3.1: Data Flow Diagram than in academics.

Regardless of the version, the

notation remains the same, only the symbols changed.
What is a Data Flow Diagram (DFD)?
A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of
information for any process or system. DFD is one way of
showing the logical steps required to complete some
interaction between the process and an entity. DFD is
not limited to analyzing existing systems but also to
model new ones.

Notations
1. External Entity is an external system that sends
or receives data, communicating with the system
being diagrammed. They are the source and
destinations of information entering or leaving
the system.

DFD is not only for those studying information They might be an outside organization, a person, a
technology. It could also be defined by a business analyst computer system, or a business system. They are
(Volodymer, 2019). also known as terminators, sources, and sinks or
actors.
In Business Analysis
2. Process refers to any processes that change the
DFD is used for the assessment of existing and projected data, producing an output. Processes may include
systems and its elements. Diagramming provides a useful computations, sort data based on logic, or direct
toolset for exposing possible weaknesses and structural the flows based on business rules.
flaws.
A short label is added to describe the process, such
In Software Development as “Submit payment.”
DFD is used to explain and visualize the projects' 3. Datastore are files or repositories that hold
requirements — from the business perspective and a information for later use, such as database tables
technical point of view. This feature allows hatching or a form. Each datastore has a simple label such
through and through step by step plan for the as “Orders.”
development of each element. 4. Data flow is the route that data takes between
Types of DFD the external entities, processes, and data stores.
Data flows show the interface between the other
Ed Yourdon and Larry Constantine conceptualized the components and is shown with arrows, typically
DFD, that is why we have a version of Yourdon DFD. The labeled with a short data-name such as “Billing
other version of the DFD is the Gane and Sarson, as details.”
popularized by Tome DeMarco, Chris Gane, and Trish
Sarson. It became more popular in business analysis
Rules of DFD 3.1.1: DFD Levels
1. Each process should have at least one input and DFD Levels
output.
in DFD levels, we subdivide the context in such a way
2. Each data store should have at least one data
that we arrive at a more specific breakdown.
flow in, and one data flow out.
3. Data stored in a system must go through a A. Context Diagram
process.
The context diagram is used to establish the context of
4. All processes in a DFD go to another process or a
the boundaries of the system being modeled. The
data store.
context diagram shows the inside and outside of the
system and the system's relationship with these external
entities.
A context diagram is also called level 0 or the
fundamental diagram, presents the entire software
requirements as a single process with input and output
from the external entities.

When can we say our DFD is good?

Check or assess your DFD if the following are met. If the
answer to it is NO, you have to revisit it re-assess your
DFD based on the table (Volodymer, 2019).

B. Diagram 0 DFD
Diagram 0 DFD is the decomposition of the context
diagram. It usually contains the modules of the system to
portray the data movement among modules. Basic
processes and sources of information can also be seen in
level.
 dfd. However, this is seldom to happen. Should this be
required, the numbering will no longer be 1, 2, …,
n instead it already follows the numbering of its parent
such as 1.1, 1.2, …, 1.n. We call this as derived number
form the parent.

Notice that even when decomposed, the entities are still

outside the different processes. The following steps are
suggested to aid in constructing diagram 0 DFD:
1. Identify the processes. A process must
receive each data flow into the system 3.2: Data Dictionary
2. Draw the dataflow between the external What is Data Dictionary?
entities and processes
A data dictionary is also called a data Definition Matrix,
3. Identify data stores by establishing where providing detailed information about the business data
documents/data needs to be held within such as standard definitions of data elements, their
the system. Add the data stores to the meanings, and allowable values (Brandenburg, n.d.) We
diagram, labeling them with their local also have a data dictionary in a database Entity
name or description Relationship Diagram; however, the data dictionary in
DFD is much detailed because you are extending by
4. Connect the datastore and process. Each
adding definitions for components of the system’s DFD.
datastore must have at least one input
data flow and one output dataflow. Data flow diagram (DFD) only provides information
Ensure every datastore has input and regarding the flow of data, names of different elements,
output data flow to system processes. the processes, and data stores. Still, it does not provide
any descriptive information regarding the data and
5. Check diagram. Each process should have
processes.
an input and an output. Each data store
should have input and output. Check the A data dictionary should be provided for every data store
system details if any process appears to and data flow that appears on the diagram.
be happening for no reason.
Example, a data dictionary entry may represent that the
data grosssPay consists of the components regularly
AND overtime pay
C. Lower-level DFD
grossPay = regularPay + overtimePay
In DFD's levelling, we call the context diagram as the
parent and the diagram 0 dfd as the child. It could also
be possible to decompose a diagram 0 into lower-level
The general format of a data dictionary is similar to a Construction of data dictionary
standard dictionary. It contains an alphabetically ordered
• The definition must be readily accessible by name
list of entries. Each consists of a formal definition and a
• There is no unnecessary definition in data
verbal description. The verbal description is simply a
definition
sentence or two in English, describing the data element.
• The procedure for writing definition should be
Notations in a data dictionary straight forward but specific
• There should be only one way of defining the
Notation Description
word
Composition of two items • A consistency check should be performed
+
Example: regularPay + overTimePay Data Items
There are three classes of data items:
Represents selection, i.e. any one of the
[ ] data items listed in the brackets can occur. 1. Data element. It is the smallest unit of data that
cannot be decomposed further. A data element
Example: [10,20,30]
can be alias, length, type (alphanumeric,
The content inside the bracket is optional alphabet, data, numeric), input/output, default
() value, continuous-discrete, or validation criteria
Example: (middle name)
Example: employee code, unit of measurement
Represents iterative data definition
2. Data structure. A group of data elements forms a
{} Example: {name}5 means five names must data structure. Using the different notations will
be provided lead you to the data structure

