Review Notes

I. ALGEBRA
1.1 Laws/ Properties of Exponents
E1. E5.

E2. if E6.

if E7.

if E8.

E3. E9. if
E4

1.2 Laws/ Properties of Radicals

R1. R4.

R2. R5.

R3. R6.

1.3 Special Product

S1. S5.
S2. S6.
S3. S7.
S4.

1.4 Factorization Patterns

F1.
F2.
F3.
F4. for any positive integer

F5. for any positive odd integer

1.5 Quadratic Equation

a) General Form:
where coefficient of the 2nd-degree term
coefficient of the 1st-degree term constant term
b) Quadratic Formula

c) Sum of the Roots d. Product of the Roots

e) Nature of the Roots

1. If , then and are real and unequal (or distinct).
2. If , then and are real and equal.
3. If , then and are complex and unequal.

1.6 Remainder Theorem

For any constant , if a polynomial is divided by , the remainder is equal to .
1.7 Factor Theorem
For any polynomial and any number , is a factor of if and only if is equal to
zero.

1
1.8 Ration and Proportion
a) Notation for ratio: or

b) Notation for proportion: or

c) If , then

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

d) is equivalent to

1. 3. 4.

2.

1.9 Variation
a) Direct variation
b) Inverse variation

c) Joint variation or where: constant of proportionality

1.10 Binomial Expansion

a) Binomial Theorem
B1.
b) rth term
B2. rth term =

1.11 Arithmetic Progression (AP)

a) Def: An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers such that successive numbers
differ by a constant
b) Formulas:
A1. where 1st term common difference

A2. nth or last term

A3. number of terms

sum of the first n terms

c) Arithmetic Mean (AM) of two numbers and d. Arithmetic Mean of

A4. AM A5. AM

1.12 Geometric Progression (GP)

a) Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of numbers such that the same
quotient is obtained by dividing a term by the preceding term.
b) Formulas:
G1. where 1st term number of terms

G2. nth or last term common ratio

G3. sum of the first terms

c) Geometric Mean (GM) of two numbers and

G4. GM if G5. GM if

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 d) Geometric Mean of e) Sum of Infinite Progression
G6. GM G7.

1.13 Harmonic Progression (HP)

a) Def: A harmonic progression is a sequence of numbers such that the reciprocals of the
numbers form an arithmetic progression.
b) rth term of a harmonic progression
To find the rth term of a harmonic progression, write the equivalent arithmetic
progression by taking the reciprocal of the given terms. Use the formulas for the AP to find
the rth term corresponding to the rth term of the HP. The rth term of the HP equals the
reciprocal of the rth term of the AP. In symbol,

c) Harmonic Mean (HM) between two numbers and d) Harmonic Mean of

H1. HM H2. HM

1.14 Complex Numbers

a) Cartesian notation:
where real part
imaginary part
imaginary unit
b) Magnitude:
c) Conjugate complex numbers: and
d) The sum of two conjugate complex numbers:
e) Difference of two conjugate complex numbers:
f) Product of two conjugate complex numbers:
g) Quotient of two conjugate complex numbers:
h) Fundamental Operations
Sum :
Difference :
Product :
Quotient :

1.15 Partial Fractions

a) Definition:
1. Proper Fraction – an algebraic fraction in which the degree of the numerator is less than
the degree denominator.
2. Partial Fractions – the simpler fractions to which the proper fraction has been resolved.

b) Methods of resolving proper fraction:

A proper fraction of the form where and are polynomials with integral
coefficients, can be resolved into partial fractions, subject to the following cases:

Case I: When the factors of are linear and none is repeated.

Rule: To each non-repeated linear factor , there corresponds a partial
fraction of the form.

Case II: When the factors of are linear and some are repeated.
Rule: To each repeated linear factor , there corresponds the sum of
partial fractions of the form

Case III: When the factors of are irreducible quadratic factors and none is repeated.
Rule: To each non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor , there

corresponds a partial fraction of the form where and are

constants to be determined.

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 Case IV: When the factors of are irreducible quadratic factors and some are repeated.
Rule: To each repeated irreducible quadratic factor , there
corresponds the sum of partial fractions of the form

where are constants to be determined.

II. PROBABILITY
1. Fundamental Principle of Counting (FPC)
If one thing can be accomplished in n1 different ways, a second thing can be accomplished in n 2
different ways, …, and finally a kth thing can be accomplished in nk different ways, then k things can
be accomplished in

number of ways.
Examples
a. In how many ways can three tossed coins fall?
b. In how many ways can two rolled dice land?
c. How many possible outcomes are there when a coin is tossed once or a die is rolled once?
2. Permutation
Def: 2.1 A permutation is an arrangement of a set of objects in a definite order.
Example
Consider the set J = {a, b, c}. What is the number of permutations of the elements of set
J?
2. 1 Linear Permutation
Suppose that we are given n distinct objects and wish to arrange r of these objects in a
line. Since there are n ways of choosing the 1st object, n – 1 ways of choosing the 2 nd object, … ,
and finally n – r +1 ways of choosing the rth object, it follows by the FPC that the number of
different arrangements or permutations is given by
n (n – 1) (n – 2) … (n – r + 1)

We call nPr the number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time. If n = r, then

nPr = n (n – 1) (n – 2) … 1 = n!
If n objects are to be arranged taken r objects at a time, then the number of distinct
arrangements is given by the formula:
nPr

Examples:
a. In how many ways can 7 different books be arranged in a shelf?
b. In how many ways may the first, second, and third prizes be drawn from 8 lottery
tickets?
2.2 Circular Permutation
If n objects are to be arranged in a circular manner, then the number of distinct
arrangements is (n – 1)!
Example:
In how many ways can 5 people be arranged in a circular table?

