LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Total phenolic content, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties of methanolic

extract of raw and traditionally processed Kenyan indigenous food ingredients
Catherine N. Kunyangaa,1, Jasper K. Imungia, 2, Michael W. Okotha, 3, Hans K. Biesalskib, 4,
Vellingiri Vadivelb, *
a
Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Nairobi, Kenya
b
Institute for Biological Chemistry and Nutrition, University of Hohenheim, 14 Emil-Wolff strasse, D-70593, Stuttgart, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Certain indigenous foods commonly consumed by Kenyan vulnerable groups (the malnourished; chil-
Received 28 June 2010 dren under 5 years of age; pregnant and lactating women; malnourished adults in cases of vitamin or
Received in revised form mineral deficiencies, TB, diabetes, cancer, AIDS; refugees; orphans the elderly and the disabled) are not
27 July 2011
yet evaluated for phenolic content and health relevant functionality. The present study was therefore
Accepted 25 August 2011
designed to analyze the phenolic content, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties of methanolic extract
of raw and traditionally processed food ingredients. The total phenolic contents of the cereals, legumes,
Keywords:
oil seeds and vegetables were ranged from 0.41 to 3.00 g/100 g DM. Amaranth grain (Amaranthus
Indigenous food ingredient
Methanolic extract
cruentus) and drumstick leaves (Moringa oleifera) exhibited significantly higher phenolic content than the
Total phenolic content other samples. The methanolic extract of the investigated samples showed promising levels of DPPH
Antioxidant activity radical scavenging activity (81e89%); ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP, 44e744 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g
Antidiabetic activity extract DM); a-amylase (10e45%) and a-glucosidase (13e80%) inhibition activities. The food ingredients
Vulnerable groups with high phenolic content exhibited relatively higher antioxidant and antidiabetic activities. The results
indicate that soaking þ cooking is the mild processing method to preserve the phenolic compounds and
their health relevant functionality in the presently investigated cereal, legume and oil grains, while
cooking is suitable treatment for vegetables.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction minerals, especially provitamin A, vitamin C and iron (FAO/WHO,

2004). Therefore, indigenous cereals (finger millet and amaranth
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in grain); legumes (pigeonpea and field bean); oil seeds (groundnut,
consumption of plant-based foods including traditional staple sunflower and pumpkin seed); vegetables (pumpkin, butternut and
foods which are widely perceived to possess health promoting sweetpotato) and leafy vegetables (drumstick, pumpkin and
benefits. These foods have a strong epidemiological link to reduce amaranth leaves) are playing a major role in attaining nutritional
the risk of cardiovascular diseases, neuro-degenerative diseases security of the low-income and vulnerable groups in Kenya
and certain types of cancer (Anwar, Latif, Ashraf, & Gilani, 2007). (Neumann et al., 2003).
Currently, there is a resurgence of consumption of indigenous Plant foods are rich in macro- and micro-nutrients as well as
vegetables to curb micronutrient deficiencies in Kenya. The bioactive compounds, and have been recognized as a major source
consumption of such vegetables improves the nutrient quality of of dietary antioxidants with potential therapeutic benefits (Prior &
cereal-based diets through provision of affordable vitamins and Cao, 2000). The non-nutritive health-promoting bioactive compo-
nents present in foodstuffs have the potential to exert beneficial
effects against certain chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 711 459 22948; fax: þ49 711 459 23822. cardiovascular diseases and cancer (Art & Hollman, 2005). At
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C.N. Kunyanga), imungijk@yahoo.
present, the natural bioactive compounds like phenolics, caroten-
com (J.K. Imungi), [email protected] (M.W. Okoth), [email protected]
(H.K. Biesalski), [email protected] (V. Vadivel).
oids, phytates, isothiocyanates, phytosterols, phytoesterogens,
1
Tel.: þ254 722873357. organosulphur etc have been reported to exhibit many health
2
Tel.: þ254 721468181. benefits including excellent antioxidant property (Halvorsen et al.,
3
Tel.: þ254 722870653. 2002). Among the various bioactive substances, phenolic
4
Tel.: þ49 711 459 24112.

