CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presented to highlight some theories functioning as

the basic of the research. It covers nature reading, reading

comprehension, collaborative strategic reading, reading comprehension

for junior high school students, and previous studies.

A. Nature of Reading

1. Definition Of Reading

Reading is one of English skill. There are many opinion about the

definition of reading and each expert defines the term “reading”

differently. Reading is a process of communication information between

a writer and reader. It is a line with Vacca, et al (1991:172) stating that

in reading, a reader tries to understand ideas that a writer has put in a

text. Reading in this process involves decoding and comprehension

process. Decoding process means the process of saying word into a

representation similar to oral language either silently or aloud, whereas

comprehension process is the process of understanding the

representation (Carnine et al.1990). In the other words, the

understanding of the text triggers from decoding process to

comprehension process interactively.

Wallace (1998: 4) adds that reading is interpreting which means

react into a written text as a piece of communication. In other words we

assume

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some communicative intents on the writer’s part in which the reader has

some purposes in attempting to understand.

Francoise Grellet (1981:7) reading is a constant process of guessing

and what one brings to the text is often more important than what one

find in it. This is why, from the very beginning, the students should be

taught to use what they know to understand unknown elements, whether

these are ideas or simple words. Reading is an active skill as mentioned

earlier, it constantly involves guessing, predicting, checking and asking

oneself question. This should therefore be taken into consideration when

devising reading comprehension exercise. It is possible, for instance, to

develop the students’ powers of inference through systematic practice, or

introduce question which encourage students to anticipate the content of

a text from its title and illustrations or the end of a story from the

preceding paragraph. This is best achieved through a global approach to

the text.

From the definition above, it can be concluded that reading is a

process to get information or understand ideas, which are symbolized by

a written or printed language as a piece of a communication. Besides

reading also the process of guessing what is the meaning of the text that

involve guessing, predicting checking and asking question.

2. Types of Reading

There are many kinds of reading to understanding a text easily and

quickly. According Harmer (2007:100) there are types of reading;

skimming, scanning, extensive reading and intensive reading.

Skimming consist of quickly running one’s eyes across a whole text for

its gist. Skimming give reader advantage of being able to predict the

purpose of the passage, the main topic, or message and possibly some of

the developing and supporting ideas.

b. Scanning

Scanning is quickly searching of some particular piece or pieces

information of the text. The purposes of scanning is to extent specific

information without reading through the whole text (Brown, 2001:308).

However, according to Harmer (2007:101) just as with scanning, if

students try to gather all details, they will get bogged down and may not

be able to identify the general idea because they are concentrating to

hard on specifics.

c.Extensive Reading

Extensive reading is carried out to achieve a general understanding of a

usually somewhat longer text book. Pleasure reading is often extensive.

It has the advantage in that students gain appreciation for effective and

cognitive window reading (Brown, 2001:312).

d.Intensive Reading

Intensive reading is usually a linguistic or semantic details of the

passage (Brown, 2001:313). Meanwhile according to Grellet (2010:4)

intensive reading is a reading short text to extract specific information.

This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail.

When people read something, they have their own purpose. For

example when they read a newspaper the purpose to get information

from it. When they read a comic the purpose is to get the pleasure. As

stated by Aebersold (1997:15), people read because they have a

purpose. Some people read the text because their purposes want to find

the information of the text.

Some linguists have explanation about the purposes of

reading. According to the Nuttal (2005:4), the main purpose of reading

is to get the meaning or the meaning or the message from the text. In

reading activity the readers have a major purpose to get information of

the text. Another idea stated that, generally the mainly purpose of

reading is to get new information and pleasure.

In addition, Williams (1984:90) usefully classifies reading into :

a. Getting general information from the text.

b. Getting specific information from the text

c. For pleasure or for interest

Based on that, reading has two main purposes. Those are reading for

getting information and for pleasure. Besides, the main purpose of

reading is to get the meaning of the text.

purposes:

1. Indentifying the topic

In identifying the topic of the text, they get the topic by relating their

own schemata; it will help them to get the idea about the text quickly

and effectively.

