CHAPTER 1

“INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE”

Reasons for reading:

 It has been a common understanding among many people that reading is mainly for the acquisition of relevant
information and also for entertainment.

 With this, it is necessary to discern that much information concerning man as well as the other related aspects
and dimensions of his entirety can be best obtained through reading literature.

 Also, most people are engaged in reading different materials like books, magazines and the like which mainly
contain stories of various subject for entertainment and amusement purposes. The idea of obtaining enjoyment
or pleasure through literature is somewhat broad depending on how a literature work affects people. Perhaps
there are other good reasons to read literature like to satisfy one’s curiosity, to uplift cultural understanding, to
escape from reality, and lastly, to fulfil one’s desires and aspirations.

 Mainly, interest in literature is attributed to one’s desire to better understand life. With literature, man has the
power to enrich his experiences and to explore the world which may propel to great discoveries and genuine
realizations about the various dimension of life and of the world in a broader sense.

Meaning and Relevance of Literature

 Literature, in its broadest sense, is any written work. Etymologically, the term derives from
Latin litaritura/litteratura “writing formed with letters,” although some definitions include spoken or sung texts.
More restrictively, it is writing that possesses literary merit. Literature can be classified according to whether it is
fiction or non-fiction and whether it is poetry or prose. It can be further distinguished according to major forms
such as the novel, short story or drama, and works are often categorized according to historical periods or their
adherence to certain aesthetic features or expectations (genre).

 Taken to mean only written works, literature was first produced by some of the world’s earliest civilizations—
those of Ancient Egypt and Sumerian—as early as the 4th millennium BC; taken to include spoken or sung texts,
it originated even earlier, and some of the first written works may have been based on a pre-existing oral tradition.
As urban cultures and societies developed, there was a proliferation in the forms of literature. Developments in
print technology allowed for literature to be distributed and experienced on an unprecedented scale, which has
culminated in the twenty-first century in electronic literature.

Definition

 Definitions of literature have varied over time. In Western Europe prior to the eighteenth century, literature as a
term indicated all books and writing. A more restricted sense of the term emerged during the Romantic period, in
which it began to demarcate “imaginative” literature.

 Contemporary debates over what constitutes literature can be seen as returning to the older, more
inclusive notion of what constitutes literature. Cultural studies, for instance, takes as its subject of analysis both
popular and minority genres, in addition to canonical works.
Key Feature of Literature

Below are some important features of literature:

 Literature is a form of communication

Monteleagre described literature mainly as a product of a commentary on the life process. Thus, man’s inner thoughts,
feelings, and conditions can be disclosed and revealed through the power of literature. As we read stories from the past,
our forebears communicated with us through literature. Thus, it goes across time and space. Truly, literature engages us
to share and to impart a portion of ourselves which may be interesting and benefiting to other people.

 Literature Is An Art

“Dulce” is a term which refer to beauty and magnificence. Literature takes an excellent form. Its beauty is a deliberate
manifestation of the mind’s ability to create and imagine. In addition, it is said to be an artistic expression of man’s desires,
aspirations, and conditions.

The appeal of a literary work mainly intensifies its value to the people depending on how they judge and perceive the
beauty and quality of a work.

 Nobility Of Thoughts

It is necessary to highlights ideas of great importance and significance. Literature should deal with ideas that could lead
to a new responses to the world and can move people to achieve new discoveries of the dimensions of human life and
experiences.

 Timelessness

The significant truth about life that literary work reveals should not wane and dissipate as time passes by. A Work must
have an enduring quality in which its beauty as well as its applicability can withstand the change of time. For example, the
famous novel written by Rizal during the Spanish occupation of the Philippines reveal issues and themes which are still
perceived to be in existence.

 Universality

A work must have global applicability in which a work transcends across space. For example, many Filipino love to
watch drams and movies of foreign origin. Though these stories are set in a different locale, Filipino can effectively connect
themselves to and understand these foreign stories.

 Literature Has Utility

The term “utile” refers to the intellectual, emotional, and social function of any creative or literary work. Through
literature, as we can obtain relevance information to better understand people, society, and culture. Also, with what
literature can share, it can lead to personal renewal and transformation. Montealegre once noted that literature can
liberate our minds and can uplift our spirits. It has the power to influence perspectives about the self and the world in
general.
VALUES OF LITERATURE

 Entertainment Value

Literature has an Entertainment Value if reading it gives occasion to enjoy yourself. This type of value is subjective
because not everyone enjoys the same kinds of stories, styles, or themes.

 Political Value

Literature has Political Value if reading it gives occasion to change a person thinks or acts. It can reveal injustice,
outrage its readers, give voice to the oppressed, and ridicule those who are corrupt.

It has political value if it attempt to persuade people or the world to start acting and thinking in this way.