0023-6438/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2011.08.006
270 C.N. Kunyanga et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276

compounds which are plant secondary metabolites and have been 2.2. Sample collection
proven to exhibit many health protective effects, have received
most attention (Vita, 2005). Phenolic compounds present in food The samples were collected on the basis of food consumption
ingredients such as cereals, legumes and vegetables are demon- pattern of vulnerable groups in Nairobi, Kenya. Samples included
strated to exhibit potential antioxidant (Prior & Cao, 2000), anti- cereals such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn. P-224) and
microbial (Tapiero, Tew, Ba, & Mathe, 2002), anticancer (Fresco, amaranth grain (Amaranthus cruentus L.); legumes such as
Borges, Diniz, & Marques, 2006), anti-obesity (Hsu, Huang, & Yen, pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Kat/Mbaazi 3) and field bean
2006), antidiabetic and anti-hypertensive (Randhir & Shetty, (Dolichos pupureum L. Kat/DL-3); oil seeds such as groundnut
2007) as well as anti-mutagenic properties (Islam, 2006). Epide- (Arachis hypogea L.), pumpkin seed (Cucurbita maxima Duch. L.) and
miological studies have also been suggested a positive role played sunflower seed (Helianthus annuus L. PAN 7369). The vegetables
by phenolics in the alleviation of oxidative stress and prevention of selected were pumpkin (C. maxima L.), butternut (Juglans cinerea
free-radical mediated diseases (Halvorsen et al., 2002). L.), sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lamk. SPK 004) and leafy
For the last two decades, supplementary feeding programmes vegetables such as drumstick leaves (Moringa oleifera L.), amaranth
have been conducted by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO’s) leaves (Amaranthus hybridus L.) and pumpkin leaves (C. maxima
like United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund Lam.). The food ingredients (1 kg each) were purchased from the
(UNICEF) and United States Agency for International Development local open-air market at Kangemi and Uchumi supermarket in
(USAID) to nourish the vulnerable groups in Kenya (Marchione, Nairobi, Kenya.
2002). To formulate the supplementary foods, different food
ingredients have been used on the basis of their nutritional profiles. 2.3. Processing of cereals, legumes and oil seeds
However, due to the increasing incidence of many oxidative-stress
related diseases, particularly Type II diabetes, it has been consid- The grains (cereals, legumes and oil seeds) were each randomly
ered essential to include the bioactive compounds such as pheno- divided into three batches of 100 g each. The first batch constituted
lics in the formulation of supplementary foods. Hence, the quest for the control sample and was stored as such without any treatment.
natural food products with substantial antioxidant and antidiabetic The second batch was washed with tap water and then soaked in
characteristics has been the main focus of recent research efforts 200 ml distilled water for 8 h in the dark at 25  1  C, then cooked
(Islam, 2006; Matsui et al., 2004). The outcome of such research on at 90e95  C for 120 min in fresh distilled water in the ratio of 1:4.
indigenous foods as in the present study could be vital to nutri- The third batch was roasted in an open-pan iron container to
tionists, food manufacturers as well as consumers in formulating a golden brown color for 30 min using traditional charcoal burner
supplementary foods for vulnerable groups. at 150  C with continuous stirring to avoid burning of the seed coat.
In Kenya, cereals and legumes are usually soaked þ cooked or After cooking and roasting, the samples were cooled to room
roasted, whereas the vegetables are cooked or blanched before use. temperature.
