Background
Background
Background
Regular 5v5 basketball games generally consist of four 10 or 12 min quarters with
two min rest between quarter time and a 15 min rest at half time. The clock is
stopped during rule violations resulting in the “total game time” being longer than
the “live playing time” of 40 or 48 min. Official FIBA competitions are played in
10 min quarters, whereas some national leagues, such as the NBA, have 12 min
quarters. Court size also varies between FIBA, American college and NBA
competitions. The standard international FIBA court size is 28 m long and 15 m
wide (78). Different court sizes and playing durations can potentially alter the
demands of the game. Following the principle of training specificity, training needs
to be tailored towards the specific game demands for an effective transfer of
training adaptations to improve competition performance. Preparation of an elite
basketball player must be directed towards specific competition demands.
Movement patterns and physiological demands (through heart rate telemetry and
blood lactate concentration analysis) have been investigated extensively in male
and female basketball athletes in single seasonal games at a national domestic level.
These findings pertain to basketball games played on a weekly basis with sufficient
rest periods (days) between games. A single basketball practice game can induce
small decreases in 10 m sprint performance in junior basketball athletes. The
demands of tournament competition are likely to differ as multiple games are
played on consecutive days, minimising time for recovery between games. Three to
four consecutive games in three to four days can induce fatigue and decrements in
performance in basketball, handball, and soccer. International tournament
competitions including the FIBA World Championships and Olympics involve up
to 8 games played in a period of 10-14 days. The effects of consecutive games and
minimal time for recovery on the physical, physiological and tactical demands are
unknown, possibly hindering competition-specific preparation of basketball
athletes. Additionally, many international tournaments are played at different age
levels and in both genders. Performance indicators differ between male and female
competition and between competition levels in seasonal games. An open question
in the basketball community is which performance indicators lead to success in
international tournament competition in specific age groups and genders. Despite
the importance of tournament competition for international success, preparation and
development of elite basketball athletes is currently based on assumptions and
uncertainty in the physical, physiological, tactical and technical demands.
Physical activity is the body movement produced by muscle action that increases
energy expenditure (Daryl, 2004). Physical activity encompasses physical exercises
implies planned, structured, repetitive and purposeful physical activity, often with
the goal of improving or maintaining one’s physical fitness. Physical fitness is a
physiological state of well-being that provides the foundation for the tasks of daily
living, a degree of protection against chronic disease and a basis for participation in
sport. According to Teit, (2000). It is the capacity of the heart, blood vessels, lungs
and muscles to function at optimal efficiency (Teit,1996) Pate (2012) defined
physical fitness, as a state characterized by (a) an ability to perform daily activities
with vigour, and (b) demonstration of traits and capacities that are associated with
low risk of premature development of the hypokinetic diseases (i.e., those
associated with physical inactivity). “Physical fitness is the ability to carry out
every day duties energetically with caution and alertness, without undue fatigue and
remain with sufficient energy to engage in leisure-time pursuits (Corbin et al.,
2000) and to meet other physical stresses encountered in emergency situations”
(Rikli and Jones, 2001). Malina et al. (2004a) describe physical fitness as “a state or
a condition that allows an individual to carry out daily activities without tiring
quickly and spare some energy to enjoy active leisure.” Pate and Shephard, (1989)
say that physical fitness includes having appropriate cardiorespiratory endurance,
body composition, muscular strength and flexibility. In essence, physical fitness
describes a set of attributes relating to how well one performs physical activity.
What a basketball player gains in leverage thanks to his height, he may lose on
other aspects including speed and agility. Shorter players are light weight, which
increases their speed when moving across the court. While taller players may have
longer legs, they must put forth more effort to propel themselves forward. Also,
those with longer legs can be clumsier and require more coordination than a shorter
basketball player. A basketball player who is below average height has faster
reaction, faster limb acceleration, faster rotational capacity, greater balance and
lower centre of gravity. The athlete experiences lower risk of heat exhaustion,
greater endurance, greater strength to weight ratio and has greater agility level.
Those players that possess a height which is above average achieve absolute
strength, greater work capacity, greater work per unit of time and greater visibility
and longer reach. They also have lower heart rate, lower resting metabolic rate
greater speed and power due to mechanical advantage.
Two types of balance are usually distinguished. Firstly, static balance which is the
capacity to maintain the body in a stable position in which the base of support is
fixed. Both the person and environment remain “ static “ (Sugden & Sugden, 1991;
Gentile, 1987; Spaeth-Arnold, 1981). Although this type of balance is called static,
continuous forces acting upon the body result in movement or sway that needs to be
controlled. Quiet standing consists of a relative unstable equilibrium because the
upright standing body behaves like an inverted pendulum – any deviance from
perfect balance is reinforced by the force of gravity and needs to be counteracted to
prevent loss of balance by reactive and prospective control. Secondly, dynamic
balance is distinguished, which represents the capacity to maintain posture whilst
accommodating to a dynamic environment or a task, or both. It is the ability to
control while i) intentionally moving in a fixed environment (walking in a room
with furniture), but also under more challenging environmental constraints like ii)
standing still in a changing environment (bus ride) or iii) intentionally moving
through a changing environment (playing games in a schoolyard) In these
situations, one needs to maintain in upright position with dynamic environmental
constraints, which threaten the projected Centre of Pressure (CoP) to move beyond
the border of the base of support in antero-posterior or lateral direction. After such
external perturbations, reactive postural adaptations will generate rapid adjustments
to help stabilize the body and prevent bumping into something or falling down.
However, when braking is more or less expected, anticipatory postural adjustments
(APA’s) can counteract predictable forces to prevent loss of balance or prepare an
altered posture to remain in balance during a bus ride.
To control a standing position, muscles are either topically active, with a great
propensity to work, while other muscles are physically active to oppose and correct
posture by fast contractions. When a relatively small disturbance occurs in forward
direction, small corrections around the ankle axis (ankle strategy) can be used to
correct the movement of the body by a muscle synergy in opposite direction.
Contrary, a hip strategy is usually used after large perturbations in anterior-
posterior direction, characterized by large and rapid corrective motion at the hip
joints in the backward or forward direction to counteract the external forces with
simultaneous compensatory motion in the ankles. On the other hand, in case of
backward loss of balance, activity of the muscles at the frontal side of the body will
correct the perturbation, but then needs control not to overreact. In case of loss of
balance in forward direction, the backside of the body will initiate the body to go
backwards
Closed kinetic chain task or activities require a certain level of strength with task
specific muscle activation patterns (Norris & Trudelle-Jackson, 2011; Eriksrud &
Bohannon, 2003; Begalle, DiStefano, Blackburn, & Padua, 2012; Gribble, Hertle,
& Denegar, 2007), in addition to balance and dynamic postural control. Balance is
the ability to maintain the center of gravity’s projection within the base of support
when standing and during movement whereas dynamic postural control is the
ability to prevent loss of balance (Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 2012).
Consequently, lower extremity joint movements elicited in standing closed kinetic
chain activities, functional joint mobility, might offer a better representation of the
joint movements available to different athletic and functional tasks than
goniometric measurements.
