Machining Processes

Machining processes are commonly carried out in machine shops or tool room
for producing cylindrical or flat jobs to a desired shape, size and finish on
block of job material by removing exceed materials with the help of a
wedge shaped tool.
The cutting tool is constrained to move relative to the job in such a way that a
layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip. General metal cutting
operations are shown in Fig.
A machine tool is a power driven metal cutting machine which assist in
managing the needed relative motion between cutting tool and the job that
changes the size and shape of the job material. In machining process, the
work and tool travel relative to each other and machine the workpiece
material in the form of shavings (or swarf) known as chips.
 Cutting tools
The best tool material to use for a certain job is the one that will
produce the machined part at the lowest cost. To perform good
during cutting, the tool material should possess the following
properties for its proper functioning.
1. A low coefficient of friction between tool material and chip
material.
2. Ability to resist softening at high temperature.
3. Ability to absorb shocks without permanent deformation.
4. Sufficient toughness to resist fracture and bear cutting stresses.
5. Strength to resist disintegration of fine cutting edge and also to
withstand the stresses developed, during cutting, in the weakest
part of the tool.
6. High hardness that means tool must be harder than the material
being cut.
They comprise of single point cutting tool or multipoint cutting
tools.
 Types of chips
In a metal cutting operation is carried out in machine shop,
Chips are separated from the workpiece to impart the required
size and shape to the workpiece. The chips that are formed
during metal cutting operations can be classified into:
1. Discontinuous or segmental chips
2. Continuous chips
3. Continuous chips with built-up edge.
 Basic machining operations
1. Turning
2. Sawing
3. Grinding
4. Milling
5. Shaping or Planing
6. Broaching
7. Drilling
Turning Operation
 Workpiece holding devices

Four-jaw independent chuck Three-jaw self-centring scroll chuck

Mandrel Between Centres

 Collet chuck

Traveling Fixed
Steadies Faceplate
 Cutting tool holding

Tool post of centre lathe

Cross-slide and top slide

Setting tool on centre

(i) Rake angle
It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with base of the
tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. If the
slope face is downward toward the nose; negative rake angle, and if it is
upward toward nose, positive rake angle. This angle helps in removing the
chips away from the work piece.
(ii) Relief (Clearance) angle
It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the workpiece. It
is defined as the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool,
measured at right angles to the flank.
(iii) Lip angle (tool angle).

Cutting angles
Cutting Parameters

1- Depth of cut: d =(Do –Df )/2.

D.o.c is usually taken as 3-5 mm for rough
turning and 0.8 to 1.6 mm for finish turning.
2- Cutting speed mm/min where: v = π DN
3- feed f (per rev) mm/rev where feed rate: fr = N f
Feed is usually taken as 0.3-1.5 mm/rev for
rough turning and 0.1 to 0.8 mm/rev for finish
turning.
Time to cut (Tm) =L/fr = L/f N
Volumetric rate of metal removal = vfd
Example 1.:
It is required to turn a 90 mm diameter and 250 mm. length bar to the shown dimension
with speed = 90 m/min, feed = 0.38 mm/rev. and depth of cut = 5mm. The approach and
over travel = 3 mm.
1- Choose the suitable method to hold this workpiece.
2- Find the machining time required to machine this workpiece.

Solution:
L = 100 + 100 + 3 = 203 mm. - The suitable method
N = 1000 v / π D to hold this workpiece
= 1000 * 90 / 3.14 * 90 = 318.3 r.p.m is holding between
fr = f N = 0.38 * 318.3 = 120.96 mm/min. centers.
Tm = L/fr = 203/120.96
= 1.68 min.
 Drilling operations
Drilling presses range from hand-held portable drills to
multiple spindle heads operated by robots. Three basic
types are shown here.
1- Sensitive (Bench) drilling machine
It’s used for light duty application
It may be floor-mounted, or mounted on a bench.
The table can be raised or lowered and rotated around
the machine column.
The spindle rotates and can be raised and lowered,
with a stroke of 4" to 8".
Stops can be set to limit and regulate the depth .
Bench drilling machine
 2- Pillar drill press

• It’s used for heavier

work 32 mm or
more.
• It’s equipped with
power feed
mechanism.
• It can also feed
manually.
3- Radial drilling machine
 TYPES OF TWIST DRILLS
Twist drill is the most common drill type. It has two flutes and two
cutting edges or lips.
The chisel edge connects the 2 cutting lips.
Flutes provide passages for chips and cutting fluid.
 Drilling related operations

Drilling operation Reaming operation Counterboring operation

Countersinking Tapping
centring Spot-Facing
Holding Drills
Separating the drill shank from the
sleeve
A drift is used to remove
the twist drill from the
sleeve.
Insert the drift into the slot
in the sleeve and tap it with
a hammer.
 Holding workpiece
Work can be held by
• Hand.
• Vise.
• clamping plates
• V blocks
• Drill jigs
1- Holding by hand
– It can be done only for
flat, and small works
when extreme accuracy
is not required.
2- Machine vise
Larger workpieces are
safely clamped in the
machine vise
3- Clamping plates
Very big parts must be clamped on
the machine table directly
1. Clamps plates
2. Stepped packing block
3. clamp bolt fits into T slot
4. Support packing
5. Workpiece
6. Drill table
4- V blocks
It’s used for round
stock. The work is
clamped securely.