2.3 Permutation with Repetition

The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n 1 are of one kind, n2 of a
second kind, … , nk of kth kind is

Example :
In how many different ways can 5 red, 3 blue, and 4 green bulbs be arranged in a
wire of a Christmas tree lights with 12 sockets?

3. Combination
What distinguishes permutation from combination is order. That is, a combination is also an
arrangement of a set of objects but without regard to order. Hence, changing the order of any
combination does not make a new combination. The number of combinations of n distinct objects
taken r at a time is

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 Examples
a. How many combinations of two letters are possible using the letters a, b, and c.
b. In how many ways can a committee of 5 people be chosen from 9 people?

4. Probability of Events
Def: 4.1 Probability is the likelihood of occurrence of an event.
Def: 4.2 Experiment is an activity that’s under consideration and which can be done repeatedly.
Examples
a. Drawing a card from an ordinary deck of 52 cards b. Tossing a coin
c. Rolling a die
Def: 4.3 Sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
Examples
a. In tossing a coin, the possible outcomes are head or tail. Hence the sample space is S =
{H, T}.
b. In rolling a die, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Def: 4.4 Sample point is an element of the sample space. In tossing a coin, there are two sample
points: head and tail.
Def: 4.5 An event is any subset of the sample space. A simple even is one that consists of exactly
one outcome, hence it cannot be decomposed. An event is compound if it consists of
more than one outcome.
Def: 4.6 The complement of an event A with respect to the sample space, S is the set of all elements
of S that are not in A (denoted by A’)

4.1 Theoretical Probability – the probability of an event E denoted by P(E) is given by

where n(E) = # of favorable outcomes and n(S) = # of possible
outcomes
If E is any event, then the probability of an event denoted by P(E) has a value between 0 and 1
inclusive. In symbol

If P(E) = 1, then E is sure to happen. If P(E) = 0, then E is impossible to happen. Moreover,

if the probability that E will not happen is P(E’), then P(E) + P(E’) = 1.
Examples
a. Consider the experiment of rolling a die. What is the probability of getting a prime
number?
b. If the probability that Jovie will graduate is , what is the probability that she will not
graduate?
4.2 Conditional Probability
The conditional probability of B, given that A has occurred, is denoted by P(B/A). Since A
known to have occurred, then A becomes the new sample space replacing the original sample
space S. Below is the formula for the conditional probability of B given A.

if P(A) ≠ 0
Example:
Find the probability that a single toss of a die resulted in a number less than 4 if the toss
resulted in even number.
4.3 Mutually and Non-mutually Exclusive Events (The Additive Rule)
Def: 4.3.1 Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot happen at the same time. Otherwise
they are said to be non-mutually exclusive.
If A and B are any two events, then the probability that A or B will happen is given by the
formula:
P(A or B) = P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A B)
where P(A B) is the probability that both A and b will happen.
If A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A B) = P(A) + P(B). Because if A and B are
mutually exclusive the probability of their joint occurrence is zero.
Example:
A card is drawn from a standard deck. What is the probability of getting a) an ace or a
king? b) a red or a face card?
4.4 Dependent and Independent Events (The Multiplication Rule)
Def: 4.4.1 Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does not affect the occurrence
of the other. Otherwise they are said to be dependent.
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 If A and B are any two events, then the probability that A and b will happen is given by
the formula:
P(A and B) = P(A B) = P(A) P(B/A)
Where P(B/A) is the probability that A will happen given that A happened already.
However, if A and B are independent events then P(A B) = P(A) P(B) since P(B/A) = P(B)
Example:
Two cards are drawn one at a time from a well-shuffled deck of cards. Find the
probability that they are both kings if the first card is (a) replaced, (b) not replaced.
5. Binomial Distribution
Def: 5.1 An experiment that has only two possible outcomes, for instance a success and a failure,
is called a binomial experiment.
Properties of a binomial experiment
I. The experiment consists of repeated trials.
II. Each trial results in a outcome that can be classified as a success or a failure.
III. The probability of success remains constant from trial to trial.
IV. The repeated trials are independent.
Def: 5.2 If a binomial experiment can result in success with probability p and failure with
probability q = 1 – p, then the probability distribution of the binomial random variable x, the number
of successes in n independent trials, is
b(x; n, p) = px qn-x
Example:
The probability that a certain kind of component will survive a given shock test is , find the
probability that exactly 2 of the next 4 components tested survive.

III. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

I. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION VALUES
A. Trigonometric Functions of Angles Between 0° and 90°

In the right triangle shown below, the trigonometric functions for are defined as follows:

90° - θ
side hypotenuse
opposite θ

θ
side adjacent to θ

You can also write,

Thus,

Example 1:

1. 2.

B. Values of Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles

You can easily remember the values of the trigonometric fucntions sine, cosine and tangent by
using the special triangle 30°-60°-90° and 45°-45°-90° and by applying the Pythagorean Theorem and
the definition cited earlier.

2 60°
1
1

30°
1

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 There are other trigonometric ratios from the sine, cosine and tangent. These are secant,
cosecant and cotangent. They are defined as follows:

The table below shows the values of the six trigonometric functions of special angles.

