CVD. TEM clearly showed that Ni and Cu combine
However, high temperatures also mean high instrument re- well with graphene. The mechanical properties of the CVD-
quirements, which limits the large-scale application. grown graphene composites were much higher than those of
the graphene-added composites. Because the CVD-grown
3.4. Alloying repair
graphene was covered by Ni and Cu elements, its lattice
Alloying repair is a special repair method applied to com- structure had high integrity. Complete graphene has a
posite materials. The interface of composites is one of the key stronger load transfer effect and higher enhancement effi-
factors determining their strength, and matrix alloying can ciency than defective graphene.
achieve the segregation of elements at the interface. In this Fundamental differences may be observed between alloy-
repair method, segregated elements are spontaneously ad- ing repair and three other repair methods. Other repair meth-
sorbed on the surface of graphene to fill graphene defects and ods mainly introduce foreign atoms or promote internal re-
improve the interfacial bonding of graphene to the matrix. arrangement of graphene to reduce defects and improve its
Shao et al. [57] found that Mg is spontaneously enriched integrity. However, alloying repair does not substantially re-
at the interface of the graphene-reinforced 5083 Al matrix, as duce the number of graphene defects. Alloying repair is car-
shown in Fig. 6, to form the Mg@GNP structure. After ad- ried out by adsorption of alloying elements onto the graphene
sorption of Mg on the surface of graphene, the production of surface to fill defects and improve the integrity of the materi-
1186 Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. , Vol. 27 , No. 9 , Sep. 2020
(a) (b)
200 nm Al
(c) (d)
C Mg
Fig. 6. Elemental distribution in the GNP/5083Al composite. (a) High-angle annular dark field image of the GNPs/5083Al compos-
ite and the corresponding distributions of (b) Al, (c) C, and (d) Mg. For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of Ref. [57]. Reprinted from Composites Part A, 109, P.Z. Shao, W.S. Yang, Q. Zhang, Q.Y.
Meng, X. Tan, Z.Y. Xiu, J. Qiao, Z.H. Yu, and G.H. Wu, Microstructure and tensile properties of 5083 Al matrix composites rein-
forced with graphene oxide and graphene nanoplates prepared by pressure infiltration method, 151-162, Copyright 2018, with per-
mission from Elsevier.
al as a whole. Thus, the performance of defective graphene ment, and only small pieces of the original structure re-
repaired by alloying is close to that of complete graphene. mained on the substrate. A large number of functional groups
were present on the surface of unreduced graphene, and car-
4. Graphene repair mechanism bon atoms in the crystal lattice were eliminated during
thermal decomposition; this modification caused great dam-
Defects have been reported to result in different behaviors age to the graphene structure. Moreover, the edges of the
at different temperatures. According to Bagri et al. [61] and graphene sheet were smoother after heat treatment, which is
Sun et al. [62], oxygen functional groups begin to decom- the result of the high-temperature diffusion of carbon atoms.
pose at low-temperature conditions (approximately Two forms of hole defect movement occur during such diffu-
27–127°C), but some functional groups, such as carbonyl sion, i.e., hole defects either merge together to form larger
groups, could be converted into stable functional groups. defects or move toward the edge and disappear.
Stable functional groups begin to decompose above 1300 K. Cao et al. [42] studied the graphene repair mechanism
When the functional groups on the graphene surface are with a C source through 13C isotope tracer reaction. The re-
thermally decomposed, the C atoms leave the graphene lat- pair process for hole defects is shown in Fig. 8. GO was re-
tice in the form of CO and CO2, resulting in the generation of habilitated with ethanol and methanol under a microwave en-
vacancies. C atom vacancies destroy the integrity of the vironment. Ethanol and methanol were evaporated into a gas
graphene lattice, and generate graphene lattice defects. to reduce oxygen-containing functional groups on the sur-
The change process of graphene defects at high temperat- face and edges of GO. Ethanol was cracked into carbene rad-
ure is shown in Fig. 7. Rozada et al. [30] treated highly re- icals to heal the defects caused by radical–radical reaction
duced, moderately reduced, and unreduced graphene at high with active carbon atoms from carbene. However, because
temperature. The graphene structure of the non-reduced methanol could not be cracked into carbene radicals and in-
samples was greatly damaged after high-temperature treat- teract with the active carbon atoms at the edge of defect sites,
B.Y. Ju et al., Research progress on the characterization and repair of graphene defects 1187
1 nm
1 nm
1 nm
0.3 nm 0.3 nm
0.3 nm
0.3 nm
0.3 nm 0.3 nm
Fig. 7. Nanometer-scale AFM images of (a, d, g) unreduced, (b, e, h) mildly reduced, and (c, f, i) highly reduced graphene oxide
sheets deposited on top of an HOPG substrate (a–c) prior to thermal treatment and annealing at (d–f) 1773 K and (g–i) 2073 K. Re-
produced from Ref. [30] with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry.
some defects remained in the material. The results reveal that posites and other fields because they could damage underly-
active atoms are a key factor in repairing the graphene lattice ing structures. Although CVD repair and liquid phase repair
structure. require mild conditions, the process is complicated, and the
repair effect is less than ideal. Alloying repair can be easily
5. Conclusions and directly applied to composite material systems, but the
selection of elements has stringent requirements.
Given the rapid development of graphene-containing ma- (2) Characterization of graphene in composite materials is
terials, interest in the effect of graphene defects on composite difficult. Graphene added to composites cannot be character-
performance has steadily grown. The characterization and re- ized by AFM and STM. Although graphene could be re-
pair of defects has become a main focus of graphene re- moved by corrosion, the corrosion process could cause sec-
search. Several approaches to repair graphene have been im- ondary damage to the material. Raman and XPS signals may
plemented, and graphene characterization technology is more be affected by the shielding and reflection effects of the base
and more advanced. However, two major problems in alloy in the matrix. Therefore, accurately characterizing the
graphene research persist. existence of graphene in a matrix is an important research
(1) Knowledge of the optimal process conditions for direction.
graphene repair is limited. Graphitization repair often re- High-quality few-layer graphene is expensive and ob-
quires extremely high temperatures. However, high temper- tained in low yields. If low-quality graphene could be re-
atures exceeding 2000 K cannot be directly applied to com- paired so that its performance resembles that of high-quality
1188 Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater. , Vol. 27 , No. 9 , Sep. 2020
(a) (b)
1
H−13C CP Direct 13C pulse
107
13
C-GE
GE
(c)
GE
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic illustrating the graphene layer healed by C atoms. Original C atoms (blue), new 13C atoms (red), and single-
13 13
vacancy defects (green). (b) 1H−13C cross polarization (CP) and direct 13C pulse MAS spectra of 13C labelled graphene-ethanol (13C-
GE) and graphene-ethanol (GE). (c) Schematic illustrating the controllable defect evolution (CDE) process. Focus defect (orange
bond), carbon atoms for patching (shiny red ball), two kinds of mixed gases (green and violet), and healed graphitic structure (shiny
red bond). The expansion shows details of the healed focus defect [42]. Reproduced from Ref. [42] with permission from The Royal
Society of Chemistry.
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