Effect of polyhalite on maize growth and soil health

Muhammad Mumtaz Taimoor

2014-ag-4819
B.Sc.(Hons.) Agriculture (soil science)
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science (Hons.)

In
Soil Science

Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences,

Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
2020
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that contents of the thesis, “Effect of polyhalite on maize growth and
soil health” are product of my own research and no part has been copied from any
published source (except the references, standard methods/equations/formula/protocols
etc.). I further declare that this work has not been submitted for award of any other
diploma/degree. The university may act if the information provided is found inaccurate at
any stage. (In case of any default, the scholar will be proceeded against as per HEC
plagiarism policy).

Muhammad Mumtaz Taimoor

2014-ag-4819
To

The Controller of Examinations,

University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad.

We, the supervisory committee, certify that the contents and form of thesis submitted by
Muhammad Mumtaz Taimoor, Regd. No. 2014-ag-4819 have been found satisfactory
and recommend that it be processed for evaluation by the external examiner(s) for the
award of degree.

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE:

CHAIRMAN: ` ______________________________

(Dr. Abdul Wakeel)

MEMBER: ___________________________________

(Dr. Muhammad Sana Ullah)

MEMBER: ____________________________________

(Dr. Hafeez ur Rehman)

Hard work is a price of success,
dedication to the job,
determination to the moto
at hand,
no matter if we win or lose.

Dedicated

To

My beloved
PARENTS
And Wife
Whose prayers and
guidance are light for
me in the darkness
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Thanks to Allah, The Creator of the world, Who created me Ashraf ul Makhluqat and
gave me the opportunities to gain knowledge and explore myself in this wonderful world.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude for my respected supervisor, The
Mentor, Dr. Abdul Wakeel, Assistant Professor, Institute of Soil and Environmental
Sciences. He encouraged me and helped me to choose this degree soil science for my
professional career for which I am grateful to him for my whole life. I am privileged for
completing my course of study and research work under his keen interest, true guidance
and sympathetic attitude.
I feel honored to express the heartiest thanx to Dr. Muhammad Sana Ullah,
Assistant Professor, Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, for his worthy
comments and Dr. Hafeez ur Rehman, Lecturer, Department of Agronomy, for his right
counseling through out the course of my study.
I could not have completed this work without the help of Ahmad Mujtaba, Abdul
Qadeer, Muhammad Tayyab, Muhammad Rizwan and Miss Fatima Khan. I wish to
express thanks to all my lab fellows who helped me during my laboratory work. I am
grateful to all whose hands raised to pray for me. My special thanks to my Brother (Late)
whom prayers will be with me for my whole life.

(Muhammad Mumtaz Taimoor)

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr. No. Title Page No.
Chapter 1 Introduction 1-4
Chapter 2 Review of Literature 5-23 2.1
Potassium 7
2.1.1 Potassium dynamics in soil 7
2.1.2 Functions of potassium 8
2.3 Effect of potassium on maize 11
2.4 Deficiency of potassium 13
2.5 Potassium status in Pakistani soils 14
2.6 Sources of potassium 16
2.7 Polyhalite 8
Chapter 3 Material and Methods 24-28
3.1 Treatment description 24
3.2 Collection and preparation of samples 25
3.3 Soil analysis 25
3.4 Crop parameters 27
3.5 Plant analysis 28
Chapter 4 Results 44-49
4.1 Soil parameters 30
4.1.1 Microbial biomass carbon 30
4.1.2 Organic matter 31
3.2 Physiological parameters 33
2.1.1 Chlorophyll contents 32
2.1.2 Photosynthetic yield 33
3.2.3 Electron transport rate 34
3.2.4 Photosynthetic active radiation 35
3.3 Agronomic parameters
2.1.1 Plant height 37
2.1.2 Shoot fresh weight 39
 4.3.3 Shoot dry weight 40
4.3.4 Root fresh weight 41
4.3.5 Root dry weight 42
4.3.6 Root length
3.3 Nutrient Concentration
2.1.1 Potassium
Chapter 5 Discussion 43-46
5.1 Impact of potassium on maize growth 45
5.2 Impact of potassium sources on physiology 46
5.3 Impact of potassium sources on soil health 46
5.4 Impact of potassium sources on nutrient concentration in 47
plant
Chapter 6 Summary 48
References 49-74
 ABSTRACT
Maize is the fourth largest crop of Pakistan grown at an area of 1.3M hectares. The
yield of maize has increased by manifolds during previous years, but there is still a yield
gap. Among many other factors like over irrigation, delayed sowing time etc, the
insufficient potassium (K) supply to crop is one of major factor leading to yield gap.
Fertilization is an adequate method to supply K in an adequate amount. The fertilizer
which also contains sulfate contents can give better results because of its effect on
nutrient solubility by decreasing pH and compensating its deficiency. Mineral fertilization
also helps to sustain soil health by affecting transient soil pH,electric conductivity and
microbial mass. Polyhalite a marine mineral, consist of hydrated sulfate of K, magnesium
with the formula: K2Ca2Mg (SO4)4.2(H2O). A study had been planned to test for maize
growth and soil health. A pot experiment was conducted in the net house at the research
area of University of Agriculture, Faisalabad to evaluate the effect of polyhalite on the
growth of maize and soil health. Four treatments control without K fertilizer,
recommended K fertilizer as polyhalite, recommended dose of K fertilizer as KCl full
doze of recommended K fertilizer as 50% polyhalite and 50 % KCl were used. Plants
were harvested 40 days after sowing. Parameters like plant height,shoot dry weight, shoot
fresh weight, K+ and Na+ were determined. Treatments were replicated four times. All the
fertilizers were applied at the time of sowing. The Data were analyzed under Completely
Randomize Design with a factorial arrangement and treatments results were compared
using statistical software. The results showed that polyhalite has ability to enhance plant
height, root and shoot growth, photosynthetic rate, microbial biomass, concentration of
potassium in root and shoot and as it is free from chloride content so polyhalite do not
have any harm impact on soil health as compared to MOP. Application of potassium as
MOP did not enhanced the shoot growth rather reduced it as compared to control which
may be due to high salinity indices of MOP but improved the microbial mass organic
matter and root growth.
Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION

The agriculture sector have a significant role in Pakistan economy. A large

population is directly or indirectly linked with it. It provides 38.5% employment to the
national labor force. The contribution of agriculture sector is 18.5% to the gross national
product of the country. Maize is the 4th largest crop in Pakistan. It is being cultivated in
the area of 1318 thousand hectares. The production of maize has enhanced from 0.38
million tonnes to 6.3% million tones as compared to previous years and the average yield
is 4787 kg per hectare (GDP, 2018-19).

The annual crop which leads after wheat and rice is maize and ranks third due to
its high grain production in Pakistan ( Ali et al., 2015; Boadu et al., 2018; Naveena et al.,
2020; Ullah et al., 2020; Mehlas et al., 2016). Although there is an enhancement in yield
of maize as compared to previous years, there is still a yield gap. From many factors like
late in sowing time, unbalance use of fertilizers, low organic matter and lack of modern
production technology are responsible for this situation. One of the possible reasons is
insufficient supply of potassium to plant (Wakeel et al., 2017; Ali et al., 2015; Asif et al.,
2020).

Potassium is an essential macro-nutrients that is required in the highest amount

after nitrogen (Ashok et al., 2019). It plays a very crucial and pronounced role in plant
metabolism, critical for multiple functions including enzyme activation, protein synthesis,
charge balance, and osmotic regulation. Potassium also enhances the plant resistance
against different types of stresses which may be biotic or abiotic (Oosterhuis et al., 2014).
It makes up about 6% of the dry matter (Liegh and Way, 1984; Mengel, 2007). Elevation
in quality parameters is also observed with adequate potassium fertilization (Ashok et al.,
2019).

Soils contain the four different forms of potassium as, exchangeable, soluble,
non-exchangeable and mineral potassium. Soluble and exchangeable potassium is easily
accessible to plants (Wakeel et al., 2017). Most of Pakistani soils contain an enormous
amount of potassium but this presence does not meet the requirement of the plants as the
huge amount of potassium gets fixed in the clay minerals that are present in these soils
and becomes unassailable to plants. In Pakistan, the deficiency of the potassium is
reported, and an adequate supply of potassium is required to fulfill plant requirements

1
(Wakeel, 2014). Plants grown in potassium deficient soils show stunted growth, low yield
and reduction in quality due to nutrient imbalance (Oosterhuis et al., 2014; Rather et al.,
2019). Different crops develop sterile pollen in response to insufficient supply of
potassium (Wakeel et al., 2017).