During such thermal processing operations, the phenolic content
and its functionality may be altered among different food ingredi- 2.4. Processing of vegetables
ents and even within the same food and can result in either
decrease (Randhir, Kwon, & Shetty, 2008) or increase of antioxidant The fresh vegetables were randomly divided into three batches
activity of plant foods (Granito, Paolini, & Pẻrez, 2008). Hence, of 100 g each and the first batch was used as control. The second
appropriate processing method should be established for each food batch was cut into small pieces or cubes of 1 mm3 each and
ingredient in order to increase the health promoting properties of immediately transferred to a vessel containing tap water in order to
phenolic compounds in Kenyan indigenous food ingredients. avoid oxidation. Then the samples were washed under running tap
Even though few studies have reported the nutritional value of water and cooked in 200 ml of distilled water at 90e95  C for 5 min.
various indigenous food ingredients consumed by vulnerable However, the sweetpotato, pumpkin and butternut were cooked for
groups in Kenya (Neumann et al., 2003), only limited information is 15 min instead of 5 min to soften them. The vegetables in the third
available regarding their phenolic content and health relevant batch were cut into pieces (4 mm cubes or strips) and immediately
properties. Hence, the purpose of the present study was to deter- transferred a vessel containing tap water to avoid oxidation and
mine the phenolic content, antioxidant and antidiabetic properties then blanched by immersing in boiling water for 5 min.
of methanolic extracts of certain selected raw and traditionally
processed Kenyan indigenous foods. This was done to identify the 2.5. Preparation of methanolic extract
elite food ingredient(s) with potential health benefits and also to
select an optimal processing method(s) in order to utilize them in All the raw and differentially processed samples were dried in
the formulation of supplementary foods for vulnerable groups hot-air oven at 50  C for 6 h and then powdered using a laboratory
living in Kenya. hammer mill (Type DFH48, No. 282521/UPM 6000, Glen Creston
Ltd, London, England) and sieved through 100 micron sieve before
2. Materials and methods analyses. The samples were defatted by adding petroleum ether in
1:10 ratio (w/v) and kept in an ultrasonic bath for 30 min. After
2.1. Chemicals centrifugation at 7558 g for 5 min, the supernatant was discarded
and the residue was air-dried. One gram of defatted flour was
(þ)-Catechin (Ref. No. 22-402-2), 2,20 -Diphenyl-1-picryl sequentially extracted with 10 ml of HClemethanol (1 ml/100 ml),
hydrazyl (DPPH, Ref. No. 217-591-8,), 2,4,6-Tris (2-pyridyl)-s- methanol-water (80 ml/100 ml) and methanol-water (50 ml/
triazine (TPTZ, Ref. No. 3682-35-7), 4-Nitrophenyl-a-D-glucopyr- 100 ml) in an ultrasonic bath (Bandelin Sonorex, RK e 514 H, Berlin,
anoside (PGPP, Ref. No. 3767-28-0), Butylated Hydroxytoluene Germany) for 30 min. After centrifugation at 7558 g for 5 min, all
(BHT, Ref. No. 204-881-4), Polyvinylpolypyrolidone (PVPP, Ref. No. the supernatants were pooled and made up to a known volume
25249-54-1), Starch (Ref. No. 232-679-6), a-Amylase (Ref. No. (50 ml). The extract was purified by treating with 1 g of PVPP at 0  C
9001-19-8) and a-Glucosidase (Ref. No. 9001-42-7) were obtained for 30 min and then the contents were passed through a Solid Phase
from Sigma Company, St Louis, MO, USA and all other chemicals Catridge (Strata-x-33 um polymeric sorbent, 8B-S100-FCH-S, Phe-
were purchased from Merck, Darmstadt, Germany. nomenex, Aschaffenburg, Germany) and eluted with 10 ml of
 C.N. Kunyanga et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276 271