1 1

II. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

A. Reciprocal Identities

B. Pythagorean Identities

C. Quotient Identities

D. Co – Function Identities

E. Even – Odd Identities

F. Sum – Difference Formulas

G. Double Angle Formulas

H. Power – Reducing/Half Angle Formulas

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I. Sum – to – Product Formulas

J. Product – to –Sum Formulas

III. LAW OF SINES AND LAW OF COSINES

Right triangle trigonometry can be used to solve problems involving right triangles. However,
many interesting problems involve non – right or oblique triangles. The law of sines and the law of
cosines can be used to solve these types of problems as well as those involving right triangles.
A
A. Law of Sines

This form is easier to use when finding an unknown side.

The law of sines can also be written as: b c
This form is easier to use when solving for an unknown angle.
C C is 5 km from B with aB
Example 1: A, B and C are points on a plane. B is 6 km due west of A.
a
bearing of 285° from A. What is the measure of ? A

B. Law of Cosines
b c
This form is easier to use when finding an unknown side.

C B
This form is easier to use when finding an unknown angle. a

Example 2: A ship sails from a port (P), due west of a lighthouse (L) 6 km away. The ship then sails
10 km to an island (A) with a bearing of 30°. Find (a) Distance AP. (b) The bearing of P
from A.
C. Law of Tangent
a. b. c.

D. Choosing which of the Law of Sines or Law of Cosines to Use

• The law of sines can be used to determine the measures of missing angles or sides of triangles
when the measures of two angles and a side (AAS or ASA), or of two sides and a non-included
angle (SSA), are known.
• The law of cosines can be used when the measures of two sides and an included angle (SAS) or
of the three sides are known (SSS).

IV. PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY

I. TRIANGLES
A. Some theorems about Triangles
1. Isosceles Triangle Theorem. If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite
these sides are congruent. Conversely, if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides
opposite them are congruent.
2. Every equilateral triangle is equiangular and conversely.
3. The sum of the measures of the angles of a triangle is 180.
B. Theorems on Right Triangles
1. Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is a c
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs.
b

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 2. In a 30 – 60 – 90 triangle,
a. The hypotenuse us twice as long as the shorter leg (the leg 60
Opposite the 30° angle), and a 2a
b. The longer leg is times as long as the shorter leg. 30
a

3. In a 45 – 45 – 90 triangle, the hypotenuse is times as long as either leg. 45

a a
45
a
4. Angles Outside the Triangle
The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to 2
the sum of the measures of the remote interior angles.
1 3 4

5. Exterior Angle Inequality Theorem

The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is greater 2
than the measures of either remote interior angle. At the right,
1 3 4
and
6. Triangle Inequality Theorem
The sum of the lengths of the two shorter sides of a triangle is
greater than the length of the third side. a c
a+b>c
b
TRIANGLE CONGRUENCE POSTULATES
Given two triangles. There are four ways to show that they are congruent using only three pairs
of corresponding congruent parts:
SAS Congruence Postulate. If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent
respectively to the corresponding two sides and the include angle of another triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent.
ASA Congruence Postulate. If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent
respectively to the corresponding two angles and the included side of another triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent.
SSS Congruence Postulate. If the three sides of one triangle are congruent respectively to the
corresponding three sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
SAA Congruence Theorem. If a side and two angles adjacent angles of one triangle are congruent
respectively t the corresponding side and two adjacent angles of another triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent.
Corresponding Parts Principle. If two triangles are congruent by SAS, ASA, SSS, or SAA, then their
remaining corresponding parts are also congruent.

Examples:
Each pair of marked triangles are congruent by the indicated congruence postulate.

60 60

32 32

ASA SAS SSS

Triangle Congruence for Right Triangles

From the triangle congruence postulates, any two triangles may be congruent by any of the
following principles:
LL Congruence. Two right triangles are congruent if the two legs of one are congruent, respectively to
the corresponding two legs of the other. (By SAS)

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LA Congruence. Two rights triangles are congruent if a leg and an adjacent acute angle of one are
congruent, respectively, to the corresponding leg and an adjacent acute angle of the other. (By ASA;
by SAA if the acute angles are not adjacent)

HL Congruence. Two right triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse and a leg of one are congruent,
respectively, to the corresponding hypotenuse and a leg of the other. (By Transitivity)

LL LA HL
First Minimum Theorem
The shortest segment joining a point to a line is the perpendicular segment. Thus, the distance
between a line and an external point is the length of the perpendicular segment from the point to the
line.
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are said to be similar if
a. Their corresponding angles are congruent, and
b. Their corresponding sides are proportional.
Examples of similar triangles:

Similarity Postulates:
1. AA Similarity. If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two corresponding angles of
another triangle, then the triangles are similar.
2. SAS Similarity. If an angle of one triangle is congruent to a corresponding angle of another
triangle and the sides that include these angles are proportional then the triangles are similar.
3. SSS Similarity. If all the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the lengths of the
corresponding sides of another triangle, then the triangles are similar.
4. Midsegment Theorem for Triangles. A segment whose endpoints are the midpoints of two sides
of a triangle is A
4.1 Parallel to the third side, and
4.2 Half the length of the third side.
D E

B C
and
5. Side – Splitting Theorem. If a line parallel to a side of a triangle A
intersects the other two sides in distinct points, then it cuts off
segments which are proportional to these sides.
D E

B C

6. Similarity in a right triangle. The altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle forms two
triangles that are each similar to the original triangle and to each other.
7. Given a right triangle and the altitude to the hypotenuse. (a) The altitude to the hypotenuse is
the geometric mean of the segments into which it separates the hypotenuse. (b) Each leg is the
geometric mean of the hypotenuse and the segment adjacent to the leg.