2. Predicting and Guessing

The readers sometimes guess in order to try and understand what the

text is about, especially if they have first identified the topic. And

they try to predict what is coming and make assumptions about

content of the text. Then they try to relate their schemata with the

text that they read.

3. General understanding

The readers have not to understand the text specifically, but they just

understand the general idea of the text and they do not need to focus

on details information. It is called as skimming, it means running

your eyes over a text to get a quick idea of the gist of the text.

4. Specific information

The readers need the specific details that include in the text. It is

called as scanning. For example the readers want to find the name of

director of movie starts in a film review.

Sometimes the readers read in order to understand everything in

details information. It is usually in written instruction or direction or

description or scientific procedure. For example if someone writes an

address and telephone number.

6. Interpreting text

The readers are able to get the meaning of the passage, using a

variety of clues to understand what the writer is implying. The

readers will be success in interpretation if they have schemata.

From purpose stated by many linguists above the writer

concludes that the readers have their purposes is reading the written

text based on what they need and what they want. The readers need

to know the information of the text, such as newspaper, magazine, or

instruction book in using or making something and to get specific

information in answering the questions related to the text, then to

develop their vocabulary. In addition the readers want to get pleasure

and enjoyment when read something.

B. Definition of Reading Comprehension

Expert give some different explanations concerning with reading

comprehension. Snow (2002:11) defines that reading comprehension as the

process of simultaneously extracting and constructing the meaning through

the interaction and involvement by written language. The comprehension

entails
three elements include the reader who is doing the comprehending, the text

which is to be comprehended and the activity in which comprehension is a

part. Nunan in Defiana (2013) states that reading comprehension refers to

reading for the meaning, understanding, and entertainments

Boss and Vaughn, Zimmerman (2011:144) says that reading

comprehension is essentially the ability to understand what has been read.

Students are said that they have good comprehending on reading when they

are able to make a conclusion or able to show the information that they got

after reading a written form.

Furthermore according to Klingner (2007:2), reading comprehension is the

process of constructing meaning by coordinating a number of complex

processes that included word reading, word and world knowledge, and

fluency. It refers to the ability in interpreting the words, understanding the

meaning and the relationships between ideas conveyed in a text. He

summarizes reading comprehension instruction for the teacher as following a

three-step procedure: mentioning, practicing and assessing. Teachers mention

the skills that students want to use then, they give them opportunities to

practice those skills through workbooks or work sheets, and finally assess

whether or not they use the skills successfully.

From the explanation above conclude that reading comprehension is the

act to understanding the meaning and information of the text. In the other

hand reading comprehension making meaning or conclusion from the text

that they got after the reading.

1. The Definition of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is a reading strategy that found and

proposed by Klingner and Vaughn 1998. Klingner and Vaughn (1998:32)

state that Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is an excellent teaching

technique for teaching students’ reading comprehension and building

vocabulary and also working together cooperatively. Klingner and Vaughn

(1996:275-293) originally designed CSR by combining modified reciprocal

teaching with cooperative learning. Through a number of research trials, CSR

has been refined and currently consists of four comprehension strategies that

students apply before, during, and after reading in small cooperative groups.

These reading strategies are: (a) preview (before reading), (b) click and clunk

(during reading), (c) get the gist (during reading), and (d) wrap up (after

reading).

In addition, according to Grabe (2009:233) CSR is a promising approach

to combined-strategies instruction that draws on both reciprocal teaching and

cooperative learning, and this approach has been used with both L1 and L2

students. Students are working in groups and taught to activate prior

knowledge, make predictions, monitor their comprehension difficulties,

clarify information, restate important ideas, summarize the text, and form

appropriate questions about the text.

