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ENGLISH LITERATURE 4th Year

THE BEGINNING OF ENGLISH : OLD ENGLISH : 410 to 1066

Setting the Scene.- The first literature in English goes back to the period between about AD 410
and 1066. These are Anglo Saxon times and are known as the early medieval period . In 410 the
Romans left Britain, and in 1066 The Norman conquest began the late medieval period of history.

It was a time of wars and invasions - Britain was invaded by many people from Europe : Angles,
Saxons, Jutes, Vikings and finally Normans. These invasions left many traces in the form of castles
and towns, as well as in culture and language. The language known as Old English is the language
of the first literature in English. But It was a long time before it was actually written down: the first
stories and poems were spoken and we do not exactly when these stories were first told. There
were two cultures through the Anglo Saxon period : The Christian Culture , which had arrived in
England in 597 with Saint Augustine, and the heroic culture , of leaders and heroes who defended
their lands against invaders.
The Norman conquest , and The battle of Hastings in 1066, was the last successful invasion of
Britain . The Normans took power , and William the conqueror became King of England , William
tried to bring peace to the country after many centuries of wars and invasions but did not always
succeed . The Normans brought with them many French Influences , and The French language
began to mix with Old English into a more modern language. Scandinavian influences were also
strong and Latin was still the language of the Church, so there were many influences of English
language and culture. Out of these influences a new national identity began to develop. Parts of
France remained British until as late as 1558, Wales was part of the Kingdom of England from
1282. Scotland was the main enemy for another three hundred years , and many wars against the
Scots were fought in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries .
The first Parliament was in 1265, and English became the language of national law 1362. The
Magna Carta of 1215 reduced the power of the King , giving more power and property rights to
Aristocrats. The City of London became the capital of the country, and the Local Southern dialect of
English became the main spoken form of English , although local dialects remained strong, as they
still do today. Trade with Europe became more important. A new class of traders and Merchants
grew up, as trade between nations replaced war.

OLD ENGLISH
PERSONAL AND RELIGIOUS VOICES
The language of the earliest English Literature came from many different places. The literature
came from many different places. The literature itself and its subjects were influenced by different
countries and by different places, people and cultures, but the question of what is English about
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English Literature is still a big question today, as more and more writers use the English Language .
The Subjects of the first literature are subjects which are familiar even now: war, religion, personal
sadness and happiness. It was the Christian Monks in the Monasteries who first wrote down the
words of the early literature – they were the only people who could read and write , and for many
centuries they guarded culture and learning. But only a few fragments remain of all the writing that
the monks kept. They reflect the two cultures, of Christianity and of heroic actions , with the
occasional personal voice coming through . Most of the texts from this period are anonymous, but
one or two names are attached to texts. The very first fragment is called “Caedmon’s Hymn (hymn
= religious song) . There is a legend that Caedmon was a shepherd in Northumbria, in the far north
of England, and the voice of God came to him, so his “Hymn” is the first sing of praise in English
literature. Of coursed , the Monks nearby Whitby soon heard of this poetic shepherd , and in about
670 , Caedmon entered their Monastery , and his short poem entered history:

Nu we sculon herigean heofonrices Weard,

Now we must praise of heaven ‘s kingdom the keeper

Two features of most Old English poetry are immediately clear; the gap in the middle of each line,
called the caesura, which modern editors use to show the rhythm of the verse and the alliteration
(the letter “h” in the first line). Both of these influence the sound of poem, reminding us that the
poetry was spoken long before it was written down.

Another name from the early medieval period is Deor , but we know nothing about him . We do not
know the author of the Poem Deor’s Lament but the narrator , Deor , is a writer and singer of songs
who has no job, and he thinks of other unfortunate men, returning always to the refrain:

Of that there was an end; so there may be of this.

This is not only a poem about a man who is searching for work , but one of the first texts to talk of
the passing of time , and of personal suffering . Deor’s lament is probably from the beginning of the
eight century, many years after Caedmon. Another important name from these centuries is
Cynewulf, and he brings together the other two names. He may also have come from Northumbria,
and two of the texts he wrote are found in a book called the Exeter Book, where Deor’s lament is
also written. The Exeter Book, and a similar book written in England but now kept in Vercelli in Italy,
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The Vercelly Book, are among the few examples which remain of the work of monks in preserving
texts from the Dark Ages. Cynewulf’s four poems are all religious in tone, and celebrate the lives of
Saints, and other similar topics.