Thus, a systematic task based approach to testing functional joint mobility which
integrate strength, balance and dynamic postural control is beneficial. This will
provide the trainer or clinician with information not captured by goniometric
measurements. Human movement is based on task, environment and individual
(Shumway-Cook & Woollacott, 2012). The Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT)
account for these factors in that it challenges the individual within a controlled
environment with a task of reaching as far as possible with one foot, thus evaluating
functional joint mobility of the stance foot (Gribble P. A., 2003). SEBT was first
described as a clinical treatment tool by Gary Gray (Gray, 1995). Since then it has
been implemented as a measure of dynamic postural control and used as a
diagnostic tool to detect risks of injury, to differentiate pathological conditions and
evaluate the outcome of different interventions (Gribble, Hertle, & Plisky, 2012).
The SEBT consist of a total of 16 unilateral squats (8 for each leg) where the non-
stance foot reaches as far as possible along eight horizontal lines at 45° intervals, all
of which comes from a center point defining a grid where the stance foot is
centered (Gribble P. A., 2003).
The reach has to be performed in a controlled manner and the reaching foot is
allowed to gently touch the line of the reaching direction at maximum reach
position before returning to an upright position. The heel, big and little toe of the
stance foot is to maintain contact with the floor throughout the reach. Each test is
named based on reach direction in reference to stance foot (Gribble, Hertle, &
Plisky, 2012). The stance leg functions in a closed kinetic chain with the ankle,
knee and hip movements dependent on each other in solving or configuring
themselves to solve the reach of the other foot in a specific direction. The center of
pressure will move within the base of support of the stance foot, thus challenging
balance and dynamic postural control. The SEBT is time consuming in the clinical
or athletic environment since it consists of 16 different tests. Thus, the Y Balance
Test (YBT), an abbreviated version of the SEBT, was developed with the aim to
reduce the time taken to perform the test without loss of investigative properties on
dynamic postural control.
Hertel and coworkers (2006) used factor analysis on reach performance from the
SEBT in an effort to reduce the reach directions necessary to detect chronic ankle
instability (CAI). They found that the posteromedial reach direction captures the
least redundant information (Hertel, Braham, Hale, & Olmsted-Kramer, 2006).
Then, Plisky and coworkers (2006) found an increased susceptibility of lower
extremity injury using the anterior reach direction, while not in the posterolateral or
posteromedial reach direction (Plisky, Rauh, Kaminski, & Underwood, 2006).
Although the idea of reducing the reach directions based on time requirements and
to capture the least redundant information is excellent, there is limited evidence as
to why the posterolateral reach direction is part of the YBT, as it was defined by
Coughlan and coworkers (Coughlan, Fullam, Delahunt, Gissane, & Caulfield,
2012).
Plisky and coworkers (2006) speculated that it is nearly impossible for one
examiner to evaluate stance leg movement quality while simultaneously marking
reach distance and secure correct stance foot heel-touch throughout the movement
(Plisky, Rauh, Kaminski, & Underwood, 2006). Consequently, a study by Coughlan
and coworkers (2012) used a commercially available device (Move2Perform,
Evansville, IN) to evaluate reach distance during the YBT, which automatically
measures reach distance. The subjects are positioned with the stance leg on an
elevated central footplate while pushing a sliding block down the reach directions.
The authors found a statistically significant difference between the YBT and SEBT
for the anterior reach only, and presented the reasons for the difference being the
mechanism of feedback from the visual system from the sliding block. The
maximum reach direction was established as the mean of three reaches. No motion
analysis controlled for differences in joint kinematics during the execution of the
SEBT and the YBT, however, the device has been shown to have good intra-rater
and inter-rater reliability (Coughlan, Fullam, Delahunt, Gissane, & Caulfield, 2012;
Plisky, et al., 2009). Only the posteromedial reach direction has been shown to give
the least redundant information, and the anterior reach direction has the most
significant value to predict lower extremity injury in one study (Hertel, Braham,
Hale, & Olmsted-Kramer, 2006; Plisky, Rauh, Kaminski, & Underwood, 2006).
The posterolateral reach direction has no indications why it should be represented
more than any other reach direction.
Plisky and coworkers (2006) did not argue as to why they chose the posterolateral
as one of the three, and not any other reach directions. Therefore, although the idea
of reducing the reach directions based on time requirements and to capture the least
redundant information is excellent, further studies with is warranted to deduce the
optimal number and directions of the SEBT. The evaluation of the performance of
the SEBT is both qualitative and quantitative. The reach distance in centimeters is
the primary outcome measure of the SEBT for research and clinical application.
This parameter is normalized to leg length in order to compare between individuals
(Gribble & Hertle, 2003). Both normalized (%) and absolute (cm) reach distance
has several beneficial purposes: 1) generate normative data, which will allow for
rating and ranking for statistical means, 2) monitor effect of interventions, and 3)
identify risk of injury (Gribble, Hertle, & Plisky, 2012). Normalization also
eliminates reach distance differences between male and females (Gribble & Hertle,
2003). The qualitative assessment of the SEBT is used clinically to assess
alignment of hip, knee and foot while performing reaches (Gribble, Hertle, &
Plisky, 2012). Ness and coworkers (2015) evaluated the ability to evaluate frontal
movement quality during performance in the anterior reach among three
independent physical therapists, and found promising results (Ness, Taylor, Haberl,
Reuteman, & Borgert, 2015)
Muscular strength is needed to complete the Y balance-test because the stable leg
must balance and support the majority of the body weight while the other leg is
moving.
Liu et al, (2012) In 2012, a study tested health-related physical fitness to track
developmental changes over a three year period using the fitnessgram test. The 245
subjects were all sixth graders, age 11 years, 116 boys and 129 girls. This study
lasted for three years, with a pretest at the beginning and two follow up tests each
year. A modified sit and reach test was used to measure flexibility of the
hamstrings. When comparing genders, the boys’ scores decreased with the follow-
up tests, whereas the girls’ scores were increasingly higher for each follow-up test.
However, the overall comparison over the course of the three years (ages 11-14
years) showed the Spearmen rho coefficient did not significantly change from 0.52
to 0.68.
Chillon et al, (2010) A study in 2010 examined 138 students, ages 12-16 years, 81
males and 57 females. This study sought to determine the joints and muscles
involved in the BSSR test, a modified test to assess each limb separately, and the
correlation between the BSSR and the standard sit and reach test scores. All
subjects performed a static stretching routine which focused on the back and leg
muscles before they completed the test. Biological age was determined using
Tanner stages; body mass was measured using a Seca scale; height was recorded
using a stadiometer; body mass index (BMI) was computed. The BSSR and the
standard sit and reach tests were performed in a random order with a 60 second
break 8 in between.Two trials were administered with the best score recorded.
Overall, the results showed that there was no significant gender or age difference in
flexibility scores. There was no significant difference between the scores for the
BSSR and the standard sit and reach tests. The study also showed a strong
relationship between the hip muscles and joints in both flexibility tests (r=0.001)
EUROFIT TEST
Each test in the Eurofit battery is designed to measure some specific aspect of a
person's fitness. For example, the sit and reach test is designed to measure the
flexibility of a person's lower back and hamstring muscles, whereas the plate
tapping exercise is designed to measure a person's speed and coordination of limb
movement.
