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Exploring the Media Literacy of Taiwanese Elementary School Students

Article  in  The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · July 2011

DOI: 10.1037/t59370-000

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The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 20:3 (2011), pp. 604-611

Exploring the Media Literacy of Taiwanese

Elementary School Students
Chiung-Sui Chang
Tamkang University, Taiwan

Eric Zhi-Feng Liu*

National Central University, Taiwan
[email protected]

The arrival of new media technologies has the potential to affect education radically. Understanding of the
behavioral and intentional reactions of students toward such innovations has become a new issue for academics
and educators. The present study develops a Chinese-version Media Literacy Self-assessment Scale (MLSS),
including the subscales of media application skills, learning with media, and attitudes toward media, to assess
media literacy in early adolescents. More than 1,500 fifth and sixth graders in Taiwan responded to the scale.
The results reveal that the MLSS had adequate validity and reliability in assessing elementary school students’
perceptions of media literacy in digital learning environments. In addition, the findings of this study reveal the
existence of gender differences on the subscales and the real affect of library instruction and Internet experience
on the media literacy of students. Finally, it advances suggestions for future research.

Keywords: Elementary school students, media literacy, media literacy self-assessment scale, media application
skills, attitudes toward media

As digital media spread rapidly around the globe, people spend an average of nearly 6.5 hours a day with
media and education are becoming more important media and that they use more than one medium at a
in our daily lives. Television, film, computers, and time (for example, reading and listening to music).
the Internet are quickly becoming our dominant Multitasking is a way of life for youth. As a result, in
cultural tools for selecting, gathering, storing, and order to make education more responsive to learners,
conveying knowledge in representational forms educators of all grade levels are recognizing the need to
(Covington, 2004; Jenkins, 2006). In addition to the respond to a changing array of media technologies and
more traditional sources of literacy, such as printed resources used both within and outside the classrooms
materials of all kinds, today’s students encounter and (Hobbs, 2006).
interact with new cultural formats, including electronic What is media literacy? While multiple kinds of
books, Internet-based reading and writing, and online literacy—informational, visual , and digital—are
communication. More and more, today’s schools are discussed in the literature, media literacy is considered
being wired so that students can use the latest software, more of an umbrella term and can be broadly defined
incorporate electronic presentations into their learning, as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and
view and create videos, and connect to the Internet communicate in various forms of media (Considine
(McDonald, 2004). Indeed, it is vital for individuals & Haley, 1999; Considine, Horton, & Moorman,
to develop media literacy in order to manipulate such 2009; Livingston, 2004). Abdullah (2000) identifies
technology and for interpreting and processing all media literacy as the critical competency to examine,
kinds of media messages (Thoman, 2003). Moreover, understand, question, and evaluate the ways in which
Rideout, Roberts, and Foehr (2005) contend that young different media produce meaning and, consequently,

Copyright © 2011 De La Salle University, Philippines

MEDIA LITERACY OF TAIWANESE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS CHANG, C.S. & LIU, E.Z. 605

impact the lives of consumers. Similarly, Covington 3. Evaluation: students will evaluate elements and
(2004) advocates the notion that media literacy intended results of media messages to facilitate
involves critical viewing skills and the ability to selection for personal and educational use.
regard, evaluate, and interpret content. Furthermore,
Schaefer (2005) points out that media literacy is From the perspective of media literacy, Gapski
usually conceptualized as a set of skills related to the (2001) presents six categories as the most important
production of a media message, including those of competencies of individuals: (a) technical knowledge
film, television, radio, and the Internet. North Central on how media works , (b) practical knowledge on
Regional Educational Laboratory and the Metiri Group how to use media, (c) self-reflective competencies
(2003) suggests that media literate individuals can with regard to the relation between media usage and
interpret, create, and use media in ways that advance media environment, (d) creative skills in using media,
thinking, decision making, communication, and (e) social-reflective competencies in regard to how
learning. In sum, media literacy has been identified as media influences social responsibility and political
the essential literacy by the Partnership for 21st Century action, and (f) affective competencies in coping with
Skills, and it is crucial that schools focus on helping media effects.
students acquire the skills necessary to navigate, A person who has received some type of formal
evaluate, and communicate in different kinds of media training in media literacy and has developed the
(Jenkins, 2006). Certainly, the increase of various aforementioned skills is media literate and thus
technologies used in classrooms encourage the belief capable of successfully handling the current direct and
among teachers and researchers that today’s students indirect demands of media. However, while the field of
need to acquire better media literacy skills through media literacy is growing in interest and participation,
formal and informal learning opportunities (Hobbs, research including empirical studies appears to be
2006; Office of Communication, 2003). lacking. Nowadays, techniques to measure the levels
The National Communication Association (1998) of media literacy among students have become
asserts that media literate communicators should critical. Since there is no widely accepted instrument
demonstrate the following abilities: a) understand to conduct this task for Taiwanese elementary school
how people use media in their personal and public students, the purpose of this study is to establish a
lives, b) recognize the complex relationships among Media Literacy Self-assessment Scale (MLSS) to
audiences and media content, c) realize that media assess the media literacy of students.
content is produced within social and cultural While in generations past, a class assignment
contexts, (d) acknowledge the commercial nature of required a visit to the library, today’s students can,
media, and (e) use media to communicate to specific and do conduct much of search for the necessary
audiences. information online (such as Google searching,
How does one become media literate? Additionally, YouTube, and so on) from their own home and they
educators should effectively integrate technologies are increasingly depending on the Web for their
and media literacy into the current curriculum so as information and entertainment needs (Helms-Park,
to prepare students for the literacy future they deserve Radia, & Stapleton, 2007; Kimsey & Cameron, 2005;
(Larson, 2008). In order to equip students with the Wang & Artero, 2005). In order to theoretically
required skills, three general guidelines exist for explain the effectiveness of media literacy practice,
teaching basic media literacy in K-12 (Utah State some types of variables (e.g., instructional method,
Office of Education, 2006): personal relevance, etc.) have been hypothesized
to influence cognitive learning outcome (Banerjee
1. Awareness: students will be aware that media & Greene, 2006; Pinkleton, Austin, Cohen, Chen,
literacy as a life skill is integral to modern & Fitzgerald, 2008). In addition, scholars contend
citizenship, informed decision making, and that young people bring varying histories of media
healthy lifestyles. exposure (and knowledge and skills) to the classroom.
2. Analysis: students will analyze elements of These are likely to be influenced by broader social
media messages to understand their forms categories, such as class, gender, age, and so forth
and functions, content, and effects on the (Martens, 2010). Therefore, this study seeks to
receiver. compare gender and grade differences on the MLSS
606 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 20 NO. 3

subscales and to examine the affect of students’ library from media to perform learning tasks. A sample
instruction and of students’ behavior on the Internet item of this subscale is mentioned as follows: “I
on their media literacy. can use media to carry out daily learning.”
3. Attitudes toward Media subscale (ATM,
METHOD 5 items): Assessing students’ perceptions
regarding the copyright ethics of technologies.
Participants A sample item of this subscale is mentioned as
The sample of this study consisted of 1,539 fifth follows: “I can comply with the intellectual
and sixth grade Taiwanese elementary school students, property rights of media use.”
whose ages ranged from 12 to 13 year-olds. They
were selected from three major demographic areas: RESULTS
Northern, Central, and Southern Taiwan. From each
area, a varied number of classes from different Factor Analysis
elementary schools were chosen to complete the The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of
MLSS survey in order to assess media literacy sampling adequacy for the Media Literacy Self-
of students while they are in digital learning assessment Scale was 0.93, indicating that a factor
environments. Those who completed the survey analysis of the variables was adequate (Kaiser, 1974).
all had some experiences with technology. Fifty- Exploratory factor analysis and principal component
one percent of the participants were male and 49% analysis with varimax rotation were conducted to
were female. The sample should not be taken as a clarify whether the three factors were valid tests of
national sample, but the selected students came from the constructs. Participants’ responses were grouped
divergent academic backgrounds, demographic
areas, and socio-economic statuses. Thus, to some Table 1
degree, the participants in this study represented Rotated Factor Loadings for the MLSS
Taiwanese elementary school students. Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
Item
MAS LWM ATM
Instrument m-1-a 0.67
To assess the students’ perceptions toward media
m-1-b 0.81
literacy, a Chinese-version questionnaire, named the
Media Literacy Self-assessment Scale (MLSS) was m-1-e 0.52
employed in this study. After the initial construction m-2-a 0.66
of the MLSS, six experts specializing in the field of m-2-b 0.77
information and communication technology education m-2-d 0.63
commented on its apparent validity, and 15 students m-1-c 0.56
were chosen to clarify the wording of each statement. m-1-d 0.60
As a result, the MLSS consisted of three subscales,
m-2-c 0.69
presented with agree/disagree statements on a five-
m-3-a 0.57
point Likert scale in which 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2
= Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly m-3-b 0.75
Agree. The following is a detailed description of these m-3-c 0.82
three subscales: m-3-d 0.54
m-4-a 0.68
1. Media Application Skills subscale (MAS, 6 m-4-b 0.84
items): Assessing students’ abilities to perform m-4-c 0.74
media technologies. A sample item of this
m-4-d 0.67
subscale is mentioned as follows: “I can use
different media technologies to store/backup m-4-e 0.52
the content.” Eignevalue 6.96 1.03 1.02
2. Learning with Media subscale (LWM, 7 items): % of variance 53.52 8.66 7.04
Assessing students’ abilities to extract messages Total variance explained is 69.22%
MEDIA LITERACY OF TAIWANESE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS CHANG, C.S. & LIU, E.Z. 607

into three orthogonal factors. All three factors were Table 3

retained in the final version of the survey, and Students’ Score on the MLSS Subscales (N=1539)
together they accounted for 69.22% of the variance. Subscale Items Range Mean SD
The eigenvalues of the three factors from principal
Media
components analysis were larger than one. Based
Application 6 6-30 3.89 0.81
on Peng, Tsai, and Wu (2006), Selwyn (1997), and Skills (MAS)
Tsai, Lin, and Tsai’s (2001) assertion that an item
Learning with
should be retained only if it loaded greater than 0.50 Media (LWM)
7 7-35 4.16 0.76
on the relevant factor and less than 0.50 on the non-
Attitudes toward
relevant factor, the initial 23 items were reduced to 5 5-25 4.33 0.76
Media (ATM)
18 (as shown in Table 1). Cronbach’s alpha reliability
coefficient for MLSS was 0.93. The Cronbach’s alpha
reliability coefficients for MAS, LWM, and ATM Table 4
were 0.84, 0.79, and 0.80, respectively, suggesting Gender Comparisons on the Subscales of the MLSS
that the subscales had satisfactory reliability in Subscale Gender Mean S.D. t
assessing students’ perceptions toward media literacy. female 4.03 0.67
Descriptive statistics for the total scale and three MAS 5.26**
male 3.84 0.66
subscales are summarized in Table 2.
female 3.66 0.78
LWM 6.04**
Table 2 male 3.40 0.80
The Correlations Among the Subscales of the MLSS female 3.60 0.88
ATM 3.69**
Subscales MAS LWM ATM male 3.43 0.94

Media Application Note: N=740 for female; N=796 for male **p< 0.01
-
Skills (MAS)
Learning with Media
0.66** - Table 5
(LWM)
Grader Comparison on Subscales of the MLSS
Attitudes toward
- Subscale Grader Mean S.D t
Media 0.62** 0.59**
(ATM) 5 th
3.85 0.68
MAS -4.55**
6 th
4.00 0.66
**p < 0.01
5th 3.51 0.82
LWM -1.07
The Correlations of Subscales 6th 3.55 0.77
After investigation of the construct validity and 5th 3.53 0.93
reliability of the MLSS, the relationships between ATM 0.52
6 th
3.50 0.89
each subscale were examined. It was expected that
the subscales should be moderately correlated if they Note: N =767 for 5th grader; N = 772 for 6th grader **p <
were in fact measuring aspects of a common trait. 0.01
Table 3 shows the moderate correlations between the
subscales of the MLSS, all of which were significant male students were less competent regarding media
at the level of 0.01. literacy.

Gender Comparisons Grade Comparisons

This study further compared the scores male To compare the possible differences derived from
and female students on the three subscales of the different grade levels, this study also compared fifth
MLSS. The results of t tests are presented in Table and sixth graders’ scores on the three subscales of the
4, which reveals that these gender scores on all three MLSS. In general, the latter group scored higher on
subscales were significantly different at the 0.01 level. the two subscales (MAS and LWM) than the former.
Female students expressed statistically more positive However, t tests revealed that fifth and sixth graders
perceptions on media application skills, learning with differed significantly only on MAS (see Table 5).
media, and attitudes toward media. In other words, Overall, the comparisons of the MLSS indicated that
608 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER VOL. 20 NO. 3

Table 6
Students’ Scores on the MLSS Subscales, by Library-use Instruction Experience
Subscales Lib-use instruction experience Mean SD t
Lib-use instruction 4.18 0.72
MAS 5.85**
Non-lib-use instruction 3.94 0.86
Lib-use instruction 4.07 0.82
LWM 5.63**
Non-lib-use instruction 3.82 0.88
Lib-use instruction 4.40 0.73
ATM 6.19**
Non-lib-use instruction 4.14 0.86
Note. N=873 for lib-use instruction; N=657 for non-lib-use instruction **p < 0.01