To enhance productivity and nutrient supply to the plant, the use of fertilizer is
one of the effective techniques (Bansal et al., 2018). Fertilizers are those inputs for which
farmers have to pay and if utilized correctly, they can enhance the yield and give profit
more than other inputs. But imbalanced use of fertilizer can damage the soil quality by
causing acidification (Wallace, 2008). Soils are depleting in potassium concentrations in
many areas of the world because adequate fertilization pf potassium is not given to soils
(Zorb et al., 2014). From many reasons, insufficient fertilization of potassium also have
contribution in low yield of maize as compare to potential (Wakeel et al., 2017).
Optimized K fertilization is crucial to maximize plant response (Zorb et al., 2014).

Capacity of soil to perform within the ecosystem is named as soil health. Its
reflects the situation of the soil in term of its properties and provide a basic idea about its
fitness (Singh, 2018). Mineral fertilization affects the physio-chemical and biological
properties of the soils and also helps to sustain soil health (Ashok et al., 2019; Belay et
al., 2002). Ca can improve the porosity as well as length of roots (Shanmuganathan and
Oades, 1983). Applying nitrogen and potassium in adequate and balance amount can
improve the ability of soil to supply the nutrient (Kumar et al., 2019). NH4 fixation is K
dependent since both cations occupy the same sites on 2:1 clay mineral (Sippola et al.,
1973). As expected, NH4 fixation capacity of soil decreased significantly with increasing
K application in the two upper soil layers, and slightly in the third. As exchangeable K
content increases more absorption sites are occupied by K so fewer are available to bind
NH4 (Scherer, 1982).

The preferable reason for the use of mineral fertilizer is to supply nutrients and
increase there availability but they also have ability to effect the microbial community
which ultimately affects the plant growth (Marschner et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2017;
Livia et al., 2005). Mineral fertilization showed the positive impact of inorganic on
microbial community (Cheshire and Chapman 1996; Mueller et al., 1998; Martens, 2000;
Tu et al., 2006; Chu et al., 2007; Zhong et al., 2007; Gu et al., 2009; Yao et al., 2018).

2
 Many fertilizers like MOP are known as a source of potassium. But one who also
composed of sulfates contents are considered economically beneficial (Vale and Serio,
2017). Polyhalite is a mineral that contain 14, 48, 6 and 17% of K2O, SO3, MgO, and
CaO, respectively (Tiwari et al., 2014; Ozkan et al., 2018). It slowly releases the nutrients
(Melger et al., 2018). It may be regarded as an alternative to MOP, as well as a source of
calcium, magnesium and sulfur (Bernadi et al., 2018).

Sulfur is considered as fourth major secondary macro-plant nutrient for the

nutrition of the crops (Tiwari et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2005). It has a pronounced role in
the synthesis of protein and amino acids. It also activates some specific enzymes (Havlin
et al., 2004; Khalid et al., 2009; Ozkan et al., 2018). Plant species which produce
secondary metabolites made up of S should be provided with optimum amount of S to get
better yield (Ozkan et al., 2018). In soils which are suffering from deficiency of S show
lower efficiency for NPK fertilization and crop which are grown in these soils do not
have sustainable yield (Ahmad et al., 1994; Khalid et al., 2009). Because of continuous
removal deficiency of S is not only reported in many areas of Pakistan but also in many
parts of the world (Alukh, 2003; Zhao et al.,2002; Pingan et al., 2003; Hadge and
Murthy, 2005; Khalid et al., 2009). It is available to plants only in sulfate form so those
fertilizer should be used which provided S in sulfate form (Gupta, 2015; Ozkan et al.,
2018).

With application of S fertilizer an increased in yield is frequently seen (Araújo et

al. 2016; Ozkan et al.,). This is because as crops required S in high quantity (Bender et al.
2015) and the conventional fertilizer sources provides low input. Phosphogypsum beside
with most elemental S are common sources of sulphur. From the sources of sulphur,
elemental S is most important but as it slowly release S, so it is inconvenience and it have
potential to cause acidity (Degryse et al. 2016). The advantage of phosphogypsum over
elemental S is solubility and low price but because of low physical quality its application
is very difficult. Polyhalite has ability to eliminate the deficiency of S, as it can also be
used to supply the sulphate contents to crop (Tiwari et al., 2015). Therefore, a pot
experiment is planned to achieve the following objectives

a) To investigate the effectiveness of polyhalite to supply the potassium to maize

plants in high pH soils

3
 b) To explore the role of polyhalite in sustaining the soil health

Chapter-2 Review of Literature

A brief review of relevant research work done on effect of polyhalite on maize

growth and soil health is given as follows:

2.1. Potassium

Noor et al. (2014) evaluated the impact of potassium (K) on turmeric crop in field
experiment. The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the optimum level of
potassium for getting high yield. Five treatments with three replications of each having
different rates of potassium with one of them being control was used. Maximum
production was obtained with 160 kg K ha-1 and this level was founded to be optimum.

Toan et al. 2016 examined the contribution of increased application of potassium

to yield and quality of sugarcane. This study was conducted for six years in which six
treatments that were provided with different rate of muriate of potash with one of the
treatments was kept control at two different areas. At both areas potassium application
was the reason of the increased in yield of sugarcane. The optimal potassium dose of 350-
400 kg ha-1 is expected to improve potassium use efficiency.

To find out the best combination, the combined effect of potassium and zinc foliar
application on water use efficiency, physiology and yield of maize a two-year study was
conducted (Hussain et al., 2020). Various combinations that contained different amount
of zinc and potassium was applied in treatments that also have various water levels.
Chlorophyll contents, yield and water relation was improved by applying the potassium
zinc combination through foliar application as compare to the control treatment. The
combination in which potassium was applied at the rate of 150 kg ha -1 and zinc at 12 kg
ha-1 gave the higher value. So, this combination is might be helpful in raising the
production and quality of maize.

Cotton cultivar that are used recently require more potassium while insufficient
supply of adversely affect the yield a cause a significant reduction. A study was
conducted to investigate the optimum amount of potassium for modern cotton cultivar
and to check out the effect of split application of potassium and to quantify the

4
benefaction of foliar supply of potassium on yield of cotton seed (Muhammad et al.,
2016). The results revealed that supplemental potassium is required by modern transgenic
crop which are growing on poor arid soils as it provides a pronounced increased in
growth and yield of cotton. The basal application at the start is not sufficient to fulfill the
requirement of the cotton for the potassium. So splitting the dose to 2-4 intervals and
applying this through side dressing significantly improved the yield of cotton seed.

In soil that are poor sandy as well as oxisoils, it is very difficult to meet the
requirement of crop for potassium. So to investigate the method, optimal dose of
potassium and timing upon which this corresponding amount of potassium should be
applied, a long term study which consist of 9 years was conducted (Wiendl and Dowich,
2016). In the experiment eight treatments were used. From the results it was concluded
that K supply for soybean crop is necessary as the poor sandy soils lacks the ability to
support the crop potassium requirement.

Tufiq et al. (2016) evaluated the impact of potassium on cassava on various soils.
Six doses were applied and one dose was used in accordance to the practice which is
carried out by the farmers. Neutral to acidic soils were used having very amount of
exchangeable potassium. The response of crop to the application of potassium was almost
negligible at three places but it was somewhat significant at Tulungagung. The poor
response might be because of depletion of soluble potassium due to which enough
amount of potassium was not provided to the crop.

To investigate the impact of soil and foliar potassium applied at graded levels on
nutrient uptake and yield of cotton an experiment was carried out. The experiment layout
was a randomized complete block design with nine treatments and three replications. The
basal soil application at the rate of 75 kg ha -1 increased the yield up to 13%. Yield
increment was doubled by the foliar application of potassium nitrate. Improved potassium
status also elevated the status of other macro and micro nutrients. So from the results it
was concluded that in correcting the deficiency through foliar application is instrumental
(Jyothi et al., 2016).

Sugar beet is one of sugar contributing industrial crop and contain high amount of
sucrose. To not only sustain but also an increase in yield of sugar beet can be get with the
application of potassium in enough amount. Pakistani soils contain potassium higher

5
concentration, the reason behind this phenomenon is that they are derived from mica
minerals. But because of fixation capacity of these soils this concentration is not available
to plants for utilization. So to evaluate the impact of potassium on sugar beet a study was
conducted (Mubarak et al., 2016). In this pot study with one control treatment the other
two are applied with two different levels of potassium. The results confirmed that the
application of potassium is beneficial for increase in sugar beet yield. It increased the
growth, yield and nutrient concentration of shoot which ultimately results in increasing
the quality.

Mahmood et al. (1999) narrated that with reduced supply of potassium to plants
happened it causes leaf chlorosis and necrotic spots also developed. Under increased light
intensity conditions the growth of plant is disturbed. From the previous studies it was
revealed that potassium application in sufficient and adequate amount contributes
significantly in increasing the growth and yield of the maize.