The underlying premise behind the Eurofit program is that certain skills are
essential in a healthy person's overall physical fitness. These skills include strength,
endurance, flexibility, and speed. The tests included in the Eurofit battery were
specifically designed to measure the extent to which an individual meets certain
minimum standards in each of these areas, and provides guidelines for activities
that help a person reach those minimum standards for which he or she is currently
inadequate. For example, a person whose endurance is found to fall below
minimum standards as measured in the endurance shuttle run can use that same
activity to improve his or her skill in that aspect of physical fitness.
Jenko et al (2009) “The Plate Tapping Test (Reaction Tap Test) is a reaction test
using an alternating wall tapping action which measures upper body reaction time,
hand-eye quickness and coordination.
Procedure: If possible, the table height should be adjusted so that the subject is
standing comfortably in front of the discs. The two yellow discs are placed with
their centers 60 cm apart on the table. The rectangle is placed equidistant between
both discs. The non-preferred hand is placed on the rectangle. The subject moves
the preferred hand back and forth between the discs over the hand in the middle as
quickly as possible. This action is repeated for 25 full cycles (50 taps).
Results: The time taken to complete 25 cycles is recorded. Performed the test twice
and the best result is recorded.
However, the number of step test methods available is large and the choice is not
always obvious. No literature could be found comparing several different methods
of step tests. New methods and revised methods are usually compared to a maximal
cycle test or treadmill test in order to prove the test's validity in predicting aerobic
capacity. Therefore, there is a need to evaluate some of the step test methods
suggested to see if significant variation exists between the values of aerobic
capacity obtained. One goal of this study would be to suggest/recommend a single
method that is the optimal method for accurately predicating a prospective
employee's V02 max for proper placement in a job. That is not always possible due
to human variation and limited time. Instead, an evaluation of several step test
methods will be performed to determine if the values obtained from the tests are
statistically equivalent. Possible factors of consideration with respect to the subject
are: age, weight, gender, leg length and height. Not all tests available consider or
correct for these factors. Also, specific aspects of the step test methods, bench
height and cadence, were considered.
CHAPTER-2
Physical Activity
The term PA refers to “any body movement produced by the skeletal muscles that
has as a result an energy consumption added to the basal metabolic rate”. To this
concept framed in the biological field of knowledge, it has to be added the
characteristics of the personal and socio-cultural experience (Devís, 2000), because
without them many times it cannot be understood why people perform certain
activities and not others (López-López, 2008).
Fitness is the energy and vitality status that allows people to perform daily and
regular tasks, just like enjoy active leisure time, confront unexpected events without
excessive fatigue, and at the same time, face physical inactivity (sedentary life
style), develop to maximal level the physical and intellectual capacities of each
person, fully experiencing the happiness of living, through performing PA in a
healthy way.
The Sport Committee of the European Council defined that “fitness related to
health is composed by the following elements: cardiorespiratory endurance,
strength, muscle resistance, flexibility, anthropometric dimensions (body
composition), coordination-balance and a good psycho-emotional status”
BALANCE
The mechanism of control is used in any situation where a segment of the body is
maintained against gravitational forces and is not necessarily singular to instances
that directly affect alterations in COG movements. 12 Postural control development
begins prior to an infant actually balancing and can be recognized through subtle
muscular responses to perturbations before the infant can balance in any posture
(sitting, standing, etc) (Haywood & Getchell, 2001). As an infant continues to
learn, integrating and processing feedback, the postural control system matures
until the mid-teenage years when the systems appear to be fully developed (Steindl,
Kunz, Schrott-Fischer, & Scholz, 2006).
“The YBT was developed through researching injury prevention and postinjury motor
control changes. The Lower Quarter YBT (YBT-LQ) is dynamic test performed in a
single leg stance requiring strength, flexibility, core control, and proprioception at the
limit of one’s stability and functional symmetry. It is a simplified version of the SEBT
in which only three of the eight reach directions are performed.
YBT Reach Directions (www.functionalmovements.com)
The objective of the YBT is for the student-athletes to maintain single limb stance
while reaching with the contralateral leg as far as possible. Socks and shoes were
removed before testing. The student-athletes were given testing instructions and
practice repetitions prior to the start of the test. Athletes were instructed to stand in the
center of the footplate with the distal part of their right foot at the start of the red line
While maintaining balance on the right stance leg, the leg being measured, the free left
foot was used to push the indicator box as far forward as possible in a specific
direction. The subject pushed the indicator box from behind with their toes and
maintained contact with the box at all times. Three consecutive trials were performed
with the right limb in the anterior (ANT) direction and then with the left limb in the
ANT direction; this procedure was followed in the posteromedial (PM) direction and
then in the posterolateral (PL) direction. Attempts were rejected and repeated if the
athlete failed to maintain unilateral stance on the platform, failed to maintain contact
with the indicator box with the reach foot, placed the toes or foot on top of the
indicator box, touched the ground or testing poles with the reach foot, or failed to
return the reach foot back to the starting position under control without touching the
ground. Athletes were given a maximum of six attempts to achieve three successful
trials. If there were more than four failed attempts, a zero was recorded for that trial.
Maximal reach distances were recorded by reading the measurement at the edge of the
reach indicator box to the nearest 0.5 cm. Composite scores (COMP) were calculated
for each the right and left limbs in order to provide an overall performance rating
relative to one’s body. The symmetry amongst limbs were compared in all three
directions by taking the absolute value of the difference between the left and right
reach distances (Diff).”
Lee et al. '[3] examined the association between cardiorespiratory health, body and
all-cause death, men mortality from cardiovascular disease, and noticed that
unhealthy men had a greater risk of all-cause mortality than men healthy for
cardiovascular disease, and unfit men with low waist girths of less than 87 cm had a
higher risk of all-cause mortality than those with a high waiver.
In (Stepinski, 2003) details about the motor skills of teen soccer players was
recorded and contrasted with a control group of the same age boys doing no sports
activities. Although soccer has positive effects on tempo, anaerobic strength and
pace of activity, smaller co-ordinating effects have been observed. This indicates
that teamwork preparation of youth soccer players is sometimes underestimated, a
detrimental aspect that could affect their potential success. Balance is important not
only for the success of complicated technological movements, but also for the
overall strength of the athlete.
Dubey and Mishra (2009) examined the relationship between selected volleyball
players' coordinative and motor skills selected from Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi. The subjects' age varied from 18 to 25 years. The variables selected in
this study include reactivity, orientation capacity, separation skill, pacing, explosive
power, speed, cardiovascular resistance and endurance in case of coordinating skill
and motor ability variable. The data required to define the relationships among
these variables were collected via various coordinative capacity tests, as suggested
by Peter Hurtz (1985). Insignificant interrelationships with coordinative and motor
skills at 0.05 were identified. However, the connection between the orientation
potential and the differential capacity and agility were found to be important only at
the stage of 0.05.