Represents equivalence Example: Group of elements such as employee code,

= name, age, experience, phone number, and address
Example: a = b + c
3. Data flow and data store. Data flows are data
Anything inside the /* */ is considered as a structures in motion, whereas data stores are
/* */
comment. data structures at rest. Datastores may be files,
databases, and a new way of storing data over
“” Literal string the cloud-like blob, tables, and queues.
Datastores refers to file type, file format, record
Separates alternatives choices in the [ ]
| size, number of records, the growth rate of
construct, “OR” operator
records, primary keys, and secondary keys.
Example defining the Customername using the
To illustrate the relationship between the three
notations
CustomernName = Title + Firstname + (MiddleName) +
Lastname
Title = [“Mr.” | “Miss” | “Mrs” | “Ms” | “Dr” |
“Professor”]
Firstname = {AlphaCharacters}

Lastname = {AlphaCharacters}
AlphaCharacter = /*Any alphabet characters*/
Given the example above regarding “CustomerName” 3.3: Structured English

• Data element refers to firstname, lastname, and Structured English

middlename
• Structured English is like pseudocode or
• Data structure refers to Customername
programming language such as Pascal
• Data flow refers to Customername if used as the
• It does not have strict syntax rules as
value of the data flow
programming language
• Datastore refers to Customername when used to
• The intension of structured English is to give
store the collection of customers
precise description of a process
Advantage of data dictionary • The structured English description should be
understandable to the user
o It is valuable in any organization because
it provides documentation. Example
o It improves the communication between
If customer pays advance
the user and analyst by establishing a Then
consistent definition of various items, Give 5% discount
Else
terms, and procedures. If purchase amount >= 10,000
Then
o It is a useful tool for manage operators If the customer is regular custome
and or other members of the r
development team to understand Then
Give 5% discount
requirements and design. Else
No discount
The disadvantage of data dictionary End if
Else
o It does not provide functional details No discount
End if
o It is not acceptable to many non-technical End if
users End if

Example of DFD and Dictionary

Some rules in structured English

1. Imperative sentences – actions to be performed

should be precise and quantified
Good example: give discount of 20%
Bad example: give substantial discount
2. The use of the following operators is possible
o Arithmetic: +, - , * , /
o Relational: >, >=, <, <= , = , !=
o Logical: and, not, or
3. The use of the following keywords is also allowed
as in pseudocode. It would be better CAPITALIZE
these keywords for distinction
If, then, else, repeat, until, while, do, case, until, while,
do, case, for, search, retrieve, read, write
Example using Case to signify that they have specialized, reserved
meaning.
CASE (variable)
Variable = P: {statement for alternative P} Example Structured vs Pseudocode
Variable = Q: {statement for alternative Q}
Variable = R: {statement for alternative R} Supposed we want to read in a number and print it out
None of the above: {statements for default c double the number.
ase}
END CASE

CASE(product code)
Product code = 1 : discount = 5%
Product code = 2 : discount = 7%
None of the above : discount = 0%
END CASE

Example for looping

Total =0 Supposed we want to read a number, check, and display

For subject=1 to subject=5 do if it is odd or even.
Total marks=total marks +marks(subject)
Write roll no, total marks
End for