In potassium deficient condition different processes get disturb in plant body.

Metabolism of photosynthates reduced which is responsible for the accumulation of
carbohydrates in the leaves which ultimately results in excessive light energy which is not
being utilized. Because of this phenomenon photo oxidation occurs which ultimately
damage the plant body. If plant is suffering from deficiency of potassium under drought
condition, it may cause necrosis and chlorosis. Regulation of stomata also disturbs along
with reduction in CO2 fixation which impair the photosynthetic rate.

The low quantity of potassium in the plant body decreases the photosynthetic
carbon metabolism and the consumption of fixed carbon resources (Mengel and Kirkby,
2007) as a result of this huge deposition of carbohydrates take place in the leaves. As a
result of these changes of photosynthetic C metabolism excess of non-utilized light
energy and photo-electron are there in the plant bodies which create photo-oxidative
damage to plant body. The plants with potassium paucity under drought are highly
susceptible to light with high intensity and become necrotic and chlorotic quickly.
Impairment in stomatal regulation, transfer of light energy into chemical energy, transport
of assimilates from source to sink and disturbance in photosynthetic CO 2 fixation are the
main disorders of potassium deficiency.

6
 One of the major reasons for the decreasing in soil productivity is nutrient
depletion. To combat the negative impact because of nutrient deficiency and enhance the
nutrient status as well as the productivity of soil an experiment was conducted to get the
response of wheat with the application of phosphorus and potassium (Hailu et al., 2017).
By keeping one control sixteen different treatments were provided with various levels of
potassium and phosphorus. The results showed that the application of fertilizers was
significantly affected the what in a positive. The results also revealed that combine
application of both phosphorus and potassium provides better results in comparison to
applying them alone. At the end it was concluded that application fertilizer increased
yield and nutrient uptake of the wheat crop.

A study with objective to evaluate the impact of ascending potassium application

rates on the performance of sugarcane crop on soils having different cation exchange
capacity. From results it was seemed that response of sugarcane crop to the application
potassium was weak and only on clay soil it seemed to be significant up to some extent
(Altarugio., et al., 2019).

Zaman et al. (2015) evaluated the impact of potassium on the stem of rice. Two
levels of potassium were used with one control and the other treatment was provided with
recommended potassium level. Four replicates of each treatment was used and collected
data was utilized under randomize block design. The potassium application was
responsible for increasing the potassium contents in stem of rice. Moreover this
application also improved the various parameters of plants like cellulose contents and
basal inter-node space. Silicon concentration was also elevated due to potash application
that also contributed in the strength of the rice stem.

In field and pot experiments role of potassium in increasing the yield of rice in
terms of enhancing grain filling was observed. Three treatments were kept, with one of
them was control while the treatments were applied potassium at 90 and 180 kg ha -1
respectively along with recommended doses of Zn, N and P were applied. From the
results it was seen that applied potassium reduced the number of unfilled grains that
showed contribution in improved yield. So, it was suggested that for improving the yield
of rice potassium should be used in aerobic rice production system.

7
 Cotton is being known as one of the cash crop in Turkey upon which the textile
industry is dependent. For the enhancement in yield and quality potassium is required.
Sulfur is also regarded as a important macro-nutrient which plays a significant role in the
growth of cotton. Muriate of potash as well as sulfate of potash are common sources of
potassium which are being used. The latter on has a tendency to provide sulfur along
with potassium. Beside these polyhalite is also known as natural mineral sources of
potassium. Polyhalite not only have ability to provide potassium but also contains
calcium, meganesium and sulfur. In a study the effect of these three fertilizer on cotton
was compared. Equal dose of these three fertilizer was given which provided 210 kg K 2O
ha-1. The results of this study highlighted the significance of potassium application for
enhancing the quality and yield of cotton. From sources muriate of potash was seemed to
be preferable source of potassium while polyhalite enhanced some quality pentameters
(Eryuse et al., 2019).

Soil quality is on the most important phenomenon in the production of crops. With
the depletion of nutrients a decrease in soil fertility occurs. So to maintain it, fertilizer use
is being significant. From the factors which are responsible for low soil fertility,
potassium depletion is one them. In India rice and wheat crops are important for food as
well as for export purpose. But their productivity is low as compared to the potential
yield. A project was launch with object to evaluate the response of these crops to
potassium. In this study impact of potassium fertilization on yield and profitability of rice
and wheat was evaluated. Results concluded that the soil available potassium is very
minute to fulfill the plant requirement and for the purpose of increasing yield (Singh et
al., 2019).

Karthekeyan et al. (2019) for the demonstration of the impact of potassium dose
and time of application on rice, as well as role of foliar K application conducted a study.
Potassium was applied at different rates as well in various number of splits. The results
showed increased in rice production through the application of potassium and on the
based of these results it is suggested that split dose and foliar application of potassium
leads to increase in crop development which ultimately results in enhancement of
productivity.

Khan et al. (2015) used different levels of potassium to compare there impact on the
production of maize. Various rates of potash were used and four varieties of maize were

8
sown. Applying potassium at 90 kg ha-1 produced higher the yield of maize as compare to
other rates that were utilized. Cs200 showed well pronounced response to potash
application in comparison to other hybrids.

Maqsood et al., (2017) observed the role of foliar application on yield and growth
along with phenology of maize. To provide the recommended dose of potassium sulfate
of potash was utilized and applied at various levels. It is concluded from the results that
foliar application of SOP at 1% have ability to improve yield as well as phonological
attributes of maize.

Hussain et al., (2007) conducted an experiment to check the impact of various

levels of yield and attributes related attributes of maize. It was indicated from the results
that higher rates of potassium ultimately responsible for higher yield but in this
experiment potassium did not show alone any significant impact.

Raza et al., (2018) highlighted the role of potassium in inducing the druought
tolerance in sunflower. Five different genotypes of sunflower were used woth various
levels of potassium. Arrangement of treatment were according to randomize block design.
All the aforementioned parameters were improved with potassium application as it
induces a batter strategy in reducing the drought stress.

2.2.1. Potassium Dynamics in soil

In agricultural soils the amount of potassium ranges between 10 to 20g/ kg. But
most of it get fixed in the crystal lattice and thus direct availability is reduced.The
different soil types have different levels of available potassium and this is also affected by
the soil properties. In soil potassium is classified in to four form: structural, exchangeable,
water soluble and non-exchangeable form. Among these water soluble as well as
exchangeable forms are directly at hand to plants while others are non-available
potassium source. While other forms are fixed in the soils. Soils that are rich with high
CEC containing clay like vermiculite as well as illite possess high capacity to fix the
potassium and make it unavailable to plants. As the available fraction is very small and
most of the amount of potassium is fixed by clay minerals so to get the optimum crop
yield with good quality, potassium fertilization is necessary, not the amount which is
recommended but more then this to get a significant increase in yield or to supply

9
potassium fertilizer in more than one split or to use slow release fertilizer (Wakeel et al.,
2017).

Soil texture is one of the major property of the soil that have ability to impact the
other soil physio-chemical properties. Potassium is a major macro-nutrient and with
regards to its availability it is elusive in soils and the slay contents as well as type is
responsible for this elusiveness. The other reason of the entrapment of potassium in mica
structure is because of potassium bears low hydration energy. Clay minerals can reduce
the availability of potassium to plant. Soils which have a fine texture can entraps more
potassium in comparison to the soils carrying coarse structure. For this crop response to
the increased potassium fertilization is vary with the variation in texture of soil. So for
testing the impact of potassium in three soils with different texture an experiment was
conducted. Four levels of potassium were maintained and ten seeds of hybrid maize was
sown in each pot. Maximum DM was obtained in soils carrying sandy texture. Increase
clay contents had a negative impact on root growth which resulted stunted but potassium
uptake was enhanced with elevating rate of potassium (Wakeel et al., 2005).

Concentration of the soil solution symbolizes the most accessible form of K for
plants. The concentration of soil solution potassium discharged from both non-
exchangeable and exchangeable to solution enhances. The total potassium concentration
which is easily at hand to plants in soil system is known as soil capacity while
concentration of potassium that is present in soil solution is named soil intensity and
plants have ability to absorb this concentration directly this one is readily accessible to
plant. As natural reservoir soil minerals are good source of potassium. Among these six to
nine percent of potassium is occupied by mica minerals whereas feldspars contains 3.5-12
percent potassium. After the process of weathering, these minerals release potassium and
this part of soil mineral potassium is accessible and at hand to plants. When the plant
absorbs the potassium from soil solution it makes the concentration of potassium to get
reduce near the roots in rhizosphere, which ultimately triggers the release of mineral
potassium. Potassium which is applied through fertilizers may be get trapped in those
minerals and its availability to plant become slow or almost inaccessible. Nevertheless,
when amount of potassium  in soil solution is reduced, fixed K form is again released and
is obtainable for  plants (Wakeel et al., 2016). So, sometimes it is suggested that amount
of potassium fertilizer should be apply more than recommended one as due to potassium

10
fixing capacity, the recommended level do not provide an increase in yield of the crops .
The release of potassium not only fulfill plants nutrition but also ultimately results
in transformation of micas to illite which is further converted to vermiculite.