Klingner et al (2012:16) claim that CSR is not curriculum in a box, but

rather than a flexible set of strategies used by students working

(CSR) is a method of teaching reading comprehension strategies originally

designed for teacher-led small groups of students in special education whose

first language is not English. It was later adapted to cooperative learning and

peer-led small group instruction in general education classes (Klingner, J.K

and Vaughn, S, 1996 ). In Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), students

divided into small group consists of 4-6 students each group and perform

different role (Klingner, J.K and Vaughn, S, 2000:73). Besides,

collaborative strategic reading is an excellent technique for teaching students

reading comprehension and building vocabulary and also working together

cooperatively.

2. Procedures of Implementing CSR

These procedure by Janette K. Klingner and Sharon Vaughn

(1998:2), the roles of Students learn four strategies as part of CSR’s plan

for strategy reading:

Strategy 1: Preview

Teacher asks students to preview the entire passage before they read

each section. The goals of previewing are:

a) For students to learn as much about the passage as they can in

a Brief period of time (2 – 3 minutes).

b) To activate their background knowledge about the topic.

c) To help them make predictions about what they will learn.

engage them in active reading from the on set.

Strategy 2: Click and Clunk

Student Click and clunk while reading each section of the passage. The

goal of clicking and clunking is to teach students to monitor their reading

comprehension and to identify when they have breakdowns in

understanding. Clicks refer to portions of the text that make sense to the

reader: “Click, click, click” – comprehension clicks into place as the

reader proceeds smoothly through the text. When a student comes to a

word, concept, or idea that does not make sense, “Clunk”-

comprehension breaks down. For example, when students do not know

the meaning of a word, it is a clunk.

Strategy 3: Get The Gist

Students learn to “get the gist” by identifying the most important idea in

a section of text (usually a paragraph). The goal of getting the gist is to

teach students to restate in their own words the most important point as a

way of making sure they have understood what they have read. This

strategy can improve students’ understanding and memory of what they

have learned.

Strategy 4: Wrap up

Students learn to wrap up by formulating questions and answers about

what they have learned and by reviewing key ideas. The goals are to

improve students’ knowledge, understanding, and memory of what was

the passage they have just read. The best way to teach wrap up is to tell

students to use the following question starters to begin their questions :

who, what, when, where, why and how ( the 5 W and 1 H ).

3. The Roles of The Students in CSR

Students roles are an important aspect of CSR because

cooperative learning seems to work best when all group members have

been assigned a meaningful task. Role should rotate on a regular basis so

that students can experience a variety of roles and so that everyone takes

a turn being the leader. Students can perform more than one role at a

time, if necessary. Possible roles include the following :

a. Leader

This student leads the group in the implementation of CSR by saying

what to read next and what strategy to apply next. The leader asks

the teacher for assistance, if necessary.

b. Clunk expert

This student uses clunk cards to remind the group of the steps to

follow when trying to figure out and difficult word or concept.

c. Announcer

This student calls on different group members to read or share an

idea. He or she makes sure everyone participates and only one person

talks at a time.
 d. Encourager

This student watches the group and gives feedback. He or she looks

for behaviors to praise. The student encourages all group members to

participate in the discussion and assist one another. He or she

evaluates how well the group has worked together and gives

suggestions for improvement.

e. Reporter

During the whole-class wrap-up, this student reports to the class the

main ideas the group learned and shares a favorite question the group

has generate.

4. The Roles of the Teacher

At the outset, the teacher provides explicit instruction to

students to teach the CSR reading comprehension strategies. The teacher

also emphasizes that reading is thinking. In short, during the cooperative

group activity, the teacher’s role is to circulate among the groups,

clarifying clunks, modeling strategy usage, modeling cooperative

learning techniques, redirecting students to remain on task and providing

assistance.

5. The Role of the Materials in CSR

The following materials may be helpful as teacher assists students

to use both cooperative learning techniques and comprehension strategies.

For example, using sheets can be effective reminders of cooperative

learning roles.
6. The Goals of Collaborrative Strategy Reading (CSR)

There are some purposes of Collaborative Strategic Reading

(CSR). According to Abidin (2012:194), “The goals of CSR are to

improve reading comprehension and increase conceptual learning in ways

that maximize students’ involvement. It means that Collaborative Strategic

Reading (CSR) is design to maximize students’ engangement and help all

students to be successful in improving their reading comprehension.