The findings of a factor review study [5] have shown that participant output in the 8
directions has been strongly redundant. There was a tremendous mutual difference
around the 8 reach directions. In other terms, the distance reached by a person in a
certain direction was strongly associated with its distance in the other seven
directions. This contributed to the suggestion that only 3 paths (anterior,
posteromedial and posterolateral) be taken.
Gribble et al, 2012[6] SEBT may be used to classify changes in dynamic stability
following exercise activity between stable and CAI persons. For physicians and
academics needing a cost-effective and easy-to-use method to assess success in
preventive and recovery programs. This is significant. Most impact sizes between
pretesting and post-testing sessions were moderate to high, with most CIs not
crossing zero. This shows a high degree of progress in the complex stability as
measured by the SEBT and encourages the application of SEBT in these steps and
their efficacy.
Berisha et al. 2017. [7] Anthropometric characteristics such as height , weight and
body mass (BMI) and motorized characteristics like test values such as flamingo
balance, flat tapping, seat and aim, standing wide leap, handgrip power, sit-ups (30
sec), slow arm hang, 10x5 m shuttle course and 20 m agility have been contrasted.
As a result, the anthropometrical features of males and females in puberty were
statistically significant; it was found, however, that with the age changes, males
were lighter and larger than females (p<0.05). Although the flamingo equilibrium,
plate tapping and seating and reach testing (p > 0,05) were typically not statistically
substantially differentiated from men and women, males were found to be more
competitive than women in standing wide jump testing, handgrip power tests, sit-up
tests (30 seconds) and 20 m (p<0,05).
Students in Kosovo are more competitive than other countries in motor testing,
including anthropometric attributes, which are considered to be tied more closely to
biology and speed / agility of arms and legs.
S. Mazic, and N. Ostojic, S.M. Dikic (2006)[8] carried out a report on basketball
profiling; the physical and physiological aspects of top athletes. The goal of this
studied is to identify the structural and functional characteristics of Serbian elite
basketball players and to determine the different physical and physiological profiles
of players in different positions. Five masculine basketball clubs took part in the
analysis and played in the First National League professional. The final week of
their preparatory preparation for action was accompanied by physiological
assessments of 60 players. Players were classified as guards {n = 2 0), forward (n =
20) and centres (n = 20), according to positional positions. Guards were older
(p<0.01) and more seasoned (p<0.01) than all forward and middle guards. The
centres were bigger and stronger than the guards and front guards (p < 0 .0 1), while
front heights and weights were slightly lower than guards (p < 0.01). Centers had
more body fat than forwards and guards (p<0.01). Centre’s approximate VO gmax
values (p < 0.01) were therefore slightly smaller relative to forward and guards. In
comparison, the highest cardiac rates were lower in guards (p < 0.01) during the last
minute of the shuttle run test relative to front and centres. The vertical jump
strength in centres (p < 0.01) was considerably higher than that of guards. The
findings of this research indicate that there is a clear association between body
build-up, aerobic activity, anaerobic strength and elite basketball.
Wen et al, 2020[10] The aim of this analysis was to examine the relationships
between FMS, SEBT, agility training, vertical jump test scores and risk of sports
injury among junior athletes. Fair to moderate to strong associations for agility
testing and maximal anterior reach in SEBT,) (and push-up trunk stability in FMS
(and) were found. There were no variations in FMS, SEBT, and physical health
measures for junior competitors with a significant probability of sportive injury.
Deep squat, hurdle, inline lung and spinning FMS stabilisation scores were
compared with the SEBT object scores, which could be induced by the usage of
similar motion patterns. Score for the previous SEBT reach and trunk stability
push-up of the FMS is consistent with the agility test performance, indicating
common trunk stability and complex weight-changing capacity criteria.
The higher the value, the higher the future pace of employment. The need for
oxygen in the different body tissues is fulfilled by the integrated cardiovascular and
lung systems, which act as a unit called the body's oxygen transport system. When
a human is exposed to an elevated workload, there is a linear relation between
workload and the intake of oxygen before the optimum uptake of oxygen is
attained.
To evaluate the relation of the VO2 Max from various games, informative statistics
were used in one direction ANNOVA and PostHoc Test (Scheffe 's Test), data
evaluated with the aid of software SPSS (16.0 version) and their value level was set
at 0.05 trust level.
Keogh JW, Weber CL, Dalton CT (2003) developed an effective testing battery for
female field hockey by using anthropometric, physiological, and skill-related tests to
distinguish between regional representative (Rep, n = 35) and local club level (Club, n
= 39) female field hockey players. Rep players were significantly leaner and recorded
faster times for the 10-m and 40- m sprints as well as the Illinois Agility Run (with
and without dribbling a hockey ball). Rep players also had greater aerobic and lower
body muscular power and were more accurate in the shooting accuracy test, p < 0.05.
No significant differences between groups were evident for height, body mass, speed
decrement in 6 x 40-m repeated sprints, handgrip strength, or pushing speed. These
results indicate that %BF, sprinting speed, agility, dribbling control, aerobic and
muscular power, and shooting accuracy can distinguish between female field hockey
players of varying standards. Therefore talent identification programs for female field
hockey should include assessments of these physical parameters.
Bunc V, Psotta (2001) stated that there is still much uncertainty and debate
surrounding the physiological requirements of competitive soccer. The coaching
emphasis on skill development, deficiencies in fitness training, conservative training
methods lead to difficulty in the scientific study of soccer. The physiological profiles
of 2 2 young soccer players (mean age = 8.0+/-0.3 years, body mass = 28.2+Z-3.2 kg,
body height = 132.4+/- 4.3 cm and body fat = 19.4+/-1.6 percent) were measured by
the incremental exercise protocol on the treadmill with 5 percent inclination. All boys
systematically trained at least 2 years with a minimum of two training units per week.
During preseason, they trained two times per week, and during the competitive season
they trained at least three times and competed in one or two games per week. Mean
V02max x kg(-1) was 56.7+/-4.9 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1). Mean value of maximal
running speed on a treadmill with 5 percent of inclination was 12.0+/-0.9 km x h(-1).
Mean values of Rmax = 1.11+/-0.07. The selected functional variables at the
ventilatory threshold (VT) level corresponded to V02 x kg(-1) = 42.9+/-5.0 ml x kg(-
1) x min(-1), mean values of percent V02max x kg(-1) at VT level were 76.5+/-1.3
percent, mean speed of running was 10.5+/-1.2 km X h(-1), mean values of percent
Vmax at VT level were 87.5+/-1.9 percent. The mean of energy cost of running was
4.28+/- 0.19 J X kg(-1) X m(-1). According to results, it was concluded that the
physiological characteristics of young soccer players about 8 years old should be as
follows: V02max x kg(-1) higher than 55 ml X kg(-1) X min(-l) in defenders, and
higher than 60 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), in midfielders and forwards. Maximal speed of
running on the treadmill with 5 percent of inclination should be higher than 12 km X
h(-1 ) in all players, the running speed at anaerobic threshold (5 percent) higher than
10.5 km x h(-1), percent V02max at anaerobic threshold level higher than 77.0
percent, and the energy cost of running lower than 4.20 J x kg(-1 ) x m(-1). As in other
sports where skills play a decisive role, the physiological data cannot be the sole
predictor of competitive success. On the other hand, we must note that these
physiological norms and standards are necessary conditions for success in high levels
of soccer competition. The norms play decisive role in talent selection.
Faria, 1. & Erik tried to find out the relationship of anthropometric and physical
characteristics of male junior gymnasts to performance. The aim of the study was to
identify the anthropometric and physical characteristics concomitant to superior
gymnastics proficiency and success and to find out differences between top ten all
round gymnasts. To evaluate structural characteristics, body composition,
anthropometric measurements, power, strength and flexibility were determined.
Physical parameters measurements were performed on 65 male class I and II
gymnasts, and were compared to those who placed In 11**^ to 34**^. Mean % body
fat, 7.1+-1.6% compared favorably with European junior gymnasts. Top class
gymnasts were significantly leaner. Mean strength, higher absolute jump & reach,
plyometric jump were significantly higher than other classes. Grip strength was low
for all the groups. Top class when compared with other classes were characterized as
shorter in stature, stringer in both relative and absolute strength, possessed greater
flexibility, were leaner & possessed more muscle mass.
Spurgeon J., Spurgeon, N., Lee K(1988) performed a research study to describe and
determine variations in body size of female volleyball players and to make
comparisons with elite female athletes of other sports. Subjects were 92 female
volleyball players (age- 18-24 yrs) from university of South Carolina, the U.S and
Korea. Data were obtained for 12 measures of body size viz. sitting & standing height,
upper &lower limb length, shoulders & hip width, chest, abdomen, calf & thigh girths
and body weight, 8 measures of body form and for composition sum of skinfolds and
fat percentage. Mean and variability statistics was applied and comparisons were
between 3 volleyball groups and with other elite sports teams. Among volleyball
groups US group was tallest, heaviest and largest on body measures. Koreans had
higher girth index, stockier limbs, and greater body fat. Compared with other elite
female basketball players and swimmers volleyball groups were shorter and lighter
than basketball players and taller and heavier than swimmers. It was concluded that
groups of female athletes participating in different sports, events or positions within
sports, varied in body size and form and it was also said that as the knowledge
becomes available, it would be possible to advise and select individuals for certain
sport, event of positions.
This is perhaps supported by the general trends found in the literature regarding
muscular strength: while supervised off-season conditioning programmes may result
in significant improvements for both recreational and competitive athletes, no such
changes are normally observed after competition seasons. These findings may reflect,
amongst other factors, a lack of optimal training intensity to bring about strength
increases during in-season periods. In novices and In athletes at low competitive
levels, training seasons may lead to considerable functional improvements of the
cardio respiratory system, coupled with occasional increases in muscular strength and
decreases in body fat. Relatively low fitness levels at the beginning of training have
been put forward as an explanation for these improvements. Seasons of training and
competition result in no significant changes in flexibility measurements. Similar
changes to those found in novices and in athletes at low competitive levels may also
be seen in children and adolescents engaged in sport, although their fitness
improvements are consistent with normal patterns of growth and development. No
differences have been identified between male and female athletes participating at
different competition levels.
McIntyre (2005) say Gaelic football, soccer, and hurling are prominent field games in
Ireland and involve participants undertaking a variety of playing tasks and skills
which place various physiological demands on the participants. The aim of this study
was to evaluate and compare the mid-season physiological profiles of elite players.
Physiological assessment was carried out on 29 inter-county Gaelic footballers, 30
inter-county hurlers, and 21 League of Ireland soccer players. Significant differences
were reported for % body fat (p<0.05), aerobic capacity (p<0.05), flexibility (p<0.05),
upper body strength (p<0.05), upper body strength endurance (p<0.05), abdominal
endurance (p<0.05), and speed endurance (p<0.05), while there were no differences
recorded for height, weight, or speed levels.
A relatively heterogeneous body size is evident for all three sports. Soccer players had
lower body fat levels, greater aerobic capacity, greater strength endurance, and greater
flexibility compared to both Gaelic footballers and hurlers, possibly due to specific
training and conditioning programs or physical adaptation to match play The greater
strength of both Gaelic footballers and hurlers and the superior speed endurance levels
of Gaelic footballers also reflect the physical nature of the sports. Similar speed levels
amongst all three sports reflect the importance of speed for performance. The various
physiological attributes for Gaelic football, soccer, and hurling reflect the physical
requirements for success and participation in each of these field games.
Vodak P.A, Savin W.M, Haskell W.L, Wood P.D studied the profile of male and
female tennis players. Cardiorespiratory characteristics, relative body fat, grip strength
and selected skinfolds, circumferences and bone diameters were determined in 25
males and 25 females (31--55 yr) whose exclusive mode of regular exercise was tennis
(9.7-11.1 hr/wk). Mean resting heart rates were 54 beats/min for the males and 61
beats/min for the females. Mean resting blood pressures were 117/75 and 107/68
mmHg for the males and females, respectively. Compared to normally active
populations of the same age and sex, the tennis players displayed an above average
maximal oxygen uptake (mean values equal 50.2 ml/kg.min-1 for the males and 44.2
ml/kg.min-1 for the females), below average relative body fat (mean values equal
19.3% and 20.3% for the males and females, respectively), greater dominant grip
strengths, and similar non-dominant grip strengths. The results indicate that either
physically superior individuals choose to play tennis, or that regular tennis
participation produces above average levels of fitness, or both.
Fedotova investigated the age trends in development of physique and fitness of young
female athletes practicing field hockey and to detect the significant differences
between both age groups and field position groups. Data were collected on 135
subjects aged between 1 0 and 18, practicing hockey in special sport schools of
Olympic reserve in Moscow. All of them have been studied for height, weight,
lengths, breadths, girths, skin folds, body composition, physical work capacity
(PWC170), respiratory performance (vital capacity), grip strength, and explosive
strength. It was found that hockey players of all age groups have higher values of
humeral breadth, % muscle mass, grip strength, explosive strength, PWC170, and
lower value of % fat and pelvic breadth than non-athletic girls of similar age groups.
The trend of year’s increases of parameters studies was analyzed and it was found that
the periods of the largest increases in morphological parameters precede the periods of
the sizable increases in functional parameters of young female athletes. Compiling the
results of intrasportive differences in physique and fitness of young female hockey
players it is found that the different categories of players (forwards, halves, backs, and
goalkeepers) are significantly differ in some of parameters studied only from thie age
of 15-1 + (after 6-7 years of practicing in hiockey). The findings of this research will
be useful to coaches who are working with young female hockey players. It can also
be used for sport selection and for controlling the effects of practice.
Manna et al. (2006) studied to find out the training induce changes of different
physiological and biochemical parameters in young Indian soccer players. A total of
30 Indian male soccer players, age range 14-16 years regular playing competitive
soccer were selected. A training programme consists of 6 weeks and 12 weeks of
training was employed. They observe a significance increase in aerobic capacity and
anaerobic power after the training. They recommended that since the data on the
soccer players are limited in India therefore, the present study may provide useful
information to the coaches to develop their training programme.