Potassium is one of the most abundant nutrient elements that the earth's crust
contains and also the nutrient which is extracted largely by the crops. There are four main
forms of potassium in the soil - solution K, exchange K, exchange K and structural K.
These forms are changeable and are in complex equilibrium. Crops have access to
potassium, it is usually estimated using the ammonium acetate method, which estimates
the presence of potassium in the solution as well as in exchange form. However the which
contributes the potassium significantly in filling the requirement of the crops is non-
exchangeable. Fertilizers are used to enhance the concentration of both exchangeable and
nonexchangeable forms. In soils which contain mica minerals addition of potassium is
required in larger amount than recommended one (Rao and Srinivas, 2017).

Yadav et al. (2019) conducted an experiment to evaluate the effect of long term
application of rice straw, farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizer on total potassium.
Results showed the positive impact of farmyard manure and inorganic fertilizer on total
potassium status and its division in different forms in soils. The highest concentration of
total, exchangeable and ex-tractable potassium was seen in soils which was applied with
rice straw and farm yard manure. The reason for this increase is that organic sources
provide potassium directly and reduced the fixation which ultimately results in increased
potassium status.

2.2.2 Uptake of potassium

Uptake of potassium is happen in plants through the mechanism of mass flow as well
as diffusion. From these mechanism the majority of potassium concentration is absorbed
by plant through diffusion while mass flow have a minute role because only 1-3%
concentration potassium from total is absorbed by plant. As these phenomenon are
affected by water levels so to evaluate the impact of different water levels on the uptake
of potassium and phosphorus an experiment was conducted at two different water regimes
as continuous ponding and intermittent ponding. From results it was revealed under
intermittent ponding the uptake of potassium was higher (Rot et al., 2018).

11
Potassium is up-taken by the plant in mineral form and mostly the mechanisms which are
responsible for the up-take of potassium mass flow, diffusion and root interception. Mass
flow and diffusion involves movement of potassium through the surface of soil while
diffusion is drive by the root growth (Jungk , 2001).

Root interception plays a minute role in supplying the potassium requirement of the plant
as there is rapid removal of potassium from the root surface. 96% contribution is of
diffusion upon which the uptake of potassium mainly depends (Oliveira et al., 2004).

Plant contains two separate systems for the transporter of potassium in which
components having high as well as low affinity are present. Channel activities are
responsible for running these systems (Very and Sentenac, 2003).

Efficiency to use the soil potassium which is applied is vary from crop to crop and
also from variety to variety. Higher efficiency is possess by the mono-cots as in
comparison to the di-cots. The recognization of efficient genotypes is of significance for
the future utilization (Gunes et al., 2006).

George et al. (2002) demonstrated that harvesting index of potato is positively

dependant upon the potassium use efficiency. So, the genotypes that have high K use
efficiency ultimately give high harvest index. Similar behaviour is seen in genotypes of
rice. K efficient rice genotypes elevated harvest ing index woth comparison to other
which are in efficient. This high harvest index has a positive relation with bimass
production along with grain yield.

2.2.2. Functions of Potassium

Potassium has a ability to trigger the activation of adenosine triphosphate

synthase enzyme. In chloroplast the balance of electrical charge. This balance is
responsible for the formation of adenosine triphosphate. So, adequate supply of potassium
maintains high level of energy. Potassium is also required for protein synthesis, trans-
location of sugars, enzyme activity, starch production in grains, nitrogen fixation in
legume y, carbohydrate’s production (Wolde, 2016).

2.2.3.1.Protein Synthesis

12
 In protein synthesis potassium is necessary for every step. Reading of genetic
code for the production of protein and enzyme required sufficient amount of potassium.
When there is deficiency of potassium then there is no conversion of raw material like
amides amino acids and nitrate takes place and they accumulates in plant. The process of
protein formation is catalyzed by the enzyme reductase which requires adequate
potassium for activation and synthesis (Patil, 2011).

2.2.3.2. Starch Production

For the synthesis of starch the enzyme which is responsible is known as starch
synthesizer and is activated by potassium. So with the decline in supply of potassium the
the level of starch decreases which results in accumulation of carbohydrates and
compounds of nitrogen. So under adequate level, movement of starch from from place of
production to storage site occurs effectively (Prajpati and Modi, 2012).

2.2.3.2 Regulation of metabolic system

Potassium regulates the metabolic system and plays a critical role in changing the
concentration of metabolites. In a plant having sufficient amount of potassium, there is
more production of high molecular weight compounds which ultimately results in
depressing the amount of compounds having lower molecular weight which are
responsible for the infection and infestation of insects. So, this low level leaves the plants
less susceptible to disease and pest attack (Wang et al., 2013).

2.2.3.3. Regulation of stomata

In stomatal regulation it has a major role. In intact plant light enhances the level of
potassium but literature shows that it has variable effect on photosynthesis in different
species of plants. The potassium fertilization shows positive impact on photosynthesis in
plants which are suffering from drought ( Zorb et al., 2014).

2.2.3.4 Crop Quality

Potassium not only improves quality of crop but also have a positive impact on
nutrient and water use efficiency. The enhancement in quality is due to improved
efficiency of photosynthesis, energy transfer, trans-location of photosynthates, grain

13
filling, increased resistance to diseases, and greater water use efficiency. So with the
adequate use of potassium the productivity can be enhance (Sharma and singh, 2020).

2.2.3.5. Stress Responses

Potassium is regarded as one of the essential mineral nutrient which have ability
to combat the different abiotic and biotic stresses. Biotic stress have a negative effect on
the crop production. This negative effect is reduced by the potassium. The chances of the
disease like stem rot and aggregate sheath spot are significantly reduced with an elevation
in fertilization of (K). As the concentration of potassium in leaf blades increases the
severity of disease reduces as they have a negative correlation. Insect infestation is also
reduced due to potassium fertilization (Wang et al., 2013).

Potassium is considered to increase the drought stress in plants because of its

impact on photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. So to investigate the role of
potassium in photosynthesis and in metabolism of carbohydrates a study was conducted
in which effect of potassium was seen on cotton under drought stress (Zahoor et al.,
2017). Two different varieties of potassium along with three different rates of potassium
of were used. From the results it was concluded that photo-assimilation was regulated by
potassium. So this study suggests that potassium have ability to combat the drought
stress.

Gul et al. (2019) conducted an experiment to test a hypothesis that elevated

potassium supply have positive impact on plants during salt stress. They checked the
impact of salt on wheat with the potassium application. They used the variety of wheat
which was not reported as a salt resistant and different levels of potassium. From the
results it was concluded that moderately elevated potassium level had positive impact on
wheat in salt stress by reducing sodium not only in tissue but also decreased the cytosolic
sodium.

When there is situation of potassium deficiency the metabolism of photosynthetic

products reduces which is responsible for the accumulation of carbohydrates in leaves
that give generation to reactive oxygen specie (ROS). These ROS are damaging specie
and their damaging behaviour is not only restricted to chloroplast but also cell membrane
is negatively by them. These species produced in chloroplast under environmental stress

14
conditions and sufficient potassium supply ultimately combat there negative impact
(Asada, 2000).

2.2.4. Effect of potassium on maize

Behaviour of potassium under saline and non saline conditions was evaluated in a
pot study. In that experiment three different levels of salinity was used along with two
treatment. This study conclude that shoot and root length was enhanced and the
concentration of potassium in the root was elevated as root. The application of potassium
fertilizer to maize in sandy loam and sandy clay loam exhibited significant raise in maize
growth, whereas the application of K fertilizer did not show a response in clay loam soils,
perhaps because of either K fixation or may be sufficient K in the soil. (Wakeel et al.,
2002). Therefore, after nitrogen, maize requires K in high amount and absorbs a
significant amounts of potassium (K). It enhances disease resistance and boosts crop
quality. The yield related characteristics and yield of maize are considerably affected by
K.

A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the role of potassium in reducing the
bareness in maize varieties under high population. Under different plant density levels
various levels of potassium were applied to treatments. The result indicated that the high
plant density increased the bareness by increasing the period between tasseling and
silking time. That was ultimately resulted in reduction in numbers of grains, number of
cobs and weight of cobs. On the other hand potassium reduced the bareness by as the
period between tasseling and silking time was adjusted. Because of this phenomenon,
higher number of grains, number of cobs and weight of cobs was resulted. So to reduced
the impact of high plant density potassium should be applied at 200 kg ha -1 (Bukhsh et
al., 2011).