methanol-water (50 ml/100 ml) and methanol. The solvents were for 5 min and cooled to room temperature. The reaction mixture
evaporated using rotary vacuum evaporator (Büchi Rotavapor, CH- was then diluted with the addition of 5.4 ml of distilled water and
9230, Büchi Labortechnik GmbH, Essen, Germany) at 40  C and the absorbance was measured at 540 nm. The readings were
dried in lyophilizer (Virtis Freezemobile 25 EL, New York, USA) for compared with the control, which contained buffer instead of
1 h and finally the residue was weighed and the total dry yield of sample extract. Based on the absorbance value, the per cent inhi-
extract was calculated. Then the extract was re-dissolved in water: bition activity was calculated.
methanol: formic acid (47.5:47.5:5, v/v/v) solution the ratio of 1 mg
of extract per milliliter of solvent and used for the analysis of 2.8.2. a-Glucosidase inhibition activity
antioxidant and antidiabetic properties. One hundred microliter of methanolic extract and 100 ml of
0.1 mol/L phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) containing a-glucosidase
2.6. Analysis of total phenolics solution (1 unit/ml) were taken in tubes and pre-incubated at 25  C
for 5 min. After the pre-incubation, 100 ml of 5 milli-mol/L p-
Total free phenolics were estimated using Folin-Ciocalteu nitrophenyl-a-D-glucopyranoside solution prepared in 0.1 mol/L
reagent (Singleton, Orthofer, & Lamuela-Raventos, 1999). The phosphate buffer (pH 6.9) was added to each tube and the reaction
absorbance was measured at 750 nm with UVeVis Spectrometer mixture was incubated at 25  C for 5 min. Then the aliquots were
(PerkineElmer, Lambda 35, Artisan Scientific Corporation, Cham- diluted 10-fold with distilled water and the absorbency was
paign, IL 61822, USA). Based on the standard curve prepared with recorded at 405 nm and compared to a control that had 100 ml of
(þ)-catechin hydrate (20e100 mg), the amount of total phenolics in buffer solution in place of the extract. The results were calculated
the extract was calculated and expressed in gram per 100 g sample and expressed as percentage of a-glucosidase inhibition.
on dry matter (DM) basis.
2.9. Statistical analysis
2.7. Antioxidant activity
All analyses were performed in triplicate (n ¼ 3) and the data
2.7.1. DPPH radical scavenging activity
was presented as mean  SD. The results obtained were analyzed
The DPPH radical scavenging activity of methanolic extract was
using two-way ANOVA to determine the significant differences
analyzed by following the method of Sánchez-Moreno, Larrauri,
between the experimental batches by taking the raw samples as
and Saura-Calixto (1998). The methanolic extract (0.1 ml) was
control. GraphPad PRISMÒ version IV software, San Diego, CA was
added to 3.9 ml (0.025 g/L) of DPPH solution. BHT solution (1 mg/
used for statistical analysis.
ml) was used as a positive control. The solutions were incubated at
room temperature (25  C) for 30 min and the decrease in absor-
bance was determined at 515 nm with a Spectrophotometer. From 3. Results and discussion
the absorbance value, the free-radical scavenging activity of
methanolic extract was calculated and expressed on percentage 3.1. Total phenolic content
basis.
The total phenolic content of methanolic extract of presently
2.7.2. FRAP assay studied grain samples is shown in Fig. 1. The cereals including finger
The ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) of methanolic millet and amaranth grains exhibited total phenolic content of 1.05
extract was estimated according to the procedure described by and 1.07 g/100 g DM, respectively and these values were found to
Pulido, Bravo, and Saura-Calixto (2000). FRAP reagent (900 ml), be comparable to those of buckwheat (0.91 g/100 g) and rice
prepared freshly and incubated at 37  C for 30 min, was mixed with (0.92 g/100 g) as reported by Gorinstein et al. (2007). The total
90 ml of distilled water and 30 ml of test sample or methanol (for the phenolic content of finger millet (1.05 g/100 g) observed in the
reagent blank) or BHT (1 mg/ml as positive control). Then reaction present study was higher than that of finger millet (E. coracana var.
mixture was incubated at 37  C for 30 min in a water bath. The FRAP GPU-26 and CO 13) and kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)
reagent contained 2.5 ml of 20 milli-mol/L TPTZ solution (2,4,6-Tris (0.053e0.10 g/100 g) as reported by Hedge and Chandra (2005) and
(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine) in 40 milli-mol/L HCl and 2.5 ml of 20 milli- Sripriya, Chandrasekharan, Murty, and Chandra (1996). Such higher
mol/L FeCl3$6H2O and 25 ml of 0.3 M acetate buffer (pH 3.6). At the levels of total phenolics noticed in finger millet of the present study
end of incubation, the absorbance readings were taken immedi- might be due to repeated extraction of the compound with acidi-
ately at 593 nm using the Spectrophotometer (PerkineElmer, fied methanol and also the varietal differences between the
Lambda 35, Artisan Scientific Corporation, Champaign, IL 61822, different finger millets used as well as different growing agro-
USA). Methanolic solutions of known Fe(II) concentrations ranging climatic locations.
from 100 to 2000 micro-mol/L FeSO4.7H2O were used for the The total phenolic contents of legume samples of the current
preparation of calibration curve. The antioxidant activity of study ranged from 0.68 to 1.00 g/100 g DM (Fig. 1) and were higher
methanolic extracts was expressed in mmolL
1 Fe(II) per gram than the values reported for some under-utilized legumes in Korea
extract DM. such as pigeonpea (0.024e0.058 g/100 g), groundnut (0.03e0.06 g/
100 g) and kidney bean (0.025e0.032 g/100 g) (Oboh, Ademiluyi, &
2.8. Antidiabetic effect Akindahunsi, 2009) but comparable to those reported for kidney
bean (0.7 g/100 g), pinto bean (0.75 g/100 g) and soybean (0.65 g/
2.8.1. a-Amylase inhibition activity 100 g) (Boateng, Verghese, Walker, & Ogutu, 2008). The total
One hundred microliter of buffer (0.02 mol/L sodium phosphate phenolic content of raw groundnut (0.85 g/100 g) of the present
buffer, pH 6.9) was added to 100 ml of methanolic extract, 100 ml of study was slightly higher than the values reported for the same
a-amylase enzyme (1 ml liberates 1.9 mg of maltose) and 100 ml of species (0.10e0.65 g/100 g) by Craft, Kosinska, Amarowicz, and
starch-water (1 g/100 ml). All the reagents were prepared with Pegg (2010) and Yang, Liu, and Halim (2009). The variation in the
phosphate buffer (pH 6.9). After the incubation at 25  C for 30 min, total phenolic content was attributed to many factors including
the reaction was stopped with 1.0 ml of dinitrosalicylic acid genotype, agronomic practices, maturity level at harvest, post-
reagent. The test tubes were then incubated in a boiling water bath harvest storage, climatic and geographical locations.
272 C.N. Kunyanga et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276