Thus, in the marked adjoining figure, C

. Thus,

10
A D B
 Hence, .
Moreover, . Hence, . Finally, , hence

Examples:

1. Two angles of have measures, 45° and 15°, while two angles of have measures 120°
and 45°. Are the triangles similar? By what similarity theorem of definition?
a. Solution: Yes, by the AAA Similarity Theorem

2. One angle of measures 40° and the sides that include the angle measures 5 cm each.
Another triangle has an angle that measures 70° and the sides that include these angle
measures 8 cm each. Are the triangles similar?
a. Solution: Yes, by the SAS Similarity Theorem
3. Given the figure as marked. Find PS.

S
Q x C
15 x 12
9
P T
R
4. In the marked figure at the right,
and . Find . B
Solution: A
D
QUADRILATERALS
A quadrilateral is a four – sided figure.

• If all four angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, then the quadrilateral is a rectangle.
• If all four angles of a quadrilateral are right angles, and all four sides are congruent, then the
quadrilateral is a square.
• If both pairs of opposite sides are parallel, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
• If one and only one pair of opposite sides are parallel, then the quadrilateral is a trapezoid.

Rectangle Square Parallelogram Trapezoid Isosceles

Trapezoid
THEOREMS ON QUADRILATERALS
1. Each diagonal separates a parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
2. In a parallelogram, any two opposite sides are congruent.
Corollary: If two lines are parallel, then all points of each line are equidistant from the other
line.

Recall: The distance between a line and an external point is the length of the perpendicular
segment from the point to the line.

The distance between any two parallel lines is the distance from any point of one to the
other.
3. In a parallelogram, any two opposite angles are congruent.
4. In a parallelogram, any two consecutive angles are supplementary.
5. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Application:
1. The segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side and
half as long.
2. A rhombus is a parallelogram all of whose sides are congruent.
3. A rectangle is a parallelogram all of whose angles are congruent.
4. A square is a rectangle all of whose sides are congruent.
5. If a parallelogram has one right angle, then it is a rectangle.
6. In a rhombus, the diagonals are perpendicular bisectors to each other. Rhombus
11
 7. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other and are perpendicular, then the
quadrilateral is a rhombus.
CIRCLES

Definition A B
Let P be a point in a given plane, and r be a positive number, the
circle with center P and radius is the set of all points of the plane whose
distance from P is r. P

SPHERE

Definition R
Let P be a point and let r be a positive number. The sphere with
center P and radius r is the set of all points of space whose distance P
A B
from P is r.
Basic Terms on Circles and Spheres

• two or more spheres or two or more circles with the same center are called concentric.
R
• A chord of a circle is a segment whose endpoints line on the circle.
• A line which intersects a circle in two points is called a secant of the
A circle. B
• A chord of a sphere is a segment whose endpoints lie on the sphere.
• A diameter of a circle or sphere is a chord containing the center.
• A radius of a circle or a sphere is a segment from the center to a point of the sphere.
• The interior of a circle is the set of all points of the plane whose distance from the center is less
than the radius.
• The exterior of a circle is the set of all points of the plane whose distance from the center is
greater than the radius.
Definition R
A tangent to a circle is a line (in the same plane) which intersects
the circle in one and only point. This point is called the point of tangency.
A B

Theorems Circles and Spheres

1. The intersection of a sphere with a plane through its center is a circle with the same center
and the same radius.
2. The intersection of a sphere with a plane through its center is called a great circle of the
sphere.
3. A line perpendicular to a radius at its outer end is tangent to the circle.
4. Every tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of tangency.
5. The perpendicular from the center of a circle to a chord bisects the chord.
6. The segment from the center of a circle to the midpoint of a chord which is not a diameter is
perpendicular to the chord.
7. In the plane of a circle, the perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the center.
8. In the same circle or in congruent circles, chords equidistant from the center are congruent.
9. In the same circle or in congruent circles, any two congruent chords are equidistant from the
center.
10. If the line and the circle are coplanar, and line passes the interior of the circle, then it
intersects the circle in two and only two points.
Definition
Two circles are tangent if they are tangent to the same line at the same point. If two tangent
circles are coplanar, and their centers are on the same side of their common tangent, then they are
internally tangent. If two tangent circles are coplanar, and their centers are on opposite sides of their
common tangent, then they are externally tangent.

Internally tangent Externally tangent

ARC OF CIRCLES
In the adjoining circle at the right, P is the center.The set of points
12
(darkened) on the circle in the interior of is the minor arc . The
remaining set of points on the circle is the major arc . A and B are the
endpoints of the arcs.

Definition
A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle.
In the figure, is a central angle.

Definition
1. The degree measure of an arc is the measure of the corresponding central angle.
2. The degree measure of a semicircle is 180

INSCRIBED ANGLES AND INTERCEPTED ARCS

Definition
An angle is inscribed in an arc if
1. The sides of the angle contain end points of the arc and
2. The vertex of the angle is a point on the circle, but not an end point, of the arc.
Definition
An angle intercepts an arc if
1. The endpoints of the arc lie on the angle,
2. All other points of the arc are in the interior of the angle, and
3. Each side of the angle contains an end point of the arc.