Impact of potassium on growth and yield of spring maize was evaluated in a field
experiment (Khan et al., 2015). With keeping one control, four different levels of
potassium were used. Results showed that application of potassium at 90 kg ha -1 made a
pronounced increased in growth and. The increased in growth may be because of

15
decreased in leaf senescence and netter vegetative growth. The increased in yield was
may be because of enhancement in assimilation of carbon dioxide, consistent regulation
of osmosis and better enzyme activity.

Potassium significantly improves maize productivity and growth. One of the

important function of potassium is to activate the enzymes that are necessary for the
synthesis of protein. With other cultural practices, the application of optimum rate of
nutrients plays an important role in increasing maize yield (Mehmood et al., 2000).

Ali et al. (2016) conducted a field experiment to check the efficiency of foil spray
of potassium in comparison to soil application. With keeping one control the second one
is given potassium at the rate of 75 kg K 2O ha-1 and other three treatments were given
different rates potassium through foliar application. From results its revealed that foliar
application had more positive impact on yield quality as compared to soil one. It
increased not only yield but also enhanced the quality of maize grain.

Anees et al. (2016) also evaluated the impact of foliar application potassium with
zinc upon maize in rain-fed areas. In nine treatments with keeping one control others
were applied with various rates of potassium and zinc foliar spray. The results clearly
indicated that foliar application of zinc and potassium enhanced not only growth and
yield bit also had positive impact on physiology and quality of maize.

As intensive cropping let the soil deprived of major nutrients. So to check the
impact of different levels of phosphorus and potassium upon maize was studied in
climatic condition which is carried out by Peshawar (Sadiq et al., 2017). With keeping
one control four different levels each nutrient were kept. From the it was come to
knowledge that phosphorus applied at the 120 kg ha-1 and potassium applied at 90 kg ha-1
showed the best crop performance. So these nutrients should be applied for enhancing the
yield of maize at these rate in climatic condition which is carried out by Peshawar.

A study was conducted to check the impact of potassium on various parameters.

Not only potassium was applied at different rates but also in one of the various
combinations. From the results it was come to know that combine impact of chemical
fertilizer along with organic amendments produces significantly higher yield than that of
where the vermicompost. The potassium along with other organic amendments gave
significantly pronounced yield (Yousuf et al., 2018).

16
 A study was conducted with the objective to evaluate the efficiency of different
fertilizers of potassium in the presence as well as absence of bacteria that solublize the
potassium. As compared to control the treatments that were applied with potassium
showed enhanced yield regardless of bacteria that solublize potassium. From the results it
was concluded that compost which enriched with with potassium applied with the
combination of bacteria having tendency to solublize the potassium not only improves the
maize growth but also enhanced the quality as they contain slowly release the potassium
(Imran et al., 2020).

For the evaluation of impact potassium applied at different rates on maize a

study was conducted. The lay out of the experiment was according to the randomize
block design. Nine treatments having fluctuating rates of potassium were used . Last three
treatments are provided with farm yard manure along with potassium. From the results it
was seen that the last treatment in which potassium along with farm yard manure was
applied gave the higher yield (Hussain et al., 2020)

Ul-Allah et al. (2020) evaluated the impact of soil potassium application on

various maize hybrids under conditions of well watered and drought. With keeping one
control the other two treatments were applied with muriate of potash at 50 kg ha -1 and at
75 kg ha -1 respectively with various irrigation levels. From the results it was clear that all
the factors affected the maize hybrids. The interaction between the potassium and
irrigation was significant. Potassium application showed the ability to raise the yield of
maize and productivity of water. The treatment which applied with potassium gave better
results under drought as potassium improves root growth, cell turgor pressure and
osmotic pressure.

To come in to knowledge about the impact of various levels of potassium and

irrigation on maize an experiment was conducted (Kazemi and Marashi, 2019). The
results revealed that potassium application on various irrigation levels had increased the
yield of grain.

To find out the optimum level of potassium application and check the response
of maize on different levels of potassium application an experiment was conducted. The
recommended dose of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers was also added. In that
experiment sulfate of potash was the source of potassium. The results indicate that

17
potassium application enhanced the productivity of maize and also affected the plants
attributes positively (Akhter et al., 1999).

To find out the best combination the combined effect of potassium and zinc foliar
application on water use efficiency, physiology and yield of maize a two year study was
conducted (Hussain et al., 2020). Various combinations that contained different amount
of zinc and potassium was applied in treatments that also have various water levels.
Chlorophyll contents, yield and water relation was improved by applying the potassium
and zinc combination through foliar application as compare to the control treatment. The
combination in which potassium was applied at the rate of 150 kg ha -1 and zinc at 12 kg
ha-1 gave the higher value. So this combination is might be helpful in raising the
production and quality of maize.

An experiment revealed that for the production of maize the adequate supply of
potassium is necessary. Up to 30 kg per day was held by the maize (White, 2003). So to
fulfil the K requirement the soil should be fertilized before sowing of maize. The results
also indicate that 5 kg of potassium per day is up-taken by the maize when it reaches to
the age of 4-7 weeks. So for getting the better growth of maize application of potassium
in necessary.

As drought stress have a deleterious impact on maize, so to checked out the role of
potassium during drought an experiment was conducted. The use of potassium was found
to have a major impact on the relative water content, biological yield, photosynthetic rate,
leaf water potential, grain weight per ear, turgor potential, transpiration rate and grain
yield (Aslam et al., 2014).

Martineau et al. (2017) also evaluated the role of potassium role in mitigating the
impact of water deficit. They also concluded that the potassium fertilization in soils
suffering from potassium deficiency coped with drought and could be used a new
management technique.

Effect of potassium upon hybrid maize and weeds which are associated to it was
evaluated in an field study (Jan et al.,2018). This was a two factor study in which various
maize varieties along with different levels from different sources of potassium was used.
Randomize complete block design (RCBD) was used with four replications in this study.
From the results it was seen that DK-Garanoon had the lowest growth and yield while

18
Pioneer-3164 had higher value of these parameters. From the treatments which was
provided with potash, the treatment which was given 40% K 2O from organic and 60%
K2O was applied through using inorganic sources showed the higher yield as compared to
other.

Waqas et al. (2018) evaluated the effect of potassium on phenology, yield and
growth of maize hybrid. The potassium was applied at six different levels and each
treatment contain three replications. Muriate of potash was used as source of potassium
and applied during seed bed preparation. It can be concluded from the experiment that K
application at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 to maize resulted in economical and higher yield.

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of potassium on maize

Eight fertilizer treatments, with lime (2 Mg ha -1) and without lime, were evaluated in the
first experiment. The results have shown that the effect of the K application on the yield
of maize in Kenya is currently presumed to be very significant (Kimani et al., 2018).

A study was conducted to check the impact of potassium with residual bio-char on maize
in a field experiment. By keeping one control the others were applied with bio-char and
potassium separately as well as in combined form (Widowati et al., 2017). The results
gave the information that residual bio-char increased the yield with different levels of
potassium.

Ganasundari et al. (2018) conducted an experiment to get the knowledge about the
impact of various levels of potassium on maize in soil containing high levels of calcium
and magnesium. The response of plant height was remained significant up to the amount
of fertilizer which provides 40kg of K 2O ha-1 while chlorophyll contents and leaf are
index gave response up to the amount of fertilizer which provides 80 kg of K2O ha-.1.

2.2.5. Deficiency of Potassium

Potassium deficient plant is more susceptible to infection with disease than tha
plant that have a sufficient supply of potassium. For example in the absence of adequate
supply of potassium the attack of rice borer is more as compared to the condition in which
potassium supply is adequate (Sarwer, 2012)

19
 Impact of potassium deficiency on the growth as well as on yield of cotton was
studied. 50 seedlings of cotton were collected and trans-fared to low potash solution and
normal potassium solution. From results it was come to know that potassium deficiency
reduced the growth and development of seedlings and had a negative impact on root
growth. Potassium deficiency was not only responsible for the reduction in root biomass
but it also decreased the root length. Plant height as well as shoot growth was also
affected negatively (Fontana et al., 2020).

Thomburg et al., (2019) studied the impact of potassium deficiency on growth of

seedlings as well as its effect on root growth and morphology. They first sterilized the
seed and then let them to germinate. After 6 days the germinated seed were collected
from both sides and transferred to hydroponic system. The results showed that potassium
deficiency affected negatively root development not the root vitality. It also reduced the
growth and development of the seedlings.