Fig. 1. Total free phenolic contents of raw and traditionally processed Kenyan indig-
Fig. 2. Total free phenolic contents of raw and traditionally processed Kenyan indig-
enous cereals, legumes and oil seeds. Footnote: Values are mean and SD of three
enous vegetables. Footnote: Values are mean and SD of three separate determinations
separate determinations (n ¼ 3). Symbols: Raw grains Soaked þ cooked
(n ¼ 3). Symbols: Raw vegetables Cooked vegetables Blanched
grain Roasted grains Location: Probably Fig. 1 should be placed under the
vegetables Location: Probably Fig. 2 should be placed under the heading “Total
heading “Total phenolic content” in “Results and Discussion” section (Page No. 10e11).
phenolic content” in “Results and Discussion” section (Page No. 10e11).

The common vegetables exhibited phenolic content of & Chandra, 2005; Nsimba, Kikuzaki, & Konishi, 2008; Sripriya et al.,
0.42e1.27 g/100 g DM (Fig. 2). The total phenolic content in the 1996). The percent DPPH radical scavenging ability of legumes of
presently analyzed vegetables was comparable to the ranges of the present study (86e87%) falls within the range reported for
most commonly consumed vegetables of the world including some under-utilized legumes such as pigeonpea, groundnut and
tomato (1.42e1.56 g/100 g), carrot (1.40e1.58 g/100 g), onion kidney bean (40e90%) growing in Korea (Oboh et al., 2009).
(1.22e1.48 g/100 g) and broccoli (1.61e2.36 g/100 g) reported by The DPPH radical scavenging capacity of methanolic extract
Cieslik, Gre˛da, and Adamus (2006). The phenolic content of from raw vegetables was found to falls between 75 and 89% with
sweetpotato of the present study falls within the range of values the highest values observed in sweetpotato (89%) and drumstick
(0.19e1.16 g/100 g) reported for different varieties of sweetpotato leaves (87%) (Table 2). Similar levels of DPPH radical scavenging
(Dakol, Emelda, Haponita, PSBSP and Violet) growing in The Phil- activity were reported for sweetpotato (87%) growing in the USA
ippines (Rumbaoa, Cornago, & Geronimo, 2009) but lower than the and Japan (Cevallos-Casals & Cisneros-Zevallos, 2003; Oki et al.,
values reported for ‘murasakimasari’ cultivar in Japan (3.12 g/100 g) 2002). The antioxidant activity of drumstick leaves of the present
(Ishiguro, Yahara, & Yoshimoto, 2007). The total phenolic content of study is falls within the previously reported range for drumstick
pumpkin (1.27 g/100 g) reported in this study was higher than the leaves collected from India and Pakistan (86e96%) (Iqbal &
values revealed for the same species (0.09e0.10 g/100 g) (Azizah, Bhanger, 2006; Verma et al., 2009). The antioxidant activity of
Wee, Azizah, & Azizah, 2009). pumpkin (81%) of the current study was comparable to the value
The total phenolic contents of the leafy vegetables were ranged (78.4%) reported for the same sample cultivated in Malaysia (Azizah
from 1.50 to 3.00 g/100 g DM (Fig. 2). Drumstick leaves and et al., 2009). Nonetheless, the antioxidant activity of the investi-
amaranth leaves contained significantly higher levels of total gated samples was lower than those observed in BHT (97%).
phenolics as compared to other vegetables. The leaves of other
species of amaranthus (Amaranthus paniculatus, A. blitum and 3.2.2. Ferric reducing/antioxidant power
A. viridis) also exhibited higher levels of total phenolics The FRAP value of the raw grains was ranged from 44 to
(6.94e10.7 g/100 g) according to a report by Amin, Norazaidah, and 445 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM with the highest reducing power
Hainida (2006). The total phenolic content of drumstick leaves of being observed in pigeonpea and sunflower seeds (445 and
the present investigation was comparable to that of previous 394 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM) (Table 1). The FRAP value of
reports on the same sample collected from India and Nicaragua legumes of the current study (304e445 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract
(2.94 and 4.25 g/100 g) (Iqbal & Bhanger, 2006; Siddhuraju & DM) was comparable to the levels reported for yellow pea
Becker, 2003). However, relatively high levels of phenolics have (54e159 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM), green pea (62e116 mmolL
1
also been reported for drumstick leaves grown in Niger and Paki- Fe[II]/g extract DM), black bean (113e1103 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract
stan (3.66e11.94 g/100 g) (Siddhuraju & Becker, 2003; Verma, DM), chickpea (73e113 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM), soy bean
Vijayakumar, Chandra, Mathela, & Rao, 2009). (127e993 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM) and red kidney bean
(285e922 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM) collected in USA (Xu &
Chang, 2007).
3.2. Antioxidant activity The FRAP value of raw vegetables was observed to vary from 104
to 744 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM with the highest level recorded
3.2.1. DPPH radical scavenging activity in pumpkin leaves and butternut (Table 2). These values fall within
The DPPH radical scavenging activity of methanolic extract of the range of values reported for carrots, courgettes and broccoli
grain samples is presented in Table 1. The DPPH free-radical scav- (50e10,200 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM) (Miglio, Chiavaro,
enging activity of raw cereals was ranged from 79 to 86%, which is Visconti, Fogliano, & Pellegrini, 2008). Certain vegetables such as
comparable to the values reported for finger millet, rice, wheat, potato, kale, cabbage, cucumber, brussel sprouts and spinach
sorghum and amaranth (70e94%) (Choi, Jeong, & Lee, 2007; Hedge showed FRAP values ranging from 0.24 to 2.65 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g
 C.N. Kunyanga et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276 273

Table 1
Antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of selected raw and traditionally processed indigenous cereals, legumes and oil seeds.