BEOWULF AND LONG POEMS

Several Poems are preserved in the Exeter Book . Two other personal but anonymous poems are:
The Wanderer and The Seafarer (sailor). These are elegiac poems – the speaker is always alone,
and his memory becomes very important. They are memories of old legends, old battles, and old
heroes. Although we know very little about the period, we do find ideas and themes which are
common in all literature, and memories are a major part of the writing.

Among the anonymous religious texts which remain, the best known is The Dream of the Rood The
word rood means cross on Old English. This poem is found not only in the Vercelly Book, but also
on a standing stone in Ruthwell in southern Scotland.

The poem is also important for two reasons : It is the first of a kind of poems which became very
popular in later literature, the dream vision , and The Dream of the Rood shows a great range of
words to describe the Cross of Christ, and a range of Images which later poems developed.

The main Heroic text is called BEOWULF, the name of the hero of the long anonymous poem. It
describes events which are part of the period’s memory: invasions and battles, some historic, some
legendary. The poem is set around the sixth century, but was probably not written down until the
eight century. Beowulf is the first hero in English literature, the man who can win battles and give
safety to his people over a long period of time.

The battle of Maldon is another long poem about battles and heroes. But it is much more factual,
describing a real battle rather than telling a fictional story of war. Both The Battle of Maldon and
Beowulf are written in Rich and powerful language, full of new words, new tones and new rhythms,
and with many images of light, color and action. Beowulf which is about 3000 lines, is a story about
a brave young man from southern Sweden. Beowulf goes to help Hrothgar, king of the Danes, who
cannot defend himself or his people against a terrible monster called Grendel. One night Beowulf
attacks Grendel and pulls off the arms of the monster. Grendel returns to the lake where he lives,
but dies there, Beowulf is then attacked by the mother of Grendel and Beowulf follows her to the
bottom of the lake and kills her, too.

Fifty years later, Beowulf has to defend his own people against a dragon which breathes fire.
Although he kills the dragon, Beowulf himself is injured in the fight and dies. The poem has a sad
ending, but the poem is a statement of heroic values and Beowulf dies a hero. Here Wiglaf reminds
Beowulf of his greatest days:
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Beloved1 Beowulf, keep well the vow2 that you swore long ago in the days of your

Youth, not to allow your glory3 to diminish4 as long as you lived.

1 dear 2 promise 3 fame 4 get smaller

When Beowulf dies, Wiglaf has to continue the example for the next generation.

The Beowulf story is part myth, part history, but the hero is remembered as the man who can win
battles and give safety to his people over a long period of time. Questions of the passing of time
through the generation, and of what it means to be a human being, are central.

PROSE.-

Many of the earliest books were histories, rather than imaginative writings. They give us a lot of the
information we have of this period. Bede known as the Venerable Bede, was a monk who lived
between 673 and 735. He wrote many books, mostly about the Bible, but he us remembered also
for his History of the English Church and people written in Latin and completed about 731.

One of the first books of History was The Anglo Saxon Chronicle (Chronicle = Record of events) It
was written over a long period of time , and tells the history of England from the beginning of
Christian times, around AD 600 to 1154, with details of invasions and battles. Some of it is in poetry,
and it is very important for our knowledge of the history and the language of old English.

King Alfred the Great was probably one of the people who helped to put the Chronicle together. His
reign , from 871 to 899, was a time of great literary production. Alfred ordered many translations of
religious and historical texts, and helped to bring the West Saxon dialect into a strong position as
the language of literature and history. Aelfric, a monk from Winchester in the South of England, was
an important translator as well as writer. His works include Catholic Homilies (homilies = religious
talks) He uses real spoken English, and all the features of Old English Literature are found in his
work . Aelfric is the greatest figure in old English prose. He brought excellence of style into the
language and wide knowledge to all his works.

The themes of Old English Literature are security, both for the individual and society , and in
religious faith. This literature gave comfort, or provided reflection. Usually the poems were sung in
the hall of a castle, and these songs and poems were passed on from generation to generation
before they were written down.

Thus, the spoken tradition led to the first tradition of written literature. At the same time, Old English
was beginning to develop in a different language, called Middle English, closer to the English we
know today.