2.3. Sources of potassium

Existing potassium contents in earth‘s crust are more than 2.6% with micas and
alkali feldspars as the major natural sources of soil containing 6-9% and 3.5-12% K,
respectively. Typically, soil K exists in four fractions viz. mineral, non-exchangeable,
exchangeable and soluble K. Among these only soluble and exchangeable K are readily
plant available and most of the fractions are fixed by clay minerals making it non-
available for uptake by plants. This necessitates appropriate K fertilization to achieve
optimum crop growth with good quality harvests (Wakeel et al., 2017).

2.3.1. Potassium containing minerals

The major natural source of soil K is the weathering of K-containing minerals

such as micas and alkali feldspars, which contain 6-9 and 3.5-12% K, respectively. The
age of soil developed from such minerals determines the extent of weathering as well as
the K dynamics. While taking up K, plants reduce its concentration in the immediate
vicinity of roots, which releases K-ions from the minerals (Kuchenbuch and Jungk,
1984).

The release of K converts micas to secondary 2:1 clay minerals - illite and then
vermiculite. The fate of K fertilizer also depends on the age of the soil; application of K

20
fertilizer to soils containing illite and vermiculite clay minerals leads to fixation of some
of its fraction by soil particles. This fraction then becomes unavailable or slowly available
to the plants (Scott and Smith, 1987). The fixed K may become available to plants by its
release from soil particles into soil solution when the concentration of K in the soil falls
but in most cases this release is too slow to meet the plant growth requirements.

One possibility for countries with low availability of soluble K sources is to

encourage research on the development of new fertilizer technologies, including
alternative sources. Adding sources of rock minerals to the soil might be a strategic
option for Brazil, given the country’s growing agricultural challenge. Although it may
seem like a novelty, the benefits of adding sources of rock minerals such as liming and
phosphate to the soil are not new (Meert et al., 2009).

2.3.2. Mineral Fertilizers

There are five different mineral sources of potassium in the world, like potassium
chloride or muriate of potash containing 60-62% K2O, Potassium sulphate or sulphate of
potash containing 48-52% K2O, potassium magnesium sulphate containing 20-23% K2O,
potassium nitrate containing 44% and bittern potash containing 7% potash in it . Among
these sources of potassium, mostly SOP and MOP are important world-wide. SOP is
commonly used as a K source in Pakistan, while most of the countries consider MOP as
an appropriate source due to its relative cheapness as compare to SOP (David et al.,
1986).

MOP is cheaper but contains 48% chloride which is a threat to saline soils of
Pakistan (Hussain et al., 2000). Pakistani soils are inherently rich with chloride
therefore,so MOP is not preferred which has high level of chloride in it. But reduction of
SO4 to SO2 carried out with the help of this in the wet anaerobic conditions. Potassium
nitrate, potassium oxide and other organic sources are also used. Potassium fertilization
When potassium is applied to poorly fertile soils, crops showed response to K application.
Potassium fertilizers are as follows:

2.3.3. KCl fertilization

MOP is an important source of K as well as of chloride, so when it is applied to

soil it is not only provides potassium but also provides chloride to plants and soil. It has

21
high salt index. Flax crop production cost was reduced but it affected the soil fertility
when K2SO4 was replaced by KCl. Yield and yield related parameters are affected by
KCl application but it negatively affected shoot dry weight. Soil analysis were performed
and observed that there are no potential hazards of Cl-1 concentration in the rhizosphere.
This is due to leaching of chloride because it is very mobile in soil due to its negative
charge (Shaaban et al., 2012).

The main advantage of MOP over other K fertilizers is the high concentration of
K (50% K), which implies lower costs for transport and storage, and consequently lower
cost per unit of K. Conversely, the disadvantage is high salinity indices, which may injure
plants depending on the place and rate of application (Molin et al., 2020).

2.3.4. K2SO4 Fertilization

SOP consumption world-wide accounts for 6-7%. SOP is better source for oil
seed crops because along with K, it also provides sulfur. SOP is an efficient mean of
increasing salt tolerance in the in plant mainly due to three main reasons: low salt index,
effects of K and SO4 (Saurat and Boulay, 1985).

2.3.5. Foliar application of K

Foliar application of potassium in sandy and clayey soils improves yield and
quality of crops where availability of K is restricted. Potassium uptake by roots is
hampered under drought, foliar application of K has been suggested (Zorb et al., 2014).
MOP has more scorching effects on the leaves of tea plants than SOP, especially when
foliar application is used.

2.3.6. Polyhalite

Polyhalite is a new multi nutrient mineral fertilizer with formula of

K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4. 2(H2O). Polyhalite is a single crystal complex with low impurity
content(up to 5%).the reservoir of polyhalite are found in Yorkshire in UK occurs in
sedimentary marine evaporates.. Polyhalite is an evaporate mineral; a hydrated K, Ca,
magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) salt with the chemical formula: K2SO4. MgSO4. 2CaSO4.
2H2O. It was first described by Stromeyer (1818) but the discovery of large, more easily-

22
mined deposits of other types of K mineral in Canada meant polyhalite was not
commercially exploited (Cocker et al., 2016).

As a fertilizer it comp-arises of four major plant nutrients as K 2O:14%; SO3:48%;

MgO: 6% and CaO:17%. As a fertilizer, polyhalite releases nutrients considerably slower
than other K containing fertilizers, thus suggesting additional means to improve soil K
availability. Polyhalite can provide 33% of the K dose, as well as N-free Mg, thus
reducing K-Mg competition and avoiding surplus N nutrition (Sacks et al., 2017).

Tiwari et al. (2015) studied the effect of polyhalite on yield and quality of
mustard and sesame crops in two separate experiments. In each of them, there were six
treatments, with application of polysulphate at rates of 20,30 and 40 kg ha-1. The results
indicate that potassium deficiency reduced yield in both crops while application of
polyhalite at 40 kg ha-1, brought about sufficient gain in yield up to 33%. A synergistic
relationship was observed between sulphur and potassium.

The effect of potassium and polyhalite rates on peanut agronomic and economic
performances was evaluated in a field experiment (Hong et al., 2016). They used different
rates of potassium from 30 to 90 kg K 2O ha-1 and polyhalite at 107(S1),214(S2), and 321
kg ha-1 (S3) respectively. The treatment with polyhalite application at 214 kg ha-1 gave
the optimum result. A further increase in potassium rates did not provide any advantage.
So this study indicated that polyhalite application can enhance the soil fertility and have
ability to support the sustainable cropping system.

Kiran et al. (2017) checked the difference in effect of polyhalite and muriate of
potash for corn yield in a field experiment. With one control treatment, the second one
was applied by polyhalite, third one with MOP, forth one also contained polyhalite but
with less amount and last one had been applied with both source of potassium. From the
results they concluded that polyhalite increased the grain yield in those conditions of soil
where MOP reduces the grain yield. The results told about the effectiveness of sulphur
nutrition for corn and that polyhalite is a source of sulphur and potassium.

A green house experiment was conducted to assess the effect of polyhalite to

mitigate the deficiency of the calcium and magnesium (Sacks et al., 2017). Balance
mineral nutrition through fertigation was also included. Four different treatments was
used with 0,1,1.5 and 2 Mg ha -1 level of potassium. They narrated that polyhalite not only

23
corrected the deficiency symptoms but also improved plant vigor and enhances the warm-
season’s marketable yield by 5.7%. Polyhalite have a ability to replace the all liquid
fertilizers of calcium and magnesium. It not only provides Nitrogen free magnesium but
also reduces the competition between potassium and magnesium.

Tran et al. (2018) checked out the effect of polyhalite in combination with muriate
of potash on yield and quality of black pepper in a field experiment. They kept the equal
doze of each with rates of 120.240, and 360 kg K 2O ha-1yr-1. Their study demonstrated
that polyhalite can partially replace the MOP and also provides the other nutrients like
Magnesium, calcium and sulfur. The combination of 120 kg K2O ha-1 MOP/ polyhalite
provided not the highest yield but also increased the quality and profit.

Melger et al. (2018) conducted the field trails with soybean and maize to check
the direct effect of polyhalite on single crop. Three treatments were used in this
experiment. Keeping one control, they applied SSP and polyhalite to other treatments
respectively at three different ratios 37:63%, 22:78% and 16:84%. From results it reveals
that potassium enhances the yield and as compared to other polyhalite gave a significant
increase in yield of soybean. Polyhalite is an effective source of sulphur and have
potential to correct the soils which are deficient with sulphur.

A field experiment was conducted to analyze the difference in onion bulb yield
with fertilization of polyhalite, potassium sulphate (SOP), and potassium chloride (MOP)
(Ozkan et al., 2018). Each of them was applied in equal amount of 270 kg K 2O ha-1. They
concluded that highest yield was observed with the application of polyhalite because it
releases the nutrients slowly. Perhaps it provided the potassium at constant rate
throughout the crop cycle.