Theorems on Inscribed Angles and Intercepted Arcs

1. The measure of an inscribed angle is half the measure of the intercepted arc.
2. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
3. Every two angles inscribed in the same arc are congruent.
Definitions
A triangle is inscribed in a circle if the vertices of the triangle lie on the circle. If each side of the
triangle is tangent to the circle, then the triangle is circumscribed about the circle.

A quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle if the vertices of the quadrilateral lie on the circle. If each
side of the quadrilateral is tangent to the circle, then the quadrilateral is circumscribed about the circle.

A polygon is tangent to a circle, then the polygon is circumscribed about the circle.

Inscribed Triangle Circumscribed Triangle Circumscribed Quadrilateral Inscribed Quadrilateral

SOLIDS AND THEIR VOLUMES

Right Prisms Cube Triangular Prism Pyramid

Geometry FORMULAS for PERIMETER (P), CIRCUMFERENCE (C), AREA (A), SURFACE AREA (SA),
and VOLUME (V)
Rectangle Right Rectangular Prism

P = 2a + 2b b V = abc c
A = ab S = 2(ab + ac + bc)2
a a b
Square Cube
s s
P = 4s A = s2 V = s3 S = 6s2
s
s 13 s
Triangle Right Prism

P=a+b+c c a V = Ah
A = ab S = 2A + Ph h
Where A = area of base
b and P = perimeter of A
base P

Parallelogram Right Regular Pyramid

P = 2a + 2b h a V= Ah
e
A = bh S = A + Pl
b A P

Trapezoid b Right Circular Cylinder

r
P=a+b+c+d c h d V = Ah
A = (a + b)h = r2h h
a S = A + Ch A
= 2 r2 + 2 rh C
C
Regular n – gon Right Circular Cone

P = ns s V = Ah h
r l
A = rP S = A + Pl r
A
C
Circle Sphere R
r
C=2 r V= r3 A P B
2 2
A= r S=4 r

Theorems
1. The volume of the prism is the product of the altitude and the area of the base.
2. The volume of a triangular pyramid is one – third the product of its altitude
and its base area.
3. The volume of pyramid is one-third the product of its altitude and its
base area.
4. The volume of a circular cylinder is the product of its altitude and the
area of its base. Cylinder Cone
5. The volume of a circular cone is one-third the product of its altitude and the area of its base.

V. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Introduction
A straight line is represented by an equation of the first degree in one or two variables, while
circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are represented by equations of the second degree in two
variables.
A. The Straight Line
1. The distance between two points A and B is (x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y 2 )2 .
2. Slope of a line
y1 − y 2
a. The slope of the non-vertical line containing A and B is m = or
x1 − x 2
y 2 − y1
m=
x 2 − x1
b. The slope of a line parallel to the x-axis is 0.
c. The slope of a line parallel to the y-axis is undefined.
d. The slope of a line that leans to the right is positive.
14
 e. The slope of a line that leans to the left is negative.
3. The Equation of a line
In general, a line has an equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 where, a, b, c are numbers
and that a and b are not both zero.
4. Different forms of the equation of a line
a. General form:
b. Slope-intercept form: , where is the slope and the y – intercept.
c. Point slope form: where is any point on the line.
y 2 − y1
d. Two point form: y − y1 = (x − x1 ) where and are any two points on the
x2 − x1
line.
x y
e. Intercept form: + = 1 where a is the x-intercept and b the y-intercept.
a b
5. Parallel and Perpendicular lines
Given two non-vertical lines p and q so that p has slope m1 and q has slope m2.
a. If and are parallel, then
b. If and are perpendicular to each other, then
6. Segment division
Given segment AB with A and B .
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 
a. The midpoint M of segment AB is M  , .
 2 2 
r AP r1
b. If a point P divides in the ratio 1 so that = , then the coordinates of P can
r2 PB r2
r x + r2 x1 r y + r2 y1
be obtained using the formula x = 1 2 and y = 1 2 .
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
7. Distance of a point from a line
The distance of a point A from the line is given by
Ax1 + By1 + C
d=
 A2 + B 2
B. The Circle

1. Definition. A circle is the set of all points on a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point on
the plane. The fixed point is called the center, and the distance from the center to any point
of the circle is called the radius.
2. Equation of a circle

a) General form:
b) Center-radius form: where the center is at and the radius
is equal to

3. Line tangent to a circle

A line tangent to a circle touches the circle at exactly one point called the point of tangency.
The tangent line is perpendicular to the radius of the circle, at the point of tangency.

C. Conic Section
A conic section or simply conic, is defined as the graph of a second – degree equation in x and
y.
In terms of locus of points, a conic is defined as the path of a point, which moves so that its
distance from a fixed point is in constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line. The fixed point is
called the focus of the conic, the fixed line is called the directrix of the conic, and the constant ratio
is called the eccentricity, usually denoted by .

If , the conic is an ellipse. (Note that a circle has )

If , the conic is parabola.
If , the conic is hyperbola.

D. The Parabola
1. Definition. A parabola is the set of all points on a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point
and a fixed line of the plane. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is the directrix.
15
2. Equation and Graph of Parabola
a) The equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at is . The
parabola opens to the right if and opens to the left if .
b) The equation of a parabola with vertex at the origin and focus at is . The
parabola opens upward if and opens downward if .
c) The equation of a parabola with vertex at and focus at is
. The parabola opens to the right if and opens to the left is
.
d) The equation of a parabola with vertex at and focus at is
. The parabola opens upward if and opens downward is .
e) Standard form: or
f) General form: , or

3. Parts of a Parabola
a) The vertex is the point, midway between the focus and the directrix.
b) The axis of the parabola is the line containing the focus and perpendicular to the
directrix. The parabola is symmetric with respect to its axis.
c) The latus rectum is the chord drawn through the focus and parallel to the directrix
(and therefore perpendicular to the axis) of the parabola.
d) In the parabola , the length of the latus rectum is ,
and the endpoints of the latus rectum are y
and .