4. The use of delimiters such as {}. End, end if, and

for are also encouraged especially in group of
statements

Example

If condition
Then
Since structured English specifically describes the
{group of statements} process in detail, another way of writing it is using
Else flowcharts. Check the module on how to use the
{group of statements}
End if flowcharts.
Summary
Example for updating inventory with combined rules
Structured English is purely native English in sentence
For each item accepted record do form. Some of its keywords are native in a pseudocode
{ however structured English cannot be a pseudocode.
search inventory file using item code
If successful The number one rule when writing down structured
Then {update retrieved inventory record; English is it must be concise; it cannot be ambiguous.
Write updated record in inventory file
using accepted record} 3.4: Decision Tree
Else {create new record in inventory file;
Enter accepted record in inventory file Decision Tree
}
End if A decision tree is a map of the possible outcomes of a
}
series of related choices. It allows an individual or
End for
organization to weigh possible actions against one
5. Indent blocks of statement to show their another based on their costs, probabilities, and benefits.
hierarchy (nesting) clearly They can be used either to drive informal discussion or
to map out an algorithm that predicts the best choice
6. When words or phrases have been defined in a mathematically (What is a Decision Tree Diagram, 2020).
data dictionary, underline those words or phrases
Trees are useful when there are many decisions that
needs to map out for better analysis. Although decision
tree derives its name from natural trees, decision trees
are most often drawn on their side., with the root of the
tree on the left side of the paper; from there, the tree
branches out to the right. Unlike the decision tree used
in management science, the analyst’s tree does not
contain probabilities and outcomes. In systems analysis, How to draw a decision tree?
trees are used mainly for identifying and organizing 1. Decision Trees
conditions and action in a completely structure decision
process (Drawing Decision Trees, n.d.). Draw a small box to represent this point, then draw a
line from the box to the right for each possible solution
or action. Do not forget to put a label.
2. Add chance and decision nodes
▪ If another decision is necessary,
draw another box
▪ If the outcome is uncertain, draw a
circle (circles represent chance
nodes)
▪ If the problem is solved, leave it
blank
3. Continue to expand until every
line reaches an endpoint
The example is symmetrical and each action at the end
are unique. A tree does not need to be symmetrical. You If there are no more choices to be made or chance
might also find identical actions appear more than once. outcomes to consider, then assign a value to each
possible outcome. It could be an abstract score or a
Decision tree symbols
financial value. Add triangles to signify endpoint.
Reminder: the following symbols are taken from
Lucidchart (What is a Decision Tree Diagram, 2020) a
free web application for various types of diagrams as
also supported by other CASE tools (Freeman, 2019) and
(Decision trees, 2020)

Advantage and Disadvantage of decision trees

1. They are easy to understand
2. They can be useful with or without hard
data, and any data requires minimal
preparation
 3. New options can be added to existing
trees
4. Their value in picking out the best of
several options
5. It can be easily combined with other
decision-making tools
However, decision trees can become excessively
complex and any small in the data can lead to
recalibrating the whole decision tree.
Tools in creating decision trees
The following are some of the tools that can be used to
produce decision tree models
1. Microsoft Visio is a software that is not Your initial decision is shown at the left. Following a
free. You need to buy a license but has decision to proceed with the project, if development is
lots of diagramming tools from simple successful, is a second stage of decision at Point A.
flowchart to as complex as networking assuming no important change in the situation between
diagrams. Refer to Microsoft website for now and the time of Point A, you decide now what
costing. alternatives will be important to you at that time. At the
2. Lucidchart is an online tool offering you right of the tree are the outcomes of different sequences
both free and subscription based. Free of decisions and events. These outcomes, too, are based
subscriptions are limited but gives you on your present information. In effect you say, “If what I
enough resources as a startup. The link know now is true, this is what will happen.”
is lucidchart.com (Links to an external Of course, you do not try to identify all the events that
site.) can happen or all the decisions you will have to make on
3. Visual Paradigm is also online tool with a subject under analysis. In the decision tree you lay out
both free and subscription based. The link only those decisions and events or results that are
is https://www.visual-paradigm.com/ important to you and have consequences you wish to
compare.
Example of Decision Tree
Summary
The following is an excerpt from the discussion “Decision
tree for decision making” (Magee, n.d.). it shows an Decision tree appears more on machine learning when
actual implementation of decision tree in business logic. searching it over the internet. This time, decision tree
can also be applied in Systems Analysis in mapping out
You are trying to decide whether to approve a the different output based on actions taken by the user
development budget for an improved product. You are in the system. It is a cause and effect relationship. From
urged to do so on the grounds that the development, if the lesson there are standard symbols used in decision
successful, will give you a competitive edge, but if you do tree however, an analyst may present decision tree using
not develop the product, your competitor may – and a flowchart. There are also tools to be used when doing
may seriously damage your market share. The decision decision trees. Some of these tools are Microsoft Visio,
tree based on the scenario looks like the given image Lucidchard, and Visual Paradigm.
3.5 nasa isang file