An experiment was conducted in field on basaltic soil to check the effect of

polyhalite with comparison to potassium chloride on tea (Trinh, 2008). They 5 treatments
of 0, 200, 400, 600 and 800 kg polyhalite ha-1. Randomize complete block design was
used in that experiment from results they concluded that polyhalite have potential to
supply the potassium, magnesium, calcium and sulphur. The quality parameters of tea
was also somewhat improved by the polyhalite. Highest yield of tea was obtained by
applying the polyhalite at 600 kg per ha.

24
 Bernardi et al. (2019) compared the effect of polyhalite to potassium chloride and
gypsum on alfalfa. They applied the four different rates of potassium with seven
combinations of fertilizer in a pot experiment. Their results showed that polyhalite
boosted up the uptake of calcium(Ca), potassium(K), sulphur(S) and magnesium (Mg). So
it can be used as alternative to potassium chloride in Brazilians soils. As an alternative
source of potassium, polyhalite can be used as well as a donor of Ca , Mg and S.

A study was conducted to evaluate the effect of polyhalite on paddy rice in a

field experiment (Yeo and Imas, 2019). In the control plot, the farmer added 250 kg urea
at transplanting and 500 kg NPK (15/15/15) at 10 and 30 days after transplanting. In the
polyhalite-treated plots, 250 kg of urea was applied at transplanting and 150 kg of
polyhalite was applied at 20 and 35 days after transplanting. The results indicate that the
yield of rice was 16% higher with polyhalite application as compared to the control one.
This study also revealed that the combination of urea and polyhalite is very suitable for
paddy rice.

An field experiment was conducted to o assess the performance of common arable

crops, oil-seed rape and winter wheat under polyhalite fertilizer in comparison with
commonly-used fertilizers. Experiments were carried out in 2013 and 2014, in two
locations in north-east France, typified by silty-loam and shallow calcareous soils,
respectively. The results showed that polyhalite performance was equivalent to those of
well-established S fertilizers; further economic evaluations are therefore necessary
(Dugast, 2019).

A controlled experiment investigated the efficacy of surface applied polyhalite as

a fertilizer supplying K, Ca, Mg and S compared to soluble sulfate salts in two soils
(sandy and loamy) with or without simulated rain leaching events through two cycles of
cropping (Huang et al., 2020). From results it is concluded that polyhalite shows potential
as a commercial fertilizer to supply K, Ca, Mg, and S nutrients under conditions of dry-
land agriculture where occasionally leaching by rainfall occurs.

Kimani et al. (2018) conducted an experiment to study maize response to K

application rate, with and without lime; to test possible benefits of applying slow-release
N fertilizer compared with top-dressed N; and to evaluate the effects of three types of K

25
fertilizers on maize yield.Two experiments were conducted at each location. The first
experiment evaluated eight fertilizer treatments, with lime (2 Mg ha–1) and without lime.
The treatments included six pre-planting K rates of 0, 40, 80, 120, 160,and 200 kg K 2O
ha-1, slow-release N applied with 80 kg K2 O ha-1, and an unfertilized control (UFC). The
results indicate that K application displayed a significant potential to increase yields,
although adverse effects were evident at rates higher than 40 kg K2 O ha-1. So K
application should be divided into separate doses and delivered throughout the season or
through slow-release fertilizers.

Fertilizer possess the risk of precipitating in soil salinity which can be

checked by the concept of salt index. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the
impact salt index of the fertilizer polyhalite as compared to the previously used fertilizer
like MOP and SOP (Fried et al., 2019). It was came to know that the polyhalite have salt
index low as compared to other fertilizer. So, use of polyhalite is safer for soil health.

Tien et al. (2020) evaluated the combined impact of polyhalite and potassium
chloride fertilizers on black pepper. They provided potassium at different levels to
treatments in which both of these fertilizer contributed equally.The results showed the
significance of the potassium application for black pepper. In this experiment results from
polyhalite told that it has ability to replace the potassium chloride. And the combination
of polyhalite with potassium chloride which was applied at the rate of 120 kg of K2O
gave the highest yield and quality.

The impact of polyhalite on cabbage performance was evaluated and also compared
with organic fertilizers that are available commercially. As compared to alternative
sources polyhalite showed pronounced impact and enhanced the performance of cabbage
crop. It showed a strong tendency to make an enhancement in yield as well as stabilizing
it. Polyhalite is better donor of calcium with comparison to foliar one. Because of its
advantages of being natural and have tendency to spread easily makes it suitable for
organic market (Terrones et al., 2020).

Eryuse et al. (2019) compared the impact of three sources of potassium on

cotton.They used muriate of potash, sulfate of potash and polyhalite as potassium source
to check their effect on yield, nutrient contents and quality of cotton. From results they
came to know about the pivot role of potassium in cotton production. Nevertheless the
yield was highest under muriate of potash application but the quality of cotton like length

26
and fineness of fiber was enhanced under polyhalite application.

The effect of polyhalite on cabbage yield and quality in Turkey was studied. With
keeping one control the other treatments was applied with potassium from
polyhalite,potassium chloride and potassium sulfate. The results indicated that role of
additional S provided by polyhalite or SOP which gave the higher yield and better quality
of crop. As polyhalite contain lees amount of potassium which makes it use impractical.
So it must used with combination sulfate of potash to get the better results (Anac et al.,
2019).

Yermiyahu et al., (2019) tested the solubility of polyhalite both in field and as
well as in laboratory conditions. In laboratory the salts of potassium and meganesium was
completely dissolved while of calcium showed the limited solubility while all the
constitute of polyhalite were dissolved. Deference in solubility was due to rising amount
of water. Results of this study showed that polyhalite need a long time along with large
amount of water for dissolution.

Brassica crops requires not only the major primary macro-nutrients but also need
secondary nutrients as well. Chemical fertilizers are restricted to be used in organic
farming. As polyhalite is an neutral mineral, so it is authorized to be used for organic
crops. As a multi-nutriennt source polyhalite has ability to provide four major nutrients in
organic farming which are calcium, potassium,sulphur and meganesium. So to test the
impact of polyhalite on the performance of cabbage in comparison to the organic
fertilizers a study was conducted (Terroness et al., 2020). In fertile soil supplementary
nutrition did no show any impact on crop performance, but sulfur nutrition appeared as a
key which made a considerable increase in crop performance. Polyhalite expressed his
tendency to increase and stabilized the yield as well as a better donor of calcium as
compare to foliar application of calcium.

Black pepper production is negatively impacted the acidic soils in Vietnam. Plant
deterioration occurs because of malnutrition from which perennial vines suffer. This
malnutrition is also responsible for increasing the suspect of disease and a significant
decrease in quality and yield. As a multi nutrient and slow source polyhalite has ability to
provide the calcium, meganesium, sulfur and potassium. So, polyhalite in combination
with muriate of potash was evaluated. Both sources are used in equal proportion. Three

27
different rates were used as 120, 240 and 360 kg K 2O ha-1 yr-1. Results of this study
revealed that split application of potassium gave the higher leaf contents and polyhalite
can partially replace muriate of potash and it also provides the other nutrients like
calcium, meganesium and sulfur which strengthened the black pepper that helped in
restricting the attack of mealybug which authorized by better crop performance and
quality (Tein et al., 2020).

Chapter-3 MATERIAL AND METHODS

A pot experiment was conducted at the wire house of the Institute of Soil and
Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad by growing maize hybrid
variety (Malka 2019) as a test crop. The experiment was designed with the objective to
investigate the to investigate the effectiveness of polyhalite to supply the potassium to
maize plants in high pH soils and to explore the role of polyhalite in sustaining the soil
health.

3.1 Treatment description

Following four treatments with four replications were used.

 T 1 = Control without application of potassium

 T 2 = Recommended potassium fertilizer as polyhalite

 T 3 = Recommended potassium fertilizer as KCl

 T 4 = Recommended potassium using 50% polyhalite and 50% KCl

The pots were kept in such a way that it made four treatments, each treatment with three
replications. After the field capacity was attained, 6 seeds of malka 2019 were sown in
each pot. Plants were harvested after four weeks of germination and observations.
Completely randomize design was used with four replications.

28
3.2. Collection and preparation of soil samples
The soil samples were taken randomly from experimental area. They were dried then
mixed. After that the samples were passed through a sieve of 2 mm.. Each pot contained
17.50 kg of soil. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and potassium was applied up to the
recommended doses in pots at the rate of 100, 58, 37kg ha-1, respectively using urea as
nitrogen source, single super phosphate as phosphorus source and muriate of potash and
polyhalite as source of potassium.
3.3. Soil analysis
Before starting the experiment, following properties of the subsample were find out. The
subsample was analyzed by following the methods described in U.S. Salinity Lab. Staff
(1954) or otherwise mentioned.