In the figure at the right, the vertex of the O x parabola is

the
origin, the focus is , the directrix is the line
’
containing , the axis is the x-axis, the latus rectum
’
is the line containing .

y y
’
x
O
x
O

’
The graph of The graph of

Ellipse

1. Definition. An ellipse is the set of all points P on a plane such that the sum of the distances of P
from two fixed points F’ and F on the plane is constant. Each foxed points is called focus
(plural: foci).
2. Equation of an Ellipse
a) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at , the foci are at , the
endpoints of the minor axis are at and , then the equation
x2 y 2
is 2 + 2 = 1
a b

16
 b) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at , the foci are at , the
endpoints of the minor axis are at and , then the equation
x2 y 2
is + =1 .
b2 a 2
c) If the center is at , the distance between the vertices is , the principal axis is

horizontal and , then the equation is

(x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 =1 .
a2 b2
d) If the center is at , the distance between the vertices is , the principal axis is

vertical and , then the equation is

(y − k ) 2
+
(x − h ) 2
=1 .
2
a b2
3. Parts of an Ellipse
For the terms described below, refer to the ellipse shown with center at O, vertices at
and , foci at and , endpoints of the minor axis at and
 b2   b2 
, endpoints of one latus rectum at G '  − c,−  and G − c,  and the other at
 a  a
 b2   b2 
H '  c,−  and H  c,  .
 a  a
y
 b 2
  b2 
 − c,  
 a   c, a 

 

O x

 b2   b2 
 − c,−   c,− a 
 a   

a) The center of an ellipse is the midpoint of the segment joining the two foci. It is the
intersection of the axes f the ellipse. In the figure above, point O is the center.
b) The principal axis of the ellipse is the line containing the foci and intersecting the
ellipse at its vertices. The major axis is a segment of the principal axis whose
endpoints are the vertices of the ellipse. In the figure, is the major axis and has
length units.
c) The minor axis is the perpendicular bisector of the major axis and whose endpoints
are both on the ellipse. In the figure, is the minor axis and has length units.
d) The latus rectum is the chord through a focus and perpendicular to the major axis.
2b 2
and are the latus rectum, each with a length of .
a
y
y
 9  9
 − 4,   4, 
 5  5

O x
O x
 9  5
 − 4,−   4,− 
 5  9

The graph of
x2 y2
+ = 1. The graph of
(x − 2)2 + ( y − 1)2 =1 .
25 9 100 25
4. Kinds of Ellipses
a) Horizontal ellipse. An ellipse is horizontal if its principal axis is horizontal. The graphs
above are both horizontal ellipses.
b) Vertical ellipse. An ellipse is vertical if its principal axis is vertical.

E. The Hyperbola

17
1. Definition. A hyperbola is the set of points on a plane such that the difference of the distances
of each point on the set from two fixed points on the plane is constant. Each of the fixed points
is called focus.
2. Equation of a hyperbola
a) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at , the foci are at , the
endpoints of the minor axis are at and , then the equation is
x2 y2
− = 1.
a 2 b2
b) If the center is at the origin, the vertices are at , the foci are at , the
endpoints of the minor axis are at and , then the equation is
y2 x2
− = 1.
a 2 b2
c) If the center is at , the distance between the vertices is , the principal axis is

horizontal and , then the equation is

(x − h)2 − ( y − k )2 =1 .
a2 b2
d) If the center is at , the distance between the vertices is , the principal axis is

vertical and , then the equation is

(y − k ) 2
−
(x − h ) 2
=1 .
2
a b2
3. Parts of a hyperbola
For the terms described below, refer to the hyperbola shown which has its center at O,
vertices at and , foci at and , endpoints of one latus rectum at
 b2   b2   b2   b2 
G '  − c,−  and G − c,  and the other at H '  c,−  and H  c,  .
 a  a
y  a  a
 b2 
 b2   
 − c,   c, a 
 
 a 

x
O

 b2   b2 
 − c,−   c,− 
 a   a 

a) The hyperbola consists of two separate parts called branches.

b) The two fixed points are called foci. In the figure, the foci are at .
c) The line containing the two foci is called the principal axis. In the figure, the principal
axis is the x-axis.
d) The vertices of a hyperbola are the points of intersection of the hyperbola and the
principal axis. In the figure, the vertices are at .
e) The segment whose endpoints are the vertices is called the transverse axis. In the
figure is the transverse axis.
f) The line segment with endpoints and where is called the
conjugate axis, and is perpendicular bisector of the transverse axis.
g) The intersection of the two axes is the center of the hyperbola.
h) the chord through a focus and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called a latus
 b2 
rectum. In the figure, is a latus rectum whose endpoints are G '  − c,−  and
 a
 b2  2b 2
G − c,  and has a length of .
 a a

4. The Asymptotes of a Hyperbola

Shown in the figure below is a hyperbola with two lines as extended diagonals of the
rectangle shown.
b b
y=− x y y= x
a a

18
These two diagonal lines are said to be the asymptotes of the curve, and are helpful in sketching the
x2 y2 b
graph of a hyperbola. The equations of the asymptotes associated with 2
− 2 = 1 are y = x
a b a
2 2
b y x a
and y = − x . Similarly, the equations of the asymptotes associated with 2 − 2 = 1 are y = x
a a b b
a
and y = − x .
b
y y

x
o o x

x2 y 2 y 2 x2
The graph of − =1. The graph of − =1 .
9 27 9 27

VI. CALCULUS
I. Theorems on Limits of Functions

We use the following theorems to evaluate limits of functions:

1. Uniqueness Theorem: If the limit of a function exists, then it is unique. That is, if
and , then .
2. If , then
3. If , a constant, then
4.
5. If and then

5.1
5.2
5.3 provided

6. If and then

6.1
6.2 with the restriction that if is even, .