Moreover, the goals of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) are

to improve reading comprehension and increase conceptual learning in

ways that maximize students' involvement. Developed to enhance reading

comprehension skills for students at risk for reading difficulties, motivate

the students to interest in reading, help the student that has limited

vocabulary. CSR has also yielded positive outcomes for average and high

average achieving students (Klingner & Vaughn, 1996; Klingner, Vaughn,

& Schumm, in press).

Abidin describes that there some advantages of Collaborative

Strategic Reading (CSR), they are: promoting student and academic

achievement, increasing students retention, enhancing the students

satisfaction with their learning experience, helping students develop skills

in oral communication, developing students social skills, promoting

students self-esteem, helping to promote positive race relation

In addition, the purpose of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

is to facilitate the students to improve their reading comprehension by

assignments.

D. Reading Comprehension for Junior High School Students

Reading comprehension for junior high school students is not easy.

Students at junior high school still limit the vocabulary. They are very

difficult to find the meaning or information of the text in comprehending.

Because reading comprehension is the process of simultaneously extracting

and constructing the meaning through the interaction and involvement by

written language (Snow 2002:11). The students are expected to have the

skills of language in simple English. So, the master of reading is very

important. In junior high school there are some materials used in reading

comprehension :

a. Descriptive text

A text is to describe and classify information. Informative report usually

talk to tell about person, place and thing.

b. Procedural text

A procedural text is used to tell someone how to do or make something.

This type of the text in many forms, such as instruction manual and

recipes.

c. Report text

Report text is a text which present information about something, as it is. It

is a result of systematic observation and analyses.

Narrative text has a social purpose to entertain the reader through a real

experience or imagination.

e. Recount text

Recount text is the text that telling the reader about one story, action, or

activity.

E. Previous Studies

There are some previous studies about CSR that found by the

researcher. The first from Puspita (2013), on the title The Effect of

Collaborative Strategic Reading on the Eleventh Grade Students Reading

Comprehension Achievement at SMAN 2 Bondowoso. She was conducted by

used quasi experimental research with post-test only control group design. In

her research, she explained that CSR gives a kind of coherent ways for low

achiever to understand the text as well as the high achiever does. Then,

she explained that CSR more effective than teaching reading by using

Question-Answer strategy.

The second from Desy (2013) on the title Collaborative Strategic Reading

Implementation to Improve Students’ Reading Comprehension. She was

conducted by used classroom research action in University of Kuningan

Indonesia. In her research, she explained that CSR give positive attitude. She

also explained that students’ interest towards English is improved after the
implementation of CSR and they feel that CSR bring more fun to the process

of learning.

The third from Nur jannah (2014), on the title The Effect of Using

Collaborative Srategic Reading and Personality Toward Students’ Reading

Comprehension at Grade XI of Social Science at SMAN 7 Padang. She was

implemented CSR in on Narrative and exposition text and she was conducted

by used quasi experimental research. She explained that CSR is proven as an

effective technique to improve students reading comprehension, it is

suggested to the English teachers at SMAN 7 Padang to apply this technique

as a variation in teaching reading.

The last Edi Kurniawan (2014), on the title The Effectiveness of using

Collaborative Strategic Reading in Reading Comprehension of the Eighth

Grade Student Junior High School 15 Yogyakarta. He was conducted CSR by

used quasi experimental. The result of his research that CSR is effective to

apply in eight student to improve students’ reading comprehension

The similarities of this research with the previous research is done in the

teaching reading in classroom. Meanwhile, the differences of this research

with the previous in this study is the writer uses pre-experimental research

design using one group pre-test and post-test. This research design to

investigate the effectiveness of using Collaborative Strategic Reading in

reading comprehension by comparing the students’ score before and after

being taught by using Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR).