B

APPENDIX
Vector Analysis

The following discussion provides a brief review of vector analysis.

A more detailed treatment of these topics is given in Engineering
Mechanics: Statics.

Vector. A vector, A, is a quantity which has magnitude and direction,

and adds according to the parallelogram law. As shown in Fig. B–1,
A = B + C, where A is the resultant vector and B and C are
component vectors.

Unit Vector. A unit vector, uA, has a magnitude of one “dimensionless”

unit and acts in the same direction as A. It is determined by dividing A by
its magnitude A, i.e,

A
uA = (B–1)
A

AⴝBⴙC

Fig. B–1

684
 APPENDIX B VECTOR ANALYSIS 685

Cartesian Vector Notation. The directions of the positive x, y, z z

axes are defined by the Cartesian unit vectors i, j, k, respectively. Azk
As shown in Fig. B–2, vector A is formulated by the addition of its
x, y, z components as A

k Ayj
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k (B–2) y
i j
Axi
The magnitude of A is determined from
x

A = 2A 2x + A 2y + A 2z (B–3) Fig. B–2

The direction of A is defined in terms of its coordinate direction angles, a, z

b, g, measured from the tail of A to the positive x, y, z axes, Fig. B–3. These
angles are determined from the direction cosines which represent the i, j,
A
k components of the unit vector uA ; i.e., from Eqs. B–1 and B–2
g
a b
Ay y
Ax Az
uA = i + j+ k (B–4)
A A A
x
so that the direction cosines are
Fig. B–3

Ax Ay Az
cos a = cos b = cos g = (B–5)
A A A

Hence, uA = cos ai + cos bj + cos gk, and using Eq. B–3, it is seen that

cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1 (B–6)

The Cross Product. The cross product of two vectors A and B,

which yields the resultant vector C, is written as
C
C= A * B (B–7)

and reads C equals A “cross” B. The magnitude of C is

C = A B sin u (B–8)

where u is the angle made between the tails of A and B (0⬚ … u … 180⬚). B
u
The direction of C is determined by the right-hand rule, whereby the
fingers of the right hand are curled from A to B and the thumb points in A
the direction of C, Fig. B–4. This vector is perpendicular to the plane
containing vectors A and B. Fig. B–4

B
 686 APPENDIX B V E C T O R A N A LY S I S

The vector cross product is not commutative, i.e., A * B ⬆ B * A.

Rather,

A * B = -B * A (B–9)

The distributive law is valid; i.e.,

A * (B + D) = A * B + A * D (B–10)

And the cross product may be multiplied by a scalar m in any manner; i.e.,

m(A * B) = (mA) * B = A * (mB) = (A * B)m (B–11)

⫹ Equation B–7 can be used to find the cross product of any pair of
i Cartesian unit vectors. For example, to find i * j, the magnitude is
(i)(j) sin 90⬚ = (1)(1)(1) = 1, and its direction +k is determined from the
right-hand rule, applied to i * j, Fig. B–2. A simple scheme shown in
Fig. B–5 may be helpful in obtaining this and other results when the need
arises. If the circle is constructed as shown, then “crossing” two of the
j k unit vectors in a counterclockwise fashion around the circle yields a
positive third unit vector, e.g., k * i = j. Moving clockwise, a negative
unit vector is obtained, e.g., i * k = -j.
⫺ If A and B are expressed in Cartesian component form, then the cross
Fig. B–5 product, Eq. B–7, may be evaluated by expanding the determinant

i j k
3
C = A * B = Ax Ay Az 3 (B–12)
Bx By Bz

which yields

C = (A yB z - A zB y)i - (A xB z - A zB x)j + (A xB y - A yB x)k

Recall that the cross product is used in statics to define the moment of
a force F about point O, in which case

MO = r * F (B–13)

where r is a position vector directed from point O to any point on the line
B of action of F.
 APPENDIX B VECTOR ANALYSIS 687

The Dot Product. The dot product of two vectors A and B, which
yields a scalar, is defined as

A # B = A B cos u (B–14)

and reads A “dot” B. The angle u is formed between the tails of A and B
(0⬚ … u … 180⬚).

The dot product is commutative; i.e.,

A#B = B#A (B–15)

The distributive law is valid; i.e.,

A # (B + D) = A # B + A # D (B–16)

And scalar multiplication can be performed in any manner, i.e.,

m(A # B) = (mA) # B = A # (mB) = (A # B)m (B–17)

Using Eq. B–14, the dot product between any two Cartesian
vectors can be determined. For example, i # i = (1)(1) cos 0⬚ = 1 and
i # j = (1)(1) cos 90⬚ = 0.
If A and B are expressed in Cartesian component form, then the dot
product, Eq. C–14, can be determined from

A # B = A xB x + A yB y + A zB z (B–18)

The dot product may be used to determine the angle u formed between
two vectors. From Eq. B–14,

A#B
u = cos-1 a b (B–19)
AB B
 688 APPENDIX B V E C T O R A N A LY S I S

A It is also possible to find the component of a vector in a given direction

using the dot product. For example, the magnitude of the component (or
projection) of vector A in the direction of B, Fig. B–6, is defined by
u A cos u A cos u. From Eq. B–14, this magnitude is
B
uB

A cos u = A # = A # uB
Fig. B–6 B
(B–20)
B

where uB represents a unit vector acting in the direction of B, Fig. B–6.

Differentiation and Integration of Vector Functions. The

rules for differentiation and integration of the sums and products of scalar
functions also apply to vector functions. Consider, for example, the two
vector functions A(s) and B(s). Provided these functions are smooth and
continuous for all s, then

d dA dB
(A + B) = + (B–21)
ds ds ds

(A + B) ds = A ds + B ds (B–22)
L L L

For the cross product,

d dA dB
(A * B) = a * Bb + aA * b (B–23)
ds ds ds

Similarly, for the dot product,

(A # B) =
dA #
B + A#
d dB
(B–24)
ds ds ds