7. if and only if
8. If is any positive integer, then
8.1

8.2

8.3

9. Let , and where

9.1 If and if approaches 0 through positive values of , then

19
 9.2 If and if approaches 0 through negative values of , then

9.3 If and if approaches 0 through positive values of , then

9.4 If and if approaches 0 through negative values of , then

10. Let , and where is any constant, then

10.1
10.2
10.3 If
10.4 If
10.5 If
10.6 If
11. If , then and

II. Theorems on Differentiation

In getting the derivative of a function, one or more of the following theorems may be applied:

1. If , where is a constant, then

2. If , where , then
3. If , then
4. If , then
5. If , where is a constant, then
6. If , where , then

7. If is any rational number, , then

8. If , then
9. If , then
10. If , then
11. If , then
12. If , then
13. If , then
14. If then
15. If where is any constant not equal to 0, then
16. If then

MODERN GEOMETRY & LINEAR ALGEBRA

MODERN GEOMETRY

Euclidean Geometry

The geometry with which are most familiar is called Euclidean geometry and is modeled by our notion
of a “flat plane”

It was named after Euclid, a Greek Mathematician who lived in 300 BC. This geometry satisfies all
Euclid’s postulates and initial axioms namely:

20
Points Existence Postulate. Space contains at least four noncoplanar points. Every plane contains at
least three non-collinear points. Every line contains at least two points.

Straight-Line Postulate. Two points are contained in one and only one line. (Two points determine a
line.)

Plane Postulate. Three noncollinear points are contained in one and only one plane. (Three non
collinear points determine a plane.)

Flat Plane Postulate. If two points are in a plane, then the line containing the points is in the same
plane.

Plane-intersection Postulate. It two planes intersect, then their intersection is a line.

Parallel Postulate. Through a given point P not on a line l, exactly one line may be drawn parallel to line
l.

Euclidean Initial Axioms

1. Any two distinct points determine one and only line.

2. Any three noncollinear points, or a line and a point not on the line, determine one and only one
plane.
3. Any two distinct coplanar lines either intersect in one and only one point or are parallel.
4. Any line not in a given plane either intersects the plane in one and only one point or is parallel o
the plane.
5. Any two distinct planes either intersect in one and only one line or are parallel.

Non-Euclidean Geometry

Non-Euclidean Geometry is any geometry that is different from Euclidean geometry. The two most
common non-Euclidean geometries are elliptic geometry and hyperbolic geometry/

A. Hyperbolic Geometry

Hyperbolic geometry is also known as saddle geometry or Lobachevskian geometry. It differs in many
ways from Euclidean geometry, often leading to quite counter-intuitive results. Some of the remarkable
consequences of the geometry’s unique fifth postulate include:

1. The sum of the three interior angles of a triangle is strictly less than 180⁰. Moreover, the angle
sums of two distinct triangles are not necessarily the same.
2. Two triangles with the same interior angles have the same area.

Also, in hyperbolic geometry more than one distinct line through a particular point will not intersect
another given line.

B. Elliptic Geometry

In Elliptic geometry there are no lines that will not intersect, as all that start to separate will converge.
For example, directly from Euclidean geometry’s fifth postulate we have that there are no parallel lines.
In particular, in elliptic geometry, given a line and a point P not on , there are no lines through P
parallel to

Some theorems in Elliptic Geometry

1. The angle sum of any triangle is more than 180⁰.

2. Given two lines perpendicular to line CG. By the parallel postulate for elliptic geometry,
these two lines meet at appoint A. Then every line through A is perpendicular to line CG.

C. Projective Geometry

Projective geometry is the most general and least restrictive in the hierarchy of fundamental
geometries. It is an intrinsically non-metric geometry; whose facts are independent of any metric

21
structure. Under the projective transformations, the incidence structure and the cross-ratio are
preserved. In particular, it formalizes one of the central principles or perspective art: that parallel lines
meet at a point called an ideal point. Consequently, the five initial axioms in Euclidean geometry
resulted to the following axioms.

1. Any two distinct points determine one and only one line.
2. Any three noncollinear points, also any line and a point not on the line, determine one and
only one plane.
3. Any two distinct coplanar lines either intersect in one and only one point.
4. Any line not in a given plane either intersects the plane in one and only one point.
5. Any two distinct planes either intersect in one and only one line.

The following axioms serve as basis for constructing the plane projective geometry.

1. If A and B are distinct points, then there is at least one line on both.
2. If A and B are distinct points, then there is at most one line on both.
3. If p and q are two distinct lines, then there is at least one point on both.
4. There are at least three distinct points on any line.
5. Not all points are on the same line.