Siegler et al. (2006) evaluated the performance testing of non-elite soccer players and
compared performance results between the elite and non-elite players. 13 male soccer
players volunteer to participate in this study. The test included a treadmill VO2 max
test, 20m sprint, vertical jump, 30 sec Windgate cycle ergometer test, the Loughbo
rough intermittent shuttle test and 220 m multistage shuttle runs to exhaustion (fatigue
test). Actual VO2 max (absolute and relative) scores were correlated with the
estimated VO2 max score (fatigue test), 20 m sprint, vertical jump and 30 sec
Windgate anaerobic test using a Pearson’s product momement correlation.
Insignificant relationships were observed between actual VO2 max score and
estimated VO2 max from the fatigue test (absolute and relative). Insignificant
relationship was observed between peak and average power output (Windgate), 20 m
sprint and vertical jump. The result of this study demonstrated that to elicit
physiological differences between elite and non-elite players, assessment must include
both aerobic and anaerobic players.
Alemdaroglu et al. (2007) studied to determine the relationship among different type
of anaerobic power and capacity test in young soccer players. 12 male young soccer
players volunteer to participate in the 30 seconds. Windgate bicycle ergometer test, 30
second Bosco multiple jump and repeated ZigZag agility test. They found no
significant relationship among pick power; average power and fatigue index obtain
from the anaerobic test. The result of this study revealed that Basco multiple jump,
Windgate and repeated ZigZag agility test, though these test anaerobic in nature
appear to determine the different aspects of anaerobic characteristics. They suggested
that although the test had the same duration they could not be used interchangeably to
determine the anaerobic performance in young soccer players.
Cedric et al. (2007) studied assess the development of anaerobic power in junior elite
aged between 15-19 years and to validated a performance rating of aerobic power
qualities 186 players of Belgium junior national team (U-15, U-16, U-17, U18, U-19)
were evaluated anaerobic power testing session consist of two main part vertical jump,
counter movement jump, counter movement jump free arms, 6 second jumping test
and sprint (20 meter with sprint times at 5m, 10m, 20m). The analysis of the
evaluation of anaerobic power factors in junior elite soccer players between age 15
and 19 showed an increasing progression with the highest increases between age of 15
and 17 for all factors. The performance rating allowed the identification the players
with good anaerobic power potential.
Mehmet et al. (2007) studied to determine the relationships among different type of
aerobic power and capacity test in young soccer players. 36 male young soccer players
(age 16.6±1.2 years), VO2 max (55.72±4.94 ml/kg/min), volunteer participate in the
12 min Cooper test, Conconi test, and running test with progressively increased work
load protocol. All the subject were tested approximately in 2 weeks during the
competition period of young soccer league. VO2 max was measured with Cosmed
portable oxygen analyser. There were no significant relationship in VO2 max between
running test with progressively increased work protocol and the 12 min Cooper test.
Silva-Veto (2007) examined the differences in fitness profile of under 15 male soccer
players in accordance to their field position. The subjects were 56 Brazilian soccer
players of U-15 category. The players grouped by field position as central difenders
(N-14), lateral defender (N-10), defensive midfielder (N-8), offensive midfielders (N-
11) and forwards. The measurement included body mass, height, skinfold, Yo – Yo
intermittent recovery test, 30 meter test, Squat Jump and counter movement jump test.
Analysis of variance reveled that there were no significant differences in field position
for body mass, skinfold, Yo – Yo intermittent recovery test, 30 meter sprint, Squat
jump and counter movement jump test.
Castagna et al. (2007) investigated the possible relationship between VO2 max and
repeated sprint ability in a group of young regional level soccer players. 19 players
were randomly drawn from a population of players to participate in this study. VO2
max was assessed with a Yo – Yo endurance test and gas analyser perform with K4B2
gas analyser. Repeated sprint ability was assessed with 7 x 30 meter line sprint with
20 seconds active recovery between bouts. VO2 max was not significantly correlated
to speed decrement and total sprint time. Using the median split technique significant
correlation was found between VO2 max and fatigue index in the players with low
VO2 max. Result suggested a mutual influence between VO2 max and repeated sprint
ability in youth soccer players with lower level of fitness. That repeated sprint ability
was possibly develop independent of aerobic fitness once a threshold level of aerobic
power was achieved. The present data also highlighted the importance of testing both
VO2 max and repeated sprint ability performance separately in prospective youth
soccer players.
CHAPTER- 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
In the introduction chapter, the researcher introduced the research area with its
perspectives, nature of the game and the demand of the game. After reviewing all the
available scientific literature, the researcher identified the research problem of this
study and prepared to start for making a bridge between the information gaps. Then
the researcher formulated objectives of the study and the hypothesis for the direction
of this thesis. Methodology is an area from where the total research being guided and
control. The methodological description should be enough for a future researcher to
reproduce the study. In this chapter study location, description of population and
subjects, inclusion and exclusion criteria, ethical consideration, variables studied and
administrations of test, design of the study, data collection, and statistical procedure
for data analysis are described.
“STUDY DESIGN
STUDY SETTINGS
Dribble Basket Ball Academy Near to NEM, Public School, Sector 93, Gejha, Noida
Uttar-Pradesh
SAMPLING
Convenient Sampling
STUDY DURATION
INCLUSION CRITERIA
a) 100 young healthy male and female basketball players in the age group of 18-
25yrs.
b) Pain Free
c) No Injury In Last Six months
d) No Visual Impairment
EXCLUSION CRITERIA
d) History of Smoking.
g) Obese individuals.
Prabha et al,(2009)
SAMPLE SIZE
MATERIAL USED
Inch tape
Chalk
Plate
Stopwatch
SCALES USED
Y-Balance Test
Plate tapping test ( PLT)
Queen’s College test for VO2 Max test
METHODS OF SELECTION
Convenient Sampling
PROCEDURE
The “Static Balance Test is used to assess balance control. “The Static Balance
Test, consists of five posture-holding tasks (sitting, stride standing, close standing,
one-foot standing on the unparalyzed leg, and one-foot standing on the paralyzed
leg). Four grades, 1-4, are used to judge the ability of patients to hold these
postures. The grade at which a subject is rated on a task is taken as the score for
that task. Hence, the minimum Static Balance Test score is 5, and the maximum is
20. A higher score indicates better balance.”
The clinical test of One-leg Stance Test assesses postural steadiness in a static
position by a quantitative measurement i.e. the number of seconds a person can
maintain the One-leg Stance Test position, thus implying that better postural
steadiness would allow for longer standing on one leg.