Table 7
The t-tests of Students’ Behavior on the Internet on the Subscales of the MLSS
Subscales MAS LWM ATM
Behavior on the Internet (Mean, SD) (Mean, SD) (Mean, SD)
Homework (information searching) 4.14/0.75 4.02/0.82 4.35/0.75
t value 7.14* 5.67* 6.05*
Data download 4.17/0.78 4.04/0.83 4.33/0.76
t value 5.91* 4.56* 2.31*
Film watching (media operation) 4.15/0.74 4.03/0.84 4.31/0.79
t value 3.93* 3.23* 1.21
Note: n= 919 for homework; n=913 for download data; n=710 for film watching *p< 0.05

students at the advanced grade level did not necessarily when they use computers with Internet connections.
rate themselves higher in media literacy. Among the participants, 35.2% had used the Internet
fewer than 30 minutes per session, 49.1% for between
Library Instruction/Non-library Instruction 30 minutes and one hour per session, and 15.7% for
Comparison more than one hour. During their time on the Internet,
Table 6 shows the affects of the students’ library 69% of students did homework, 65.1% downloaded
instruction experience on their media literacy data (e.g., pictures and audio file), and 52.1% watched
perceptions. Students were classified into two groups: films. The results of t-tests are as follows:
those who had received library-use instruction (N=873)
and those who had never received it (N=657). There 1. The t-test of information searching suggests
were significant differences by library-use instruction that there are significant differences on all
experience on the subscales of MAS, LWM, and factors (MAS, LWM, and ATM) of the MLSS
ATM, t=5.85**, t=5.63**, and t=6.19**, respectively at the 0.05 level (see Table 7). The result
(p<0.01). The results suggest that students who had shows that students who accessed the Internet
received library-use instruction were significantly to search for information had better media
more competent on the subscales of MAS, LWM, and literacy competence than those who did not.
ATM than those who never received it. Such training 2. The t-test of data downloading concludes that
thus facilitates the possession better media literacy in there are significant differences on all factors
performing learning tasks. (MAS, LWM, and ATM) of the MLSS at the
0.05 level (see Table 7). In particular, students
Behavior on the Internet who access the Internet to download data had
This study further analyzed how students’ behavior better media literacy competence than others
on the Internet, such as information searching, data without such behavior.
downloading, and film watching affected their media 3. The t-test of film watching points out that there
literacy. Behavior on the Internet is defined in this are significant differences on the MAS and
study as what students do for their own purposes LWM of the MLSS at the 0.05 level (see Table
MEDIA LITERACY OF TAIWANESE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL STUDENTS CHANG, C.S. & LIU, E.Z. 609

7). The result reveals that regardless of Internet Consistent with previous studies, this inquiry
usage, students did not differ in their attitudes notes that library-use instruction enhanced students’
or their ethics toward media literacy. abilities to access, analyze, and evaluate information
in a variety of forms (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1999;
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION Kuhlthau, 1995; Lin, 2001; Van de Vord, 2010).
The results reveal that MLSS had an adequate Hargittai (2005, 2006) also indicated that media
validity and reliability in assessing elementary school literacy positively correlates with the ability to locate
students’ perceptions of media literacy in digital the information. Consequently, we suggest that
learning environments. In addition, the findings of specialized training in information searching on a wide
this study reveal the existence of gender differences range of library resources be considered an essential
on the all of subscales, grader differences only on educational task in media. Students who access the
media application skills subscale, and the real affect Internet had better media literacy abilities. Barone
of library instruction and Internet experience on the and Wright (2008) argued that although computer and
media literacy of students. Internet are available to students, most students do not
The data, supporting the reliability and validity of have enough time at school with such technologies to
the scale, commend the total scale for future use by develop media literacy. Since this study shows that
researchers among Chinese-speaking students. This accessing the Internet helps improve media literacy
study should be viewed as an early contribution in skills, we encourage educators to integrate effectively
establishing this measure of student media literacy and technologies into teaching to better prepare students
as a preliminary step in investigating various aspects for the future.
of this phenomenon. While it applies exploratory
factor analysis to verify the structure of the MLSS, ACKNOWLEDGMENT
future studies can use the confirmatory factor analysis This study was supported by the National Science
approach (Rainer & Miller, 1996; Usluel, Askar, & Council, Taiwan, under grand Nos. NSC 96-2520-S-032-
Bas, 2008; Valois, Frenette, Villeneuve, Sabourin, & 001, NSC 98-2511-S-032-007, NSC99-2631-S-008-004
Bordeleu, 2000) to further examine the validity and and NSC 97-2511-S-008-003-MY3.
reliability of the newly developed MLSS. Lastly, the
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