Food samples DPPH Radical scavenging activity (%) Ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) (mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM)

Raw grains Soaked þ Cooked grains Roasted grains Raw grains Soaked þ Cooked grains Roasted grains
Finger millet 81.67  2.36 86.67***  0.59 84.67*  0.59 190.63  24.23 215.41  23.64 459.64***  28.36
Amaranth grain 84.67  1.18 87.33*  1.77 81.00**  1.77 44.94  2.95 233.78***  70.32 417.56***  27.77
Pigeonpea seed 86.67  0.59 87.33  1.77 84.00*  0.59 445.18  92.78 308.39*  22.45 423.06  21.86
Field bean 86.00  1.18 88.33  1.18 84.00  1.18 393.51  44.91 278.21  43.14 265.43*  6.50
Groundnut 86.67  0.59 87.67  1.18 84.00*  1.18 304.14  93.96 317.17  1.77 309.38  67.37
Pumpkin seed 82.67  1.77 76.33***  1.77 83.67  0.59 148.05  10.63 514.91***  76.23 180.66  14.77
Sunflower seed 79.67  1.18 78.33  0.59 84.67***  1.18 394.42  33.68 356.11  28.36 672.89***  39.00
BHT 97  2.28 2370  73.37

Values are mean and SD of three separate determinations (n ¼ 3).

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 significantly different to mean level of the respective control (raw sample).

extract DM, which are superior than the presently studied vege- reported varying degree of hypoglycemic and anti-hyperglycemic
tables (Halvorsen et al., 2002). The FRAP results of the investigated activity of commonly consumed vegetables in India. The authors
samples were lower than those observed for BHT also suggested that pigeonpea, pumpkin and sweetpotato are
(1730e2320 mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g). having high antidiabetic potential.

3.3. Antidiabetic activity 3.3.2. a-Glucosidase inhibition activity

The effective management of diabetes mellitus, especially the
3.3.1. a-Amylase inhibition activity non-insulin-dependent Type II diabetes involves the prevention of
In recent years, natural sources of a-amylase inhibitor have excessive rise of the blood glucose level by inhibiting the starch
received a lot of interest due to search for alternative to synthetic digestive enzymes. a-Glucosidase, which is a membrane-bound
enzyme inhibitors such as acarbose, metformin and orlistat, which enzyme located in the epithelium of the small intestines, cata-
have been found to exhibit adverse effects, mild efficacy and can lyzes the cleavage of glucose from disaccharides for subsequent
cause gastrointestinal distress as a side effect (Randhir et al., 2008). absorption (Chethan et al., 2008). Earlier studies have reported that
Certain plant phenolics have the ability to partially inhibit the the retardation a-glucosidase enzyme by inhibitors would be one of
activity of a-amylase enzyme and hence demonstrated therapeutic the most effective ways to control Type II diabetes (Chethan et al.,
benefits such as hypoglycemic effect and are therefore useful in 2008; Islam, 2006).
dietary management of Type II diabetes (Chethan, Sreerama, & The a-glucosidase inhibition activity of methanolic extract of
Malleshi, 2008). Phenolics are able to bind with the reactive sites the grain samples was ranged from 14 to 63% with finger millet
of a-amylase and alter its catalytic effects. demonstrating the highest activity (Table 3). The legumes
The a-amylase inhibition activity of methanolic extract of the (pigeonpea, field bean and groundnut) exhibited lower levels of a-
presently studied grain samples was ranged between 21 and 45% glucosidase inhibition activity (30e32%) when compared to cereals,
with sunflower seeds exhibiting the highest level (Table 3). These but higher than those of oil seeds. Among the various grains, finger
values are comparable to the range of values reported for certain millet recorded the highest level of a-glucosidase inhibition
related foods such as wheat, buckwheat, oats, corn, mung beans, activity. Shobana, Sreerama, and Malleshi (2009) also reported
pumpkin and butternut (20e90%) (Kwon, Apostolidis, Kim, & strong inhibition of a-glucosidase by finger millet phenolics.
Shetty, 2007; Randhir et al., 2008). Such promising inhibitory Epidemiological studies have also reported low incidence of dia-
activity of the polyphenols on the a-amylase enzyme has been the betes in populations consuming millets in their regular diets
focus of attention in the management of Type II diabetes mellitus. (Shobana et al., 2009), which might be due to the potential a-
Similarly, Chethan et al. (2008) and Randhir et al. (2008) have also glucosidase inhibition activity of finger millet phenolics as revealed
reported the non-competitive inhibition of a-amylase by the by the present study. a-Glucosidase inhibition activities demon-
polyphenolics extracted from millets and mung bean, respectively. strated by the vegetables of the present investigation falls between
The a-amylase inhibition activity of the vegetables ranged from 13 and 81% with the drumstick leaves showing the highest level
11 to 41% with sweetpotato and pumpkin exhibiting the highest (Table 4). To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the a-
activity (Table 4). Kaushik, Satya, Khandelwal, and Naik (2010) glucosidase inhibition activity of these vegetables.