5- Drilling jigs
Special devices
designed to hold a
particular workpiece
and guide the cutting
tool.
 Precautions details

A shows wrong inserting shank. It may damage

drill chisel. press drill on Cu or Pb plate as in B.
C shows wrong ejecting shank using file. It
may damage the file. Use drift and hammer.
D shows effect of using worn chuck key on
shank causing scored shank that fails to be
gripped securely.
Precautions when tool holding
 Drilling Parameters

Cutting speed = π DN
Feed is distance the drill penetrate per rev (mm/rev),
the share of each cutting edge is f/2
D.O.C is taken as half the drill diameter
Drilling time (Tm) = L/f N
The approach is usually 0.4 D
Over travel is 1 to 3 mm
Metal removal rate MRR= (f)N (π D2/4)
Example 2.:
A drilling operation is to be used to drill 10 mm diameter hole. The feed and feed rate are
0.2 mm/rev. and 180 mm/min., respectively. Determine the used cutting speed.

Solution:
fr = N f
N = fr/f
N = 180 / 0.2
N = 900 rev/min.
v = π D N / 1000
v = 3.14 * 10 * 900 / 1000
Cutting speed (v) = 28.27 m/min.
 Milling processes
Milling machines are used to produce parallel, perpendicular and inclined plain
surfaces using multi-tooth cutters. These cutters are rotated by the machine
spindle, and it is from the plane in which the axis of the spindle lies that
determines the name of the machine. Fig. (a) shows the cutting angles of a
milling cutter tooth. The additional secondary clearance angle prevents the heel
of the tooth catching on the workpiece as the tool rotates. It also provides chip
clearance. Fig. (b) shows an actual milling cutter.

(a)
(b)
Type of milling processes
1. Up-cut or conventional milling
The work is fed towards the cutter against the direction of rotation.
• This prevents the work being dragged into the cutter if there is any
backlash in the feed mechanism.
• The cutting edges to rub as each tooth starts to cut and this can lead
to chatter and blunting of the cutting edge.
• The cutting action tends to lift the work off the machine table.

(1) up-cut milling

2. Down-cut or climb milling
The work is fed into the cutter in the same direction as the cutter is rotating.
• The cutter does not rub as each tooth starts to cut. This reduces the risk of
chatter and prolongs the cutter life.
• The cutting forces keep the workpiece pressed down against the machine
table.
• The action of the cutter helps to feed the work forward and takes most of
the load off the feed mechanism.

(2) Down milling

 Milling machines
1. The horizontal
spindle milling
machine
The horizontal milling
machine gets its name
from the fact that the
axis of the spindle of the
machine, and therefore
the axis of the arbor
supporting the cutter,
lies in a horizontal plane
as shown in Fig.

Horizontal spindle milling machine

 Horizontal milling machine cutters and the surfaces they produce

Horizontal milling machine cutters and the surfaces they produce: (a) slab
milling cutter; (b) side and face cutter; (c) single-angle cutter; (d) double
equal-angle cutter; (e) cutting a V-slot with a side and face mill; (f) double
unequal-angle cutter; (g) concave cutter; (h) convex cutter; (i) single and
double corner rounding cutters; (j) involute gear tooth cutter
2. The vertical
spindle milling
machine
The vertical milling
machine gets its name
from the fact that the
axis of the spindle of
the machine, and
therefore the axis of
the cutter being used,
lies in the vertical
plane as shown in
Fig.

Vertical spindle milling machine

 Typical milling cutters for vertical spindle milling machines

The surfaces
they produce

End milling cutter Face milling cutter slot drill

(d) recess; (e) blind keyway; (f) dovetail (angle) cutter; (g) T-slot cutter; (h)
Woodruff cutter
 Shaping and Planing
Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool in which the
ram moves the cutting tool backwards and forwards in a
straight line.

Cutting action and functioning of clapper box

 Shaping processes

Shaping is done by moving cutting tool.

Planing is done by moving workpiece.
Planing tools are heavier and more rigid than shaping.
Parts of a standard shaper
Precaution for cutting tool and work
setting as in A and B.
Grinding Processes
Grinding is the name given to those processes which use abrasive particles for material
removal. The abrasive particles are made by crushing hard, crystalline solids such as
aluminum oxide (emery) and silicon carbide. Grinding wheels consist of large numbers of
abrasive particles, called grains, held together by a bond (e.g. rubber & bronze) to form a
multi-tooth cutter similar in its action to a milling cutter.
Grinding wheels
Grinding wheels come in a variety of shapes and sizes, as shown in Fig. Configurations (a),
(b), and (c) are peripheral grinding wheels, in which material removal is accomplished by
the outside circumference of the wheel.

Some of the standard grinding wheel shapes: (a) straight, (b) recessed two sides, (c) metal wheel frame with
abrasive bonded to outside circumference, (d) abrasive cutoff wheel, (e) cylinder wheel, (f) straight cup wheel,
and (g) flaring cup wheel.
Grinding Operations
Two types of grinding operations are discussed, i.e. surface and cylindrical grinding.

i- Surface grinding
Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces. It is performed using either
the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. Because the work is
normally held in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the
wheel about a horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a
vertical axis.

- The horizontal spindle machine

with reciprocating worktable is the
most common.

- Grinding is accomplished by
reciprocating the work longitudinally
under the wheel at a very small depth
(infeed) and by feeding the wheel
transversely into the work a certain
distance between strokes. In these
operations, the width of the wheel is
usually less than that of the workpiece.
ii- Cylindrical grinding
As its name suggests, cylindrical grinding is used for rotational parts. These grinding
operations divide into two basic types.
(a) external cylindrical grinding, and
(b) internal cylindrical grinding.