 Artistic Value

Literature has artistic value if reading it gives occasion to contemplate the nature of beauty and human creature.
There are many works of literature that experience with the limits of language and its expressive power.

 Cultural Value

Literature has cultural Value if reading it gives to think about the place and times of the author and time of the
work was written. If the author addresses the attitude, customs, and values of their times to another time, then the work
has cultural value. So the works becomes a window into a world that is unfamiliar and we encouraged to compare cultural
differences.

 Historical Value

Literature has historical value if reading it give occasion to think about the past, how things change overtime and how the
world has evolved into what it is today.

Works of literature can help us learn about the past, process the past, and use the past for our advantage. Sometimes the
historical value shown what we have gained and what we have lost.

 Philosophical Value

Literature has a philosophical value if reading it gives to explore the nature of human knowledge and if the works invites
us to think about perception, making sense of our place or self-awareness.

 Moral Value

Literature has moral value if reading it gives occasion to think about questions. If a story or poem teaches us how to live,
or attempts to teach us, theN it has moral dimension.

 Ethical Value

Literature has ethical value if reading it gives occasion to think about ethical questions. If the story characterize conflict
and dilemmas, it is not necessarily teaching us how to live, but it encourage us to contemplate codes that characters live
by.
CHAPTER 2
History of Literature

 The beginnings of literature

Main article: Early literature

The very first writings from ancient Sumer by any reasonable definition do not constitute literature—the same is
true of some of the early Egyptian hieroglyphics or the thousands of logs from ancient Chinese regimes. Scholars have
often disagreed concerning when written record-keeping became more like "literature" than anything else; the definition
is largely subjective.

The problems of creating a uniform global history of literature are compounded by the fact that many texts have been
lost over the millennia, either deliberately, by accident, or by the total disappearance of the originating culture. Much has
been written, for example, about the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 1st century BC, and the innumerable
key texts which are believed to have been lost forever to the flames. The deliberate suppression of texts (and often
their authors) by organisations of either a spiritual or a temporal nature further shrouds the subject.

A stone tablet containing part of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Certain primary texts, however, may be isolated which have a
qualifying role as literature's first stirrings, and the Egyptian Book of the Dead written down in the Papyrus of Ani in
approximately 1250 BC but probably dates from about the 18th century BC. Ancient Egyptian literature was not included
in early studies of the history of literature because the writings of Ancient Egypt were not translated into European
languages until the 19th century when the Rosetta stone was deciphered.

Many texts handed down by oral tradition over several centuries before they were fixed in written form are
difficult or impossible to date. The core of the Rigveda may date to the mid-2nd millennium BC. The Pentateuch is
traditionally dated to the 15th century, although modern scholarship estimates its oldest part to date to the 10th century
BC at the earliest.

Homer's Iliad and Odyssey date to the 8th century BC and mark the beginning of Classical Antiquity. They also stand in an
oral tradition that stretches back to the late Bronze Age.

Indian śruti texts post-dating the Rigveda, as well as the Hebrew Tanakh and the mystical collection of poems attributed
to Lao Tze, the Tao te Ching, date to the Iron Age, but their dating is difficult and controversial. The great Hindu epics were
also transmitted orally, likely predating the Maurya period.

Early Literature in China

 Main articles: Chinese classics and Classical Chinese poetry

The Classic of Poetry (or Shijing) is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, comprising 305 works by anonymous
authors dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. The Chu Ci anthology (or Songs of Chu) is a volume of poems attributed
to or considered to be inspired by Qu Yuan's verse writing.

The first great author on military tactics and strategy was Sun Tzu, whose The Art of War remains on the shelves
of many modern military officers (and its advice has been applied to the corporate world as well).

The Analects of Confucius and Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching presented sayings and proverbs more directly
and didactically. The Zhuangzi is composed of a large collection of creative anecdotes, allegories, parables, and fables ; a
masterpiece of both philosophical and literary skill, it has significantly influenced writers and poets for more than 2000
years from the Han dynasty to the present.

Among the earliest Chinese works of narrative history, Zuo Zhuan is a gem of classical Chinese prose. This work and
the Shiji or Records of the Grand Historian, were regarded as the ultimate models by many generations of prose stylists in
ancient China.
Early Literature in Hebrew

The Old Testament was compiled and edited by various men over a period of centuries, with many scholars
concluding that the Hebrew canon was solidified by 3rd century BC. The works have been subject to various literary
evaluations (both secular and religious).

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote: “In the Jewish Old Testament, there are men, things and speeches in so grand a style that Greek
and Indian literature have nothing to compare to it. Hebrew literature consists of ancient, medieval, and modern writings
in the Hebrew language. It is one of the primary forms of Jewish literature, though there have been cases of literature
written in Hebrew by non-Jews. Hebrew literature was produced in many different parts of the world throughout the
medieval and modern era, while contemporary Hebrew literature is largely Israeli literature. In 1966, Agnon won the Nobel
Prize for Literature for novels and short stories that employ a unique blend of biblical, Talmudic and Modern Hebrew,
making him the first Hebrew writer to receive this award.

Greek Literature

Main article: Ancient Greek literature

The Iliad and The Odyssey, which remain giants in the literary canon for their skilful and vivid depictions of war and peace,
honor and disgrace, love and hatred. Notable among later Greek poets was Sappho, who defined, in many ways, lyric
poetry as a genre.

A playwright named Aeschylus changed Western literature forever when he introduced the ideas of dialogue and
interacting characters to playwriting. In doing so, he essentially invented "drama": his Oresteia trilogy of plays is seen as
his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Sophocles is credited with skilfully
developing irony as a literary technique, most famously in his play Oedipus Rex.

Euripides, conversely, used plays to challenge societal norms and mores—a hallmark of much of Western literature for
the next 2,300 years and beyond—and his works such as Medea, The Bacchae and The Trojan Women are still notable for
their ability to challenge our perceptions of propriety, gender, and war. Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defines and
shapes the idea of comedy almost as Aeschylus had shaped tragedy as an art form—Aristophanes' most famous plays
include the Lysistrata and The Frogs.

Latin literature

Main article: Latin literature

In many respects, the writers of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire chose to avoid innovation in favor of
imitating the great Greek authors. Virgil's Aeneid, in many ways, emulated Homer's Iliad; Plautus, a comic playwright,
followed in the footsteps of Aristophanes; Tacitus' Annals and Germania follow essentially the same historical approaches
that Thucydides devised; Ovid and his Metamorphoses explore the same Greek myths again in new ways. It can be argued,
and has been, that the Roman authors, far from being mindless copycats, improved on the genres already established by
their Greek predecessors. What is undeniable is that the Romans, in comparison with the Greeks, innovate relatively few
literary styles of their own.

Satire is one of the few Roman additions to literature—Horace was the first to use satire extensively as a tool for argument,
and Juvenal made it into a weapon.

Augustine of Hippo and his The City of God do for religious literature essentially what Plato had done for philosophy, but
Augustine's approach was far less conversational and more didactive.
Indian Literature

Knowledge traditions in India handed down philosophical gleanings and theological concepts through the two
traditions of Shruti and Smriti, meaning that which is learnt and that which is experienced, which included the Vedas. It is
generally believed that the Puranas are the earliest philosophical writings in Indian history, although linguistic works
on Sanskrit existed earlier than 1000 BC. Puranic works such as the Indian epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata, have
influenced countless other works, and other performances such as shadow puppetry (wayang), and many European
works. Pali literature has an important position in the rise of Buddhism.

Classical Sanskrit literature flowers in the Maurya and Gupta periods.

Middle Ages

 Main article: Medieval literature

Europe

In the millennium or so that intervened between Rome's fall and the Florentine Renaissance, medieval
literature focused more and more on faith and faith-related matters, in part because the works written by the Greeks had
not been preserved in Europe, and therefore there were few models of classical literature to learn from and move beyond.
What little there was became changed and distorted, with new forms beginning to develop from the distortions. Some of
these distorted beginnings of new styles can be seen in the literature generally described as Matter of Rome, Matter of
France and Matter of Britain.

In Europe, hagiographies, or "lives of the saints", are frequent among early medieval texts. The writings of Bede and others
continue the faith-based historical tradition begun by Eusebius in the early 4th century. Playwriting essentially ceased,
except for the mystery plays and the passion plays that focused heavily on conveying Christian belief to the common
people. Around 400 AD the Prudentius- Psychomachia began the tradition of allegorical tales. Poetry flourished, however,
in the hands of the troubadours, whose courtly romances and chanson de geste amused and entertained the upper classes
who were their patrons.

Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote works which he claimed were histories of Britain. These were highly fanciful and included
stories of Merlin the magician and King Arthur. Beowulf and the chanson de geste have much in common with Homer
and Virgil's approaches to war and honor, while poems such as Dante's Divine Comedy and Geoffrey Chaucer's The
Canterbury Tales take much different stylistic directions.

In November 1095, Pope Urban II preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont. Between Augustine and The
Bible, religious authors had numerous aspects of Christianity that needed further explication and interpretation. Thomas
Aquinas, more than any other single person, was able to turn theology into a kind of science, because he was heavily
influenced by Aristotle, whose works were returning to Europe in the 13th century.
ISLAMIC LITERATURE

 "Ali Baba" by Maxfield Parrish.

The most well-known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights),
which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen Scheherazade.

This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many
imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in
Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. However, no medieval Arabic source has been traced for Aladdin,
which was incorporated into The Book of One Thousand and One Nights by its French translator, Antoine Galland, who
heard it from an Arab Syrian Christian storyteller from Aleppo.

A number of elements from Arabian mythology and Persian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such
as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that
banished stereotypical elements he felt the genie, dwarf and fairy were stereotypes to avoid.

CHAPTER 2.1
Arabic literature

Arabian Literature is the writing, both as prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The Arabic
word used for literature is "Adab", which is derived from a meaning of etiquette, and which implies politeness, culture
and enrichment.

During 5th century with only fragments of the written language appearing before then. The Qur'an, widely regarded as
the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language, it has a greatest lasting effect on Arabic culture and its literature.
Arabic literature flourished during the Islamic Golden Age, but has remained vibrant to the present day, with poets and
prose-writers across the Arab world, as well as in the Arab diaspora, achieving increasing success.

Literature in Morocco

Morocco has felt the influences of several ancient cultures. Excavations ( Revealing or uncovering) have
unearthed elements of the Phoenician, Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman civilizations. Christianity spread to this region in
Roman times and survived the Arab invasion, but Arabic influences, which began in the 7th century. The Arabs brought to
Morocco a written language that is still the primary language of business and culture. Over the centuries Morocco received
an influx of Moors and Jews, who left Spain as a result of the Christian conquest or the Inquisition. As a result of Moorish
influence, Morocco developed a style of music and architecture known as Arab-Andalusian. It soon spread to the rest of
Islamic North Africa. The western African influence, seen in dances and other arts, spread northward with the
establishment of trade directions across the Sahara from the 10th century on.

 The most famous of Morocco’s early writers is Ibn Battūtah, who was born in Tangier in 1304 he traveled from
Mali ,India and China. He completed Rihla (“Travels”), the narrative of his observations in 1356. Moroccan
literature of the 20th century reflected such concerns as colonialism, nationalism, the survival of traditional
cultures framed by Islamic values, introspective and inventive literary forms.
Persian literature

Persian literature differs from the common definition of “literature” , it is not confined to lyrical compositions, to
poetry or imaginative prose, because the central elements of these appear, to greater or lesser degrees in all the written
works of the Persians. Histories or medical treatises, religious texts or philosophical commentary are considered
“literature” – in the artistic sense – as much as any poem or fictional tale.

The first evidence of Persian literature is usually dated to 522 BCE with the creation of the Behistun
Inscription of Darius I, at the same time, scholars generally agree that there is no “Persian literature” prior to the period
of the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE) because earlier works (except for certain inscriptions and administration records)
were lost, therefore commonly dated from 750 CE, with the rise of the Abbasid Dynasty, through the 15th century CE and
earlier works, for the most part is only be referred to as “ancient” in that many medieval poets preserved stories and
themes from pre-Islamic Iran.

OTTOMAN LITERATURE

The history of Turkish literature dates back more than 1,500 years ago. In the late 15th and 16th centuries, Ottoman
poetry was written in a complex hybrization of the Turkish, Persian, and Arabian languages .However, Turkish was the
most common language used in the literature of the Ottoman court. Poetry was seen as a form of art, and many Ottomans
aspire to become poets. Using pennames (mahlas), Ottoman poets wrote diverse verses in sophisticated and articulated
direction.

A famous poet of the Ottoman Empire was Muhammed Suleyma Oglu Fuzuli. He wrote many poems, and left
behind three divans (books of poems) in three different languages when he died. His most famous work was a 4,000
couplet-long poem centred on Leyli and Majnun.

Jewish literature

Jewish literature literary works written in Jewish languages on various themes, and literary works in any language written
by Jewish writers. Ancient Jewish literature includes Biblical literature and rabbinic literature.

The production of Jewish literature has flowered with the modern emergence of secular Jewish culture. Modern
Jewish literature has included Yiddish literature, Ladino literature, Hebrew literature (especially Israeli literature),
and Jewish American literature.

India

The history of ancient India concludes with the decline of the Gupta Empire. The next major period, which lasts for roughly
seven centuries (c. 600 – 1300), is the early medieval age. Therefore, at any one time, India was fragmented by numerous
regional kingdoms. As the rulers of these warred and formed alliances, they employed the system of paramount and
subordination begun during the Gupta era, with some rulers being overlords and others vassals. Also, successful rulers
demonstrated their power by granting land to officers, Brahmins, and temples. The outcome was a political pattern
labeled Indian feudalism.
Chinese Literature

Lyric poetry advanced far more in China than in Europe prior to 1000, as multiple new forms developed in the Han, Tang,
and Song dynasties: perhaps the greatest poets of this era in Chinese literature were Li Bai and Du Fu.

Printing began in Tang Dynasty . A copy of the Diamond Sutra, found sealed in a cave in China in the early 20th century.
The method used was block printing.

The scientist, statesman, and general Shen Kuo (1031–1095 AD) was the author of the Dream Pool Essays (1088), a large
book of scientific literature that included the oldest description of the magnetized compass.

The true vernacular novel was developed in China during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD). Some authors feel that China
originated the novel form with the Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong (in the 14th century), although
others feel that this epic is distinct from the novel in key ways.

Japan

Main articles: Japanese literature and List of Japanese classic texts

Classical Japanese literature generally refers to literature produced during the Heian Period.

The Tale of Genji (early 11th century) by Murasaki Shikibu is considered the pre-eminent masterpiece of Heian fiction and
an early example of a work of fiction in the form of a novel.

Kokin Wakashū (905), a waka-poetry anthology, and The Pillow Book (990s), the latter written by Murasaki Shikibu's
contemporary and rival, Sei Shōnagon as an essay about the life, loves, and pastimes of nobles in the Emperor's court.
The iroha poem, now one of two standard orderings for the Japanese syllabary, was also written during the early part of
this period.

The 10th-century Japanese narrative, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, can be considered an early example of proto-science
fiction.

Renaissance

Main articles: Renaissance Literature, 15th century in literature, and 16th century in literature

The 15th century, however, also brought Johann Gutenberg and his invention of the printing press.

As a result, much about literature in Europe was radically altered in the two centuries following Gutenberg's unveiling of
the printing press in 1455.

William Caxton was the first English printer and published English language texts including Le Morte d'Arthur and Geoffrey
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. These are an indication of future directions in literature. With the arrival of the printing press
a process begins in which folk yarns and legends are collected within a frame story and then mass published.

Early modern period

The form of writing now commonplace across the world—the novel—originated from the early modern
period and grew in popularity in the next century.

From the 16th to the 18th century Commedia dell'arte performers improvised in the streets of Italy and France. Some
Commedia dell'arte plays were written down. Both the written plays and the improvisation were influential upon
literature of the time.

17th century is considered as the greatest era of Spanish and French literature where it is called Siglo de Oro and Grand
Siècle respectively. The most famous authors beside playwrights include Jean de La Fontaine and Charles Perrault known
primarily for their fables.
Modern period

18th century

This is the Age of Enlightenment and its most important authors are Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel
Kant and Adam Smith. The second half of the century sees the beginnings of Romanticism with Goethe.

19th century

In Britain, the 19th century is dominated by the Victorian era, characterized by Romanticism, with Romantic poets such
as William Wordsworth, Lord Byron or Samuel Taylor Coleridge and genres such as the gothic novel.

In Denmark, the early 19th century Golden Age produced prolific literary authors such as Søren Kierkegaard and Hans
Christian Andersen.

In the later 19th century, Romanticism is countered by Realism and Naturalism. The late 19th century, known as the Belle
Époque, with its Fin de siècle retrospectively appeared as a "golden age" of European culture, cut short by the outbreak
of World War I in 1914.

20th century

The main periods of 20th century literature are captured in the bipartite division, Modernist literature and Postmodern
literature, flowering from roughly 1900 to 1940 and 1945 to 1980 respectively, divided, as a rule of thumb, by World War
II.

Popular literature develops its own genres such as fantasy and science fiction. Ignored by mainstream literary criticism,
these genres develop their own establishments and critical awards, such as the Nebula Award (since 1965), the British
Fantasy Award (since 1971) or the Mythopoeic Awards (since 1971).

CHAPTER 3
What Is Genre?

Genre is a style or category of art, music, or literature. As an author, genre controls what you write and how you
write it. Genres give you blueprints for different types of stories.

There are general rules to follow, for example, manuscript, length , character types, settings, themes, point of
view, and plots . Certain settings suit specific genres. These will vary in type, details, intensity, and length of description .
The tone employed by the author, and the mood created for the reader, must also suit the genre.

Why Does Genre Matter?

Genres are great because they fulfil reader expectations. We buy certain books because we have enjoyed similar
stories in the past. Reading these novels gives us a sense of belonging, of sitting down with an old friend and knowing
we’re on familiar ground. There is also a camaraderie between readers who follow the same genres.

Fiction” in literature created from the imagination like mysteries, science fiction, romance, and fantasy.
Most Popular Genres In Fiction

1. Romance- In the strictest academic terms, a romance is a narrative genre in literature that involves a mysterious,
adventurous, or spiritual story line where the focus is on a quest that involves bravery and strong values, not always a love
interest. However, modern definitions of romance also include stories that have a relationship issue as the main focus.

III. Types of Romance

a. Gothic

In Gothic romance, the settings are usually in distant regions and the stories feature dark and compelling
characters. They became popular in the late 19th century and usually had a sense of transcendence, supernatural,
and irrationality.

b. Historical

Historical romance takes place in times long past and appears romantic due to the adventure and wildness of the
time. This also provides value and meaning to the lifestyle of the characters. The following novels fit in this sub-
genre:

The Last of the Mohicans by James Fenimore Cooper

Rob Roy by Sir Walter Scott.

c. Contemporary/Modern

Contemporary romance focuses on a love relationship and has a happy ending. There are two ways these
romance novels are written: as a series or category romance or as a single-title romance.

2.Action Adventure

Adventure stories feature physical action and courageous heroes who save others from danger or impending
doom. Adventure fiction overlaps other genres, such as romance, spy thrillers, military adventures and Westerns. Science
fiction novels always contain elements of adventure.

3. Science Fiction

This genre incorporates any story set in the future, the past, or other dimensions. The story features scientific
ideas and advanced technological concepts. Writers must be prepared to spend time building new worlds and using genre-
specific words.

4.Fantasy

These stories deal with kingdoms, Writers must spend plenty of time on world building. Myths, otherworldly magic-based
concepts, and ideas characterize these books. They frequently take signs from historical settings like The Dark Ages.

5. Speculative Fiction

These stories are created in worlds unlike our real world in certain important ways. This genre usually overlaps one or
more of the following: science fiction, fantasy fiction, horror fiction, supernatural fiction, superhero fiction, utopian and
dystopian fiction, apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, and alternate history.

6. Thriller

A character in jeopardy dominates these stories. This genre involves pursuit and escape. It is filled with cliffhangers and
there are one or more ‘dark’ characters that the protagonist must escape from, fight against, or best in the story. The
threats to the protagonist can be physical or psychological, or both. The setting is integral to the plot. This is often
described as a gripping read.
7. Young Adult

Young Adult (YA) books are written, published, and marketed to adolescents and young adults. The Young Adult
Library Services Association (YALSA) defines a young adult as someone between the ages of 12 and 18, but adults also
read these books. YA novels feature diverse protagonists facing changes and challenges. This genre has become more
popular with the success of novels like The Hunger Games, The Fault in Our Stars, and Twilight.

8. New Adult.

New Adult (NA) books feature college, It is the next age-category up from YA. It explores the challenges
and uncertainties of leaving home and living independently for the first time.

9. Horror/Paranormal/Ghost.

These are high-pitched scary stories involving pursuit and escape. The protagonist must overcome supernatural
or demonic beings. Occult is a sub-genre that always uses satanic-type antagonists.

10. Mystery/Crime

Mystery is a genre of literature whose stories focus on a puzzling crime, situation, or circumstance that needs to
be solved. The term comes from the Latin mysterium, meaning “a secret thing.” stories can be either fictional or
nonfictional, and can focus on both supernatural and non-supernatural topics.

11.Police Procedural

These are mysteries that involve a police officer or detective solving the crime. The emphasis rests heavily on
technological or forensic aspects of police work, sorting and collecting evidence, as well as the legal aspects of criminology.

12. Historical Stories

These fictional stories take place against factual historical backdrops. Important historical figures are portrayed as
fictional characters. Historical Romance is a sub-genre that involves a conflicted love relationship in a factual historical
setting.

13. Westerns

These books are specifically set in the old American West. Plotlines include survival, romance, and adventures
with characters of the time, for example, cowboys, mountain men, and miners.

14. Family Saga

This genre is about on-going stories of two or more generations of a family. Plots revolve around things like
businesses, acquisition, properties, adventures, and family curses. By their nature, these are primarily historical, often
bringing the resolution in contemporary settings. There is usually a timeline involved in these books.

15.Women’s Fiction

These plot lines are characterized by female characters who face challenges, difficulties, and crisis that have a
direct relationship to gender. This is inclusive of woman’s conflict with man, though not limited to that. It can include
conflict with things such as the economy, family, society, art, politics, and religion.

16. Magic Realism

Magical events are part of ordinary life in this genre. The characters do not see them as abnormal or unusual.
They are a natural part of the story. One Hundred Years of Solitude is a classic in this genre.
CHAPTER 3.1
Nonfiction's specific factual assertions and descriptions may or may not be accurate, and can give either a true or
a false account of the subject in question. However, authors of such accounts genuinely believe or claim them to be
truthful at the time of their composition or, at least, pose them to a convinced audience as historically or empirically
factual. Reporting the beliefs of others in a nonfiction format is not necessarily an endorsement of the veracity of those
beliefs, but rather an exercise in representing the topic.

MAJOR TYPES OF NON-FICTION

1. Expository Writing

This is the type of writing which is used when the purpose of the text is to inform, explain, or describe information.
It is used to explain to the reader why the information they are consuming is important and then helps them to analyse
that information by presenting ideas, using evidence as corroboration, and encouraging discussions. The goal is often to
provide background information but can be used to convey specific key points in scientific or technical writing.

• Examples of Expository Writing:

This morning at 9am, a school bus collided with a car at the intersection of Jones and Heard streets. There were no
injuries on the school bus, but medical personnel performed checks on each student and the driver before those students
were transported to their schools. The driver of the car sustained slight, non-life-threatening injuries. He was transported
to the local hospital. The accident is still under investigation at this time.

Advances in science and technology have made the use of "green" energy possible. In places where climate conditions
permit, people are able to use solar energy or wind energy for power. Solar energy is the use of sunlight for energy and
power. Humans are able to harness the energy of the sun by installing solar panels on their homes or businesses. Humans
have also found ways to harness the power of the wind by using wind turbines to capture wind energy. Both of these
forms of "green" energy are being used more and more.

The school science fair was a success again this year! We had 15 teams participating, and they all had amazing projects.
Each team consisted of two students who designed a science experiment to test a hypothesis, created a display of their
experiment and results, and presented their display to the judges. The winners this year are Sarah Jones and Mark Gordon,
who hypothesized that students get into less trouble in the classroom on days when it is sunny outside. The judges were
very impressed with their data collection methods, which included asking teachers to share information on how many
students earned stars at the end of each day. They correlated this information with their own data about the weather-
sunny, cloudy, or rainy.

2. Argumentative Writing

Sometimes this type of non-fiction writing is called “persuasive writing” instead. The goal is to prove the validity
of an idea, a fact, or a specific point of view by using a series of logical conclusions. By arguing the key points, the goal is
to persuade the reader that the opinion of the writer is the correct . In that concept which can be used for any non-fiction
text. Darwin used argumentative writing when offering his theories of evolution. Religious denominations use this type of
writing when discussing why they believe that their beliefs are the “one true way” to whatever end-goal in being
considered.
3.Opinion Writing

Every blog you’ve ever read is a form of this non-fiction writing style. Although opinions aren’t necessarily
universal facts, they are personal facts that are specific to the person who is creating the manuscript. That is why it is
classified as a non-fiction type of writing.

Opinions can exist about everything, but for them to be valid, there must be some form of fact-based supporting evidence
presented within the context of the content. Although opinion writing is similar to the other styles, it is different because
of the fact that you’re discussing the conclusions you’ve already formed and why you’ve formed them.

4. Essay Writing

This writing is based on the writings of others. You take their research, their manuscripts, and their observations
and then use them as evidence to support your own conclusions on a specific subject matter. In many ways, this form of
writing is more like creating a summary of existing works to create learning opportunities instead of taking the reader
through a specific story or experience.

5. Literary Writing

This type of non-fiction writing is used to describe a manuscript that is intended for more of an intellectual
audience instead of a general audience. If you were to write a scientific paper about how particles interact with the
universe and your target audience for the piece were readers that are doing the same research, then it could fit into this
category. This style is always used when the purpose isn’t to engage a greater audience.

6. Feature stories

A type of creative nonfiction that can typically be found in newspapers, magazines, or journals. These stories are
told in the third person and can range from a broad topic of culture in an area the author has never been to something
very specific, such as the relationship between tourism and fly-fishing. Reporters and journalists spend time covering
events or spend enough time with the people they write about that they are their own authority on the subject, and
include quotes, photos, and other sources pertinent to the credibility of their story.

7. Memoirs and personal essays

Memoirs are written in the first person, traveling through multiple events in their life. A good example of this
might be Cheryl Strayed's Wild: From Lost to Found on the Pacific Crest Trail. Strayed's journey begins with the death of
her mother sending her on a downward spiral, and she feels the only way back to herself is to backpack 1,100 miles by
herself through harsh conditions. While the main event of the book is obviously her hike, she often reveals experiences
from her childhood before her mother passed, and experiences after it that led her to hike the PCT.

Personal Essay is autobiographical non-fiction characterized by a sense of intimacy and conversational manner.
Annie Dillard's Teaching a Stone to Talk is an anthology of personal essays from her travels and experiences, ranging from
the deeply emotional, memories of her childhood that continue to affect her, to the religious.

8. Biography, or simply bio

It involves more than just the basic facts like education, work, relationships, and death; it portrays a person's
experience of these life events. Unlike a profile or curriculum vitae (résumé), a biography presents a subject's life story,
highlighting various aspects of his or her life, including intimate details of experience, and may include an analysis of the
subject's personality.
9. Journalism

It is unbiased production and distribution of reports on current or past events based on facts and supported with
proofs or evidences. The word journalism applies to the occupation, as well as citizen journalists who gather and publish
unbiased information based on facts and supported with proofs or evidences. Journalistic media include print, television,
radio, Internet, and, in the past, newsreels.

10. A blueprint

It is a reproduction of a technical drawing or engineering drawing using a contact print process on light-sensitive
sheets. Introduced by Sir John Herschel in 1842, the process allowed rapid and accurate production of an unlimited
number of copies. It was widely used for over a century for the reproduction of specification drawings used in construction
and industry.

CHAPTER 3.2
Poetry

It is the form of Literature characterized by its highly controlled manner of choosing and arranging language with
use of regulating devices such for sound and rhythm to aesthetically convey a meaning which may call for specific
emotional response.

Types of Poetry

1) Narrative- The narrative poem can be described simply as a poem with a plot. It may be short or long , simple or
complex. The only part which matters is that it tells a story which is often nondramatic and holds an objective regular
scheme and meter.

i) The three types of narratives

(1) Epic-The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a poetic story. In
literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an
unusual courage and unparalleled bravery.

(2) Metrical tale - A metrical tale typically comprises of a series of connected events, which usually end up
with a happy ending especially in romance themes; where tales are told of brave Knights facing hardships
and trials in their quests for adventure. A romantic end would often suffice as a reward for their valiant
accomplishments.

(3) Ballad - The word ballad is of French provenance. It is a type of poetry or verse which was basically used
in dance songs in ancient France. Later on, during the late 16th and 17th centuries, it spread over the
majority of European nations.

2) Lyrical Poetry - A lyric poem is short, highly musical verse that conveys powerful feelings.

(1) Folk Song- is a collection of fictional stories about animals and people, of cultural myths, jokes, songs,
tales, and even quotes. It is a description of culture, which has been passed down verbally from generation
to generation, though many are now in written form. Folklore is also known as “folk literature,” or “oral
traditions.”

(2) Sonnet - The word sonnet is derived from the Italian word “sonetto,” which means a “little song” or small
lyric. In poetry, a sonnet has 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It
has a specific rhyme scheme, and a Volta, or a specific turn.
 (3) Psalm - The definition of a psalm is a sacred poem, or one of the 150 lyrical poems and prayers in a
Christian and Jewish book of worship called the Book of Psalms. A lyrical poem found in the King James
Version of the Holy Bible is an example of a psalm.

3) Dramatic Poetry - Dramatic poetry was probably the first form of poetry. It's fair to say that dramatic poetry, also
called dramatic verse, is an ancient art form. It is meant to be recited or enacted; the "dramatic" label does not
necessarily imply that the work is dark.

i) TYPES OF DRAMATIC POETRY

(1) Comedy- Greek terms “Comos” meaning festivity. It is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is
amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. The motif of this dramatic work is
triumph over unpleasant circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or
successful conclusion.

(2) Melodrama - In modern usage, a melodrama is a dramatic work wherein the plot, which is typically
sensational and designed to appeal strongly to the emotions, takes precedence over detailed
characterization.

(3) Tragedy - In literary terms, tragedy is a form of drama in which there is a display of human suffering and
often catharsis for the audience. Tragedy, as we know it in Western culture, has its foundation in ancient
Greece about 2,500 years ago.

CHAPTER 4
What is poetry?

In poetry the sound and meaning of words are combined to express feelings, thoughts, and ideas.  The poet
chooses words carefully.  Poetry is usually written in lines.

Structures of poetry

Writers use many elements to create their poems. These elements include: Rhythm , Rhyme , Form

Rhythm

- The word rhythm is derived from rhythmos (Greek) which means, “measured motion.” Rhythm is a literary device
that demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in verse form.

Rhyme

- A rhyme is a tool utilizing repeating patterns that bring rhythm or musicality to poems. This differentiates them
from prose, which is plain. A rhyme is employed for the specific purpose of rendering a pleasing effect to a poem, which
makes its recital an enjoyable experience. Moreover, it offers itself as a mnemonic device, smoothing the progress of
memorization.
Forms of poetry

There are many forms of poetry including the:

Couplet, Tercet, Acrostic, Cinquain, Haiku, Senryu, Concrete Poem, Free Verse, Limerick

Lines and Stanzas

• Most poems are written in lines.

Couplet - A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse, and has the
same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific
utterances. It could be an independent poem, and might be a part of other poems, such as sonnets in Shakespearean
poetry.

Tercet - A tercet is a threelined stanza or poem that often contains a rhyme. There are many different types of tercets.
They can be easily read, and when they rhyme they have a certain type of flow, like rolling waves. But, creating that three-
line rhythmic flow can be quite a challenge.

Quatrain - A quatrain is a verse with four lines, or even a full poem containing four lines, having an independent and
separate theme. Often one line consists of alternating rhyme, existing in a variety of forms. We can trace back quatrains
in poetic traditions of various ancient civilizations, such as China, Ancient Rome, and Ancient Greece; and they continue
to appear in the twenty-first century.

Traditional Cinquain

❖ A cinquain is a poem written in five lines that do not rhyme.

Diamante

❖ A diamante is a seven-line poem written in the shape of a diamond.

A diamante poem is a poem made of seven lines of words that are arranged in a special diamond-like form. The word
diamante is pronounced DEE - UH - MAHN - TAY; it is an Italian word meaning “diamond.” This type of poem does not
contain rhyming words.