Table 2
Antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of selected raw and traditionally processed indigenous vegetables.

Food samples DPPH radical scavenging activity (%) Ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP)
(mmolL
1 Fe[II]/g extract DM)

Raw vegetables Cooked vegetables Blanched vegetables Raw vegetables Cooked vegetables Blanched vegetables
Pumpkin 81.00  0.59 83.00  0.59 78.00**  1.77 286.97  45.50 310.26  49.05 380.06*  43.07
Butternut 85.33  1.18 80.33***  1.18 81. 67***  1.18 475.25  88.65 239.05***  53.19 343.41***  33.04
Sweetpotato 89.00  0.59 84.67***  1.18 86.33**  0.59 249.75  43.00 327.01  28.36 336.75*  57.23
Drumstick leaves 87.00  1.18 89.00  1.77 87.67  0.59 186.11  14.77 72.92**  9.44 80.94**  4.72
Pumpkin leaves 75.00  1.77 83.67***  0.59 64.00***  1.77 744.44  59.10 265.06***  21.83 301.95***  20.65
Amaranth leaves 85.33  0.59 85.67  0.59 78.33***  0.18 103.80  11.23 181.59  5.31 292.02***  5.31
BHT 97  2.28 2370  73.37

Values are mean and SD of three separate determinations (n ¼ 3).

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 significantly different to mean level of the respective control (raw sample).
274 C.N. Kunyanga et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276

Table 3
Antidiabetic effect of methanolic extract of selected raw and traditionally processed indigenous cereals, legumes and oil seeds.

Food samples a-Amylase inhibition activity (%) a-Glucosidase inhibition activity (%)
Raw grains Soaked þ Cooked grains Roasted grains Raw grains Soaked þ Cooked grains Roasted grains
Finger millet 14.00  5.90 25.67  16.52 26.33  6.49 62.67  6.49 81.33  4.72 91.00**  2.95
Amaranth grain 35.33  2.95 28.67  21.83 21.00  0.59 40.33  8.85 34.67  11.21 14.00**  4.72
Pigeonpea seed 33.33  9.44 33.33  12.39 37.33  19.47 32.00  8.85 16.67  4.72 34.00  7.67
Field bean 22.67  2.95 38.33  12.39 15.67  9.44 31.33  8.26 18.00  7.67 37.00  12.98
Groundnut 24.33  2.95 43.33  5.90 17.33  0.59 30.00  4.72 44.33  7.67 39.67  2.95
Pumpkin seed 31.67  9.44 48.00  4.72 44.33  7.08 14.00  5.90 27.67  0.59 27.67  2.36
Sunflower seed 45.00  7.08 40.67  5.90 35.33  2.95 14.67  2.95 40.67**  6.49 39.33**  31.27

Values are mean and SD of three separate determinations (n ¼ 3).