Y balance Test
Prior to the test, players performed a warm-up on an exercise bicycle for three
minutes. The players were then allowed to have six practice trials on each leg in each
of the three reach directions prior to formal testing. The player was instructed to stand
on the leg (which was being evaluated) in the center of the platform with the most
distal end of the longest toe just behind the red line. While maintaining singleleg
stance, the player was instructed to reach with the free limb in the anterior direction
for three trials. The player was instructed to push the distance indicator as far as
possible towards the direction that was being evaluated. The player was monitored by
the researcher during testing, and was not allowed to move the indicator by kicking it
or accelerating the indicator at the end of the push. The maximal reach distance was
recorded at the most distal point reached by the foot in the proximal edge of the
indicator and was measured to the half centimeter. The trial was discarded and
repeated if the player (1) Lost his balance during the exercise (reaching the maximal
point and coming back at the initial position), (2) Lifted the heel of the foot that was
on the platform. The entire surface of the foot must have remained remain in contact
with the platform throughout the entire duration of the movement, (3) The foot did not
maintain contact with the distance indicator while the indicator was in motion (e.g. the
indicator was kicked), (4) The distance indicator was used to maintain posture (e.g.
the athlete supported their weight on the movement indicator), or (5) a loss of balance
occurred during the return to the starting position once the distance had been marked.
The greatest of the three trials for each reach direction was used for analysis. Also, the
greatest reach distances for each of the directions were summed to yield a composite
reach distance, which was normalized to limb length for analysis of the overall
performance on the test.
Subjects limb length was measured before doing the test. They were placed in supine
on a table with their hips and knees flexed. Subjects then lifted the pelvis and returned
it passively to the table. The examiner then stretched the lower limbs passively into
extension, in order to balance the pelvis. The subject’s right leg was measured in
centimeters, with a tape measure, from the bottom edge of the anterior superior iliac
spine to the distal edge of the medial malleolus. One researcher measured the subjects´
limb length and explained the test procedures, and the other researcher collected data
during the test and made sure that all test movements were performed correctly.
For tests, subjects performed the recommended four practice trials, in each direction
prior to completing the three test trials on each limb. 4 A standardized order of testing
was utilized, the right stance limb was measured first in the order of ANT, PM and
PL. Testing was repeated in the same order for the left stance limb. If the subject
removed their hands from their hips, lost their balance or rested their reaching foot on
the ground kicked the reach-indicator plate to gain more distance (YBT), made contact
with the ground on the reach or return to bilateral stance to gain balance, or lifted or
shifted any part of the stance foot the trial was considered incomplete, and was
repeated. The distance of the toe touch reached along each direction was marked and
subsequently measured by an investigator while the most proximal edge of the reach
indicator from the apex of the YBT was recorded.
Eurofit test
Procedure for Aerobic fitness using VO2 Max test
MEASUREMENT OF VO2max
The Queen's College step test was designed for group testing that could be done
using gymnasium bleachers as benches: the bench height, 16.25 inches, is the
height of most bleachers.”
The “subjects' heart rates were taken for a fifteen-second period starting at five
seconds post-exercise and for group testing the pulse can be counted by the subject
or someone assisting. The concept of this post-test measurement is that a person
recovering faster (lower heart rate) from exercising should have a higher maximum
oxygen consumption. The predicted maximum oxygen consumption is based on the
recovery heart rate.
OUTCOME MEASURES
In “order to create good adult athletes, it is of primary importance the attention that
is paid to a complete and harmonic development of motor abilities at early ages,
above all concerning the specific age- related ones in each phase of the athlete’s
body development. Presently, there is poor attention on such aspects, not only in
practical training sessions, but also concerning the existing literature.”
FEMALE MALE
50% 50%
MALE FEMALE
120
112.6 111.72 112.38 112.46 110.76 112.86
104.22
98.82
100
80 76.4
60
112.46 113.06 113.38 112.02 112.56 110.52 108.2
99.74
40 77.04
20.55
20
11.38 10.92
21.2
10.66 11.18
0
Subsequently there were not a significant group main effects for gender involving
the individual reach scores for both right PM and left PM reaches. In both cases the
male reach scores very similar to female. However, it is important to remember that
these scores are pooled values (male 111.7± 4.2 versus female 113.2±4.2). There
were however no significant differences in either right (p=.500) or left (p=.364)
The subjects were instructed to step up and down a few times to become familiar
with the height. Subjects were told to step up on the bench whenever a "beep" from
the recorded metronome was heard and to switch the leading leg as often as
possible to avoid muscle soreness in the legs. When the subject was prepared the
metabolic cart was started and the tape recording began. The stopwatch was
coordinated with the recorder in order to monitor heart rate after each minute.
Subjects were also told to stop if dizzy, losing balance or experiencing pain. It was
more important to be comfortable than to finish the test. When the test was
completed the Time watch was stopped and subjects sat down to rest. The subjects
left the HeartWatch on at this time unless more than one participant was performing
tests.
Means and standard deviations were calculated for the baseline characteristics,
YBT reach distance, VO2 max and for plate tapping test which are given below in
the descriptive statistics.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for Male and Female basketball players for Y-balance
Test, Plate tapping test and VO2 max test.
Descriptive Statistics
Bootstrapa
Std. 95% Confidence Interval
Statistic Error Bias Std. Error Lower Upper
AGE N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 20.14 .136 .00 .14 19.88 20.42
Std. Deviation 1.356 -.008 .061 1.222 1.466
Variance 1.839 -.018 .163 1.492 2.149
HEIGHT N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 160.90 .393 -.01 .39 160.10 161.70
Std. Deviation 3.927 -.027 .165 3.563 4.222
Variance 15.424 -.182 1.288 12.693 17.824
WEIGHT N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 51.08 .517 .02 .50 50.11 52.09
Std. Deviation 5.165 -.032 .231 4.683 5.567
Variance 26.680 -.273 2.371 21.927 30.992
LIMB N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 35.48 .174 .00 .18 35.13 35.82
Std. Deviation 1.744 -.007 .072 1.584 1.871
Variance 3.040 -.021 .248 2.509 3.501
RAL N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 112.53 .962 .04 .94 110.72 114.51
Std. Deviation 9.625 -.055 .458 8.610 10.464
Variance 92.635 -.846 8.748 74.129 109.492
RPM N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 112.39 1.003 .04 1.06 110.45 114.54
Std. Deviation 10.031 -.063 .481 8.972 10.861
Variance 100.624 -1.030 9.554 80.488 117.957
RPL N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 112.88 1.015 -.03 .99 110.95 114.81
Std. Deviation 10.148 -.058 .427 9.191 10.911
Variance 102.975 -.989 8.593 84.481 119.043
AL N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 112.24 1.020 -.02 1.03 110.31 114.27
Std. Deviation 10.196 -.061 .467 9.237 11.035
Variance 103.962 -1.020 9.440 85.313 121.773
PM N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 111.66 .960 .02 .96 109.77 113.56
Std. Deviation 9.602 -.072 .459 8.584 10.415
Variance 92.206 -1.166 8.759 73.683 108.471
PL N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 111.69 .931 -.06 .92 109.83 113.50
Std. Deviation 9.307 -.080 .490 8.264 10.128
Variance 86.620 -1.244 9.017 68.287 102.579
RIGHT N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 11.02 .277 -.01 .27 10.50 11.56
Std. Deviation 2.767 -.016 .101 2.546 2.933
Variance 7.656 -.076 .551 6.483 8.602
LEFT N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 11.05 .221 .00 .23 10.63 11.50
Std. Deviation 2.208 -.020 .126 1.930 2.439
Variance 4.876 -.070 .552 3.725 5.948
REST N 100 0 0 100 100
HEART Mean 76.72 .541 -.03 .52 75.72 77.77
RATE Std. Deviation 5.407 -.031 .229 4.903 5.819
Variance 29.234 -.284 2.455 24.035 33.866
STEPS N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 99.28 .596 -.02 .62 98.04 100.53
Std. Deviation 5.965 -.028 .285 5.342 6.482
Variance 35.577 -.251 3.369 28.536 42.013
MAXIMUM N 100 0 0 100 100
HEART Mean 106.21 .853 -.02 .86 104.54 107.81
RATE Std. Deviation 8.530 -.042 .373 7.780 9.205
Variance 72.753 -.582 6.333 60.536 84.741
VO2 N 100 0 0 100 100
Mean 20.875367313 . . . 20.4282 21.302330341932050
039742 23013 00312 2254223356 1039111
90805 60596 22416 5660
08501 24371
Std. Deviation 2.3013908050 -.0170 . 2.02642 2.516698516254472
85008 41313 1245142622 6769925
33864 58775 368
4
Variance 5.296 -.063 .567 4.106 6.334
Valid N N 100 0 0 100 100
(listwise)
a. Unless otherwise noted, bootstrap results are based on 1000 bootstrap samples
The first section, Group-Statistics, provides basic information about the group
comparisons, including the sample size (n), mean, standard deviation, and standard
error.