MATRICES AND MATRIX OPERATIONS

Definitions

A matrix is defined is an rectangular array of elements. The entries, also called elements, may
be real, complex or function. If the arrangement has rows and columns, then the matrix is order of
(read as m by n). A matrix is enclosed by a pair of parameters such as () or []. It is denoted by a
capital letter.

Types of Matrices

1. The Row Matrix: This matrix has only one row.

Example: [0 25 4 3] This is a 1 x 4 row matrix
2. The Column Matrix: This matrix has only one column.

Example: This is 4 x 1 column matrix

3. The Rectangular Matrix: This has two or more rows with two or more columns.
Example: This is a 2 x 4 matrix, because it contains two rows and

four columns

This is a 3 x 4 matrix

4. The Square Matrix: This special case of a Rectangular Matrix; here the number of rows is equal
to the number of columns.

Example:

Here A and B are square matrices of order of 3 and 4 respectively

5. The Diagonal Matrix: This is a square matrix where all its non-diagonal elements are 0.
Example:

22
 (a) (b) (C)

There are diagonal matrices or order 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

6. The Scalar Matrix: This is a diagonal matrix where all the elements on its leading diagonal to
bottom right are of equal value.
Example:

(a) (b) (C)

7. The Identity Matrix: This is a scalar matrix where the elements on its leading diagonal (the
diagonal running from top left to bottom right) are 1 and the rest are of value 0.

Example: This is an identity matrix of order 4.

Matrix Addition

Definition: If and are matrices, then the sum of A and B is the matrix
, defined by,

Properties of Matrix Addition

Theorem: Let A, B, C, and D be matrices of the same size, .

1. A + B = B + A (Commutativity)
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (Associativity)
3. There is a unique matrix 0 such that A + 0 = A for any matrix. The matrix 0 is
called the additive identity or zero matrix.
4. To each matrix A, there is a unique matrix D such that
A+D=0
We shall write D as (-A), so that A + D = 0 can be written as A + (-A) = 0.
The matrix (-A) is called the additive inverse or negative of A.

Matrix Multiplication

Definition: If is an matrix and is a matrix, then the product of A and B,

denoted , is the matrix , defined by,

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Theorem: Let A, B, and C be the matrices of the appropriate sizes.

1. A(BC) = (AB)C (Associativity)
2. A(B + C) = AB + AC (Right Distributivity)
3. (A + B)C = AC + BC (Left Distributivity)

Scalar Multiplication

Definition: If is an matrix and is a real number, then the scalar multiple of A by , , is

the matrix , where

That is, is obtained by multiplying each element of by

23
Properties of Multiplication by a Scalar

Theorem: Let A and B be matrices of the appropriate sizes, and let r and s be scalars.
1. r(sA) = (rs)A (Associativity)
2. (r + s)A = rA + sA (Distributivity I)
3. r(A + B) = rA + rB (Distributivity II)
4. A(rB) = r(AB) = (rA)B

Power of Matrices

If is a positive integer and is a square (n x n) matrix, we define

factors
and

Theorem:
1.
2.
However, in general,
;
unless .

Properties of the Transpose

Definition: Transpose of a Matrix. The matrix obtained from any given matrix , by interchanging the
rows and columns. Written as (to be read as A – Transpose)

Example:

Theorem: If r is a scalar and A and B are matrices, then

1. (AT)T = A
2. (A + B)T = AT + BT
3. (AB)T = BT AT
4. (rA)T = rAT

Remarks:
1. AB may not be equal to BA
2. AB = o does not imply that A = 0 or B = 0
3. AB = AC does not imply that B = C. They may be different.

Definition: A matrix A is called symmetric if, AT = A. That is, A is symmetric if it is a square matrix for
which

Example:

Remark: A matrix is symmetric if its entries are symmetric with respect to the main diagonal.

Definition: A matrix is called skew symmetric if .

Example:

24
Remark: If A is a skew symmetric matrix, then the elements of the main diagonal .

Definition: If is an matrix, then the trace of , , is defined as the sum of all elements
on the main diagonal of .

Determinants
Definition: Let S = {1,2 … n} be the set of integers from 1 to n, arranged in ascending order. A
rearrangement of the elements of S is called a permutation of S.

Definition: A permutation is said to have an inversion if a larger number

precedes a smaller number . If the total number of inversions in is add then is
called odd, if even then is even.

Definition: Let be an matrix. We define the determinant of A (written det( ) or )

by

where the summation ranges over all permutations of the set S = {1,2 … n}. The
sign is taken as + or – according to whether the permutation is even or odd.

Second – order Determinant

If A is the square matrix of order two then the determinant of A, denoted by either det A or

, is defined by

Example: Compute the determinant:

Properties of Determinant

1. The determinant of a matrix and its transpose are equal, that is, det(AT) = det(A).
2. If two rows (columns) of A are equal, then det(A) = 0.
3. If a row (column) of A consists entirely of zeros, then det(A) = 0.
4. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is the product of the entries on its main diagonal.
5. If matrix is upper (lower) triangular, then det(A) = ; that is the determinant of
a triangular matrix is the product of the elements on the main diagonal.
6. If a multiple of one row of A is added to another row to produce a matrix B, then det B = det A.
7. If two rows of A are interchanged to produce B, then det B = - det A.
8. If one row of A is multiplied by k to produce B, then det B = k det A.
9. The determinant of a product of two matrices is the product of their determinants; that is,
det(AB) = det(A) det(B).
10. If A is nonsingular, then det (A) ≠ 0 and det(A-1) = .

25