**p < 0.01 significantly different to mean level of the respective control (raw sample).

3.4. Effects of processing phenolic content (12%) was observed in roasted groundnut of the
current study, which is in agreement with an earlier report by Craft
3.4.1. Soaking þ cooking of grains et al. (2010). Such increases could be due to some other phenolics
Fig. 1 shows the effects of soaking þ cooking on the total which are not endogenous in the grains that may be formed as by-
phenolic content of the grain samples. Soaking þ cooking caused products of thermal degradation, maillard reaction, caramelization,
significant (p < 0.05) reduction (35e79%) of phenolic content in chemical oxidation of phenols and maderization.
most of the cereals and legumes. Similarly, a 55% decrease of total No significant changes were noticed on FRAP, a-amylase and a-
phenolics in Phaseolus vulgaris and 61e79% loss in black and pinto glucosidase inhibition activities in most of the presently analyzed
beans were reported during cooking (Granito et al., 2008; Xu & grains (Tables 1 and 2). Further, roasting of finger millet, sunflower
Chang, 2009). The decreases could be attributed to the leaching seed and amaranth grain was resulted to significant increase of
out of water-soluble phenolics into the soaking medium as well as FRAP values. Such increases might be due to formation of maillard
heat degradation of phenolic compounds during cooking. products such as hydroxymethylfurfuraldehyde. However, signifi-
Soaking þ cooking did not cause any significant loss of DPPH cant loss of DPPH radical scavenging activity was recorded in most
radical scavenging capacity, reducing power, a-amylase and a- of the samples, except finger millet, field bean and sunflower seed
glucosidase inhibition activities of the grain samples, except losses during roasting. Such decreases might be due to the effect of high
in the reducing power of pigeonpea and radical scavenging activity roasting temperature which leads to modification of chemical
of field bean (Tables 1 and 3). Cooking of foods does not necessarily properties of bioactive compounds. Roasting of most of the grains
cause the loss of antioxidant and antidiabetic properties and may in did not result in significant changes on a-amylase and a-glucosi-
fact assist in the release of bound antioxidant compounds from the dase inhibition activities, except the losses observed in amaranth
food matrix and results in apparent increase of antioxidant activity grain. However, significant increase was noticed in the a-glucosi-
of the cooked samples. Furthermore, it is also likely that matrix dase inhibition activity of finger millet and sunflower seeds under
softening and increased extractability upon cooking were accom- roasting. Randhir et al. (2008) suggested that the a-amylase
panied by the conversion of phytochemical compounds into active inhibitory activity depended on the spectrum of phenolics that are
chemical species, which were not yet identified and acted syner- mobilized by thermal processing and not on the total phenolic
gistically to elicit the high antioxidant capacity. Significant increase content.
of DPPH radical scavenging capacity was observed in finger millet
and amaranth grain during soaking þ cooking treatment, while 3.4.3. Cooking of vegetables
amaranth grain and pumpkin seed showed significant improvement Cooking did not cause any significant changes on the phenolic
in reducing power. Similarly, Nsimba et al. (2008) and Randhir et al. content of all the vegetables, except amaranth leaves (45% reduc-
(2008) also reported a substantial increase in antioxidant activity of tion) (Fig. 2). In contrast, a significant increase was observed in the
food ingredients such as amaranth grains, wheat, buckwheat, corn total phenolic content of cooked sweetpotato (14%), which might
and oat during cooking treatment. These increases were attributed be attributed to the inactivation of polyphenol oxidase enzyme.
to release of bound phenolic compounds from breakdown of cellular Similar increases have been reported for different sweetpotato
constituents and cell walls and also as a result of polymerization, cultivars (Beauregard and Hernandez) in the United States (Truong,
aglycosylation and/or oxidation of the phenolics. McFeeters, Thompson, Dean, & Shofran, 2007). Nonetheless,
significant decreases in total phenolic contents (40e50%) of
3.4.2. Roasting of grains different vegetables such as squash, peas and leek have also been
Roasting of the grains did not show any significant reduction in reported by Turkmen, Sari, and Velioglu (2005) and Xu and Chang
the total phenolic content (Fig. 1). A significant increase of total (2008).

Table 4
Antidiabetic effect of methanolic extract of selected raw and traditionally processed indigenous vegetables.

Food samples a-Amylase inhibition activity (%) a-Glucosidase inhibition activity (%)
Raw vegetables Cooked vegetables Blanched vegetables Raw vegetables Cooked vegetables Blanched vegetables
Pumpkin 28.33  6.49 8.66  1.53 1.66  0.29 13.33  5.91 17.67  5.91 22.67  7.08
Butternut 10.67  0.59 0.00 0.00 40.67  3.54 34.33  8.26 5.33***  3.54
Sweetpotato 19.33  21.24 0.00 0.00 23.67  4.72 12.00*  5.31 5.67***  2.95
Drumstick leaves 11.33  0.59 36.33  5.31 35.67  2.36 80.67  0.59 92.33*  0.59 91.67*  0.59
Pumpkin leaves 17.33  0.59 41.67  5.31 33.33  16.75 49.33  5.91 21.33***  2.07 63.67**  2.36
Amaranth leaves 27.33  1.18 40.67  19.47 21.00  5.91 28.00  5.91 22.67  10.03 31.00  1.18

Values are mean and SD of three separate determinations (n ¼ 3).

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001 significantly different to mean level of the respective control (raw sample).
 C.N. Kunyanga et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology 45 (2012) 269e276 275

Cooking demonstrated no significant loss of DPPH radical further investigation, before using their combinations in supple-
scavenging, FRAP, a-amylase and a-glucosidase inhibition activities mentary food formulations.
in most of the vegetables analyzed in the present study (Tables 2
and 4). However, losses were observed in the radical scavenging Acknowledgment
activity of butternut and sweetpotato and reducing power of
butternut, drumstick and pumpkin leaves and a-glucosidase inhi- One of the authors (C. N. K) is thankful to the German Academic
bition activity of sweetpotato and pumpkin leaves. Similarly, Exchange Programme (DAAD) for financial support of her Doctoral
significant decrease in the DPPH radical scavenging activity of study in Kenya and also sincerely grateful to the administrative and
cooked vegetables such as broccoli, pepper, spinach, green beans, academic staff of the University of Nairobi, Kenya and University of
peas, leek, chickpea, lentil and squash have been reported Hohenheim, Germany for their support in conducting this research
(Turkmen et al., 2005). This loss of the DPPH radical scavenging study.
activity and reducing power could be attributed to counteractions
of several types of chemical reactions and leaching of water-soluble
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