Group Statistics
SEX N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
VO2 MALE 50 20.54614879742 2.019021151874 .
6430 378 2855327095698
89
FEMALE 50 21.20458582865 2.530464210292 .
3060 124 3578616805294
85
It can be observed from the above table that Mean values for Male (20.54) and for
female (21.20) was found to be near similar which shows that there is striking
similarity between male and female candidates in the academy.
The second section, Independent-Samples Test, displays the results most relevant to
the Independent Samples t-Test. There are two parts that provide different pieces of
information: (A) Levene’s Test for Equality-of-Variances and (B) t-test for
Equality-ofMeans. The p-value of Levene's test is ".020", so cannot rejected the
null of Levene's test and conclude that there is no significance difference between
Male and female Basket ball players. T-test for Equality-of-Means provides the
results for the actual Independent Samples test.
Inde pe nde nt S am ple s Te s t
t-test for
Equality
of Means
95% Confidence
Sig. (2- Interval of the
t df tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference Difference
Lower Upper
VO2 Equal 3.438 0.067 -1.438 98 0.154 -0.658437031226629 0.457814275253306 -1.566954560676020 0.250080498222757
variances
assumed
Equal -1.438 93.396 0.154 -0.658437031226629 0.457814275253306 -1.567514670759180 0.250640608305923
variances
not
assumed
HEIGHT Equal 0.137 0.712 1.963 98 0.053 1.520 0.774 -0.017 3.057
variances
assumed
Equal 1.963 97.594 0.053 1.520 0.774 -0.017 3.057
variances
not
assumed
WEIGHT Equal 1.870 0.175 0.386 98 0.701 0.400 1.038 -1.659 2.459
variances
assumed
Equal 0.386 97.019 0.701 0.400 1.038 -1.659 2.459
variances
not
assumed
LIMB Equal 1.563 0.214 -0.343 98 0.733 -0.120 0.350 -0.815 0.575
variances
assumed
Equal -0.343 97.367 0.733 -0.120 0.350 -0.815 0.575
variances
not
assumed
RAL Equal 1.553 0.216 0.072 98 0.942 0.140 1.935 -3.699 3.979
variances
assumed
Equal 0.072 96.397 0.942 0.140 1.935 -3.700 3.980
variances
not
assumed
RPM Equal 0.851 0.359 -0.666 98 0.507 -1.340 2.012 -5.333 2.653
variances
assumed
Equal -0.666 97.558 0.507 -1.340 2.012 -5.333 2.653
variances
not
assumed
RPL Equal 0.209 0.648 -0.491 98 0.625 -1.000 2.037 -5.043 3.043
variances
assumed
Equal -0.491 97.509 0.625 -1.000 2.037 -5.043 3.043
variances
not
assumed
LAL Equal 1.801 0.183 0.215 98 0.830 0.440 2.049 -3.626 4.506
variances
assumed
Equal 0.215 97.158 0.830 0.440 2.049 -3.627 4.507
variances
not
assumed
LPM Equal 2.279 0.134 -0.937 98 0.351 -1.800 1.922 -5.614 2.014
variances
assumed
Equal -0.937 96.269 0.351 -1.800 1.922 -5.614 2.014
variances
not
assumed
LPL Equal 0.114 0.736 1.261 98 0.210 2.340 1.856 -1.343 6.023
variances
assumed
Equal 1.261 97.991 0.210 2.340 1.856 -1.343 6.023
variances
not
assumed
RIGHT Equal 0.015 0.902 1.306 98 0.195 0.720 0.551 -0.374 1.814
TAP TEST variances
assumed
Equal 1.306 97.992 0.195 0.720 0.551 -0.374 1.814
variances
not
assumed
LEFT TAP Equal 1.218 0.273 -0.587 98 0.559 -0.260 0.443 -1.139 0.619
TEST variances
assumed
Equal -0.587 96.206 0.559 -0.260 0.443 -1.140 0.620
variances
not
assumed
RESTING Equal 1.516 0.221 -0.590 98 0.557 -0.640 1.085 -2.793 1.513
HEART variances
RATE assumed
Equal -0.590 97.281 0.557 -0.640 1.085 -2.793 1.513
variances
not
assumed
STEPS Equal 1.710 0.194 -0.770 98 0.443 -0.920 1.195 -3.292 1.452
TAKEN variances
assumed
-0.770 96.985 0.443 -0.920 1.195 -3.293 1.453
The main findings of this study are that females reach distance, Plate Tapping test
and Vo2 max result was not significantly different than that of the males as
measured by the YBT and other tests conducted in the study. Success in high
school athletics involves several components of fitness including strength,
cardiovascular endurance, proprioception, coordination, and balance. Balance is
generally considered an important component of athletic activities and is required
for sport. Balance, or postural control, has been described as both static and
dynamic. Static postural control is an attempt to maintain a base of support with
minimal movement of the body segments and maintaining one’s center of mass.
Dynamic postural control involves controlling one’s center of mass while the base
of support is moving. The inability to maintain postural control has been associated
with a general risk for injury in sport. Poor postural control abilities have also been
linked with increased risk of ankle injuries in both male and female adolescent
athletes.
Future research should focus on the variables involved in the prediction equations
by stratification of subjects to obtain a large range of values for the variable(s)
investigated. It was not possible to do this with the subjects participating in this
project because the variables used: age, weight, height and leg length were not
easily stratified. The age range was 18-25 years, the weights were 43 to 60 KG and
the heights were 5' 1"-6' 1" not a wide range for any variable. Subjects would have
to be specifically chosen. If step testing is done for pre-employment evaluations a
single protocol should be chosen for all testing. The important issue in pre-
employment testing would not be over-prediction or under-prediction, but it would
be consistency.
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