3.3.1 Soil texture

Hydrometer method was used to access the size of particles contained by

experimental soil. Sodium hexametaphosphate was utilized to make dispersion in the
solution. 10 grams of it were used to make the soil particles separates with taking water
250 mL. From the sample 40 g of soil which was dried was taken in a beaker of 600mL.
Then the sample was covered with watch glass. After keeping the sample overnight it was
poured in to stirring cup and then the process of stirring was done for three minutes. After
that all the material was added to a graduate cylinder which have volume of 1L. Plunger
was pushed out when it was seen that the suspension is homogenized and first reading
was recorded with hydrometer after 40 seconds. Same process was repeated and reading
was taken after 2h. Then calibration was done and readings were corrected according to
temperature variations. The quantity (%) of sand, silt and clay was determined as follows

% (Silt + Clay) = [(CHRSC) 100] / (Weight of soil)

% Clay = [(CHRsC) 100] / (Weight of soil)

% Silt = % (Silt + Clay) - % Clay

% Sand = 100 - [% (Silt+ Clay)]

Soil textural class determined by plotting values of % Sand, % Silt and % Clay on USDA textural
triangle.

29
3.3.2. Water holding capacity of soil
Gravimetric method was used to find out soil water holding capacity.Two-hundred
grams of soil were added into 200-mL plastic beaker. Then, 30 mL of distilled water (15
% of soil weight) was added initially and crushing of soil with spatula was started. Soil
was kept for over-night. Next day, soil was further crushed with spatula till complete
saturation after addition of further water. Then, soil saturated paste was prepared by
confirming no water standing in the dispersion, glistening and sliding off the m paste
from the spatula. After recording the weight of empty china dish, small amount of
saturated paste was added into it. Weight of china dish was recorded again after addition
of saturated paste. Then, china dish was placed in an air-forced oven until constant weight
was obtained. China dish was weighed again after taking out from oven. Finally, soil
saturation % age was determined according to perspective formula.
Loss in weight (g)
Soil saturation % age = ------------------------------x 100
Weight of dried soil (g)

Next, soil water holding capacity (field capacity) was determined by taking half of soil
saturation % age as described in ICARDA manual (3rd edition).

3.3.3. Soil saturated paste pH

Soil pH was determined by using the pH meter (WTW pH 315i) which was
standardized with buffer solutions having pH (4, 7, and 9). After calibration, pH meter
was dipped into soil saturated paste till stable reading and pH of soil saturated paste (pH s)
was recorded.

3.3.4. Soil saturated extract

Positive pressure was exerted to obtain extract from soil saturated paste with the help
of air pump. This extract was stored in air-tight plastic bottle to determine further soil
characteristics.

3.4.5. Electrical conductivity

Conductivity meter (WTW cond 315i) was utilized to check out electrical conductivity of
soil extract (ECe). The instrument was calibrated by dipping and recording reading of
0.01 N KCl solution. The value of cell constant (Kc) and actual EC were determined by

30
following formula:
1.4118 dS m-1
Cell constant (Kc) = ------------------------------------
EC of 0.01 N KCl solution (dS m-1)
Actual ECe (dS m-1)= Kc × Observed EC (dS m-1)

3.4. Crop parameters

These Agronomic or plant parameters were measured.

 Plant height
 Shoot fresh biomass
 Shoot dry biomass
 Concentration of Nutrient (K+,, Na+)

3.4.1. Plant height

Plant height is a key parameter to know the plant growth and it was measured by
using measuring tape.

3.4.2. Shoot fresh weight

Plants with their roots were uprooted, their roots were separated by cutting them
with a sharp knife. Weight of each shoot was measured with the help of measuring
balance and values were averaged for statistical analysis.

3.4.3. Shoot dry weight

Before taking the plant dry weight the shoots were placed in oven and then dried
at 70 ⁰C for three days till the constant weight was obtained and their weight was
measured with the help of measuring balance and values were averaged for further
workout.

3.4.2. Root fresh weight

Plants with their roots were uprooted, their roots were separated by cutting them
with a sharp knife. Weight of each shoot was measured with the help of measuring
balance and values were averaged for statistical analysis.

31
3.4.3. Root dry weight

Before taking the plant dry weight the shoots were placed in oven and then dried
at 70°C for three days till the constant weight was obtained and their weight was
measured with the help of measuring balance and values were averaged for further
workout.

3.5. Plant Analysis

For plant analysis the samples of shoots first of all dried in air and then placed in
oven to get constant weight. After that dry weight was measured by using weight balance
and then the samples were grounded in the grinder which contain stainless steel blades.
After grinding those samples were transferred to bags made of polyethylene for the
further analysis.

3.5.1 Digestion

To done the further analysis, nitric acid was mixed with perchaloric acid with the
ratio of 2:1 by following the method of Rashid (1999). To done this the dried sample was
taken in digestion tubes 3 and prepared acid was added. And then it was allowed to stand
overnight till the phase of vigorous reaction was over. After this process the digestion
tubes were placed in digestion block. They were heated till the production of fumes.
When the fumes were produced the tubes were pushed of and cooled and distil water was
added in it. Then mixing of the solution was done and they left for few hours then there
were filtered and made ready to utilize for the accessing the mineral elements.

3.5.2. Potassium and sodium Concentration

Potassium and sodium were determined by flame photometer according to the

method described by Chapman and Pratt (1961). Quantity of element was estimated in mg
kg-1 by comparing the emission of flame photometer with that of standard curve which
was then converted into percentage by using following formula:.

K or Na (mg kg-1) = ( mg kg-1 in extract -blank) x A/W

Where
A = Total volume of the extract (mL)
W = Weight of dry plant

32
 120
f(x) = 19.7 x + 2.3

Standard curve for potassium

R² = 1
100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig 3.1. Standard curve for calculating potassium

Chapter-4 RESULTS

A pot research work was carried under completely randomize design (CRD) in wire
house of Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad.

4.1 Soil parameter

4.1.1. Microbial biomass carbon

The data about the impact of different sources of potassium on microbial biomass
carbon is given in Fig. 4.1.1which clearly indicates that an increase in microbial biomass
in treatments in which potassium is applied as compared to control. From the sources the
combination and alone applied polyhalite has effect more than MOP. The combination
showed high value than alone polyhalite but this is statistically insignificant.

33
 900
790.01
800
726.64
687.62
700
Microbial biomass carbon
600
504.53
500
(mg C/kg soil)

400

300

200

100

0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+Mop

Fig. 4.1. Impact of different potash sources on Microbial biomass carbon. In the graph
columns represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The
columns which are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P
<0.05) . LSD Value = 82.177

4.1.2. Organic matter

The data about the impact of different sources of potassium on organic matter is given in
Fig. 4.2. which clearly indicates that an increase in microbial biomass in treatments in
which potassium is applied as compared to control. Nevertheless there is no significant
difference but polyhalite had contribution more than the other sources. So, it is potassium
not sources which gave impact on soil organic matter.

34
 0.82

0.8

0.78

Organic Matter % 0.76

0.74

0.72

0.7

0.68

0.66

0.64

0.62
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+MOP

Fig. 4.2. Impact of different potash sources on organic matter. In the graph columns represent the
mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which are mention with
same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD Value = 0.996

4.2 Physiological Parameter

4.2.1.Chlorophyll contents

The data showed that variation in chlorophyll contents due to application of potassium
with comparison to the treatment which was kept control was insignificant which can be
seen in Fig.4.2. There is a non-significant difference can also be seen between the various
sources of potassium. .

35
 46
45.5
45
44.5
Chlophyll contents

44
(SPAD Value)

43.5
43
42.5
42
41.5
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite
+ MOP

Fig. 4.3. Impact of different potash sources on chlorophyll contents.In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which are
mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD Value =
4.4278

4.2.2. Photosynthetic yield

The data showed the impact of potassium as compared to control insignificant as P>0.05
as given in the Fig 4. And the sources of potassium also did not show any increase in
photosynthetic yield.

36
 0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3
Photosynthetic yield (║)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite +
MOP

Fig. 4.4. Impact of different potash sources on photosynthetic yield. In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which
are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD
Value = 0.1509

4.2.3. Electron transport rate

In this study electron transport rate was enhanced by potassium application as mentioned
in Fig 4.4. as compared to treatments which was kept control and have a significance
difference than control. But sources did not show any statically significant difference in
LSD comparison test.

37
 250
223.9
209.15
200 190.7
Electron Transport Rate (µmol)
168.28

150

100

50

0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite +
MOP

Fig. 4.4. Impact of different potash sources on electron transport rate.In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which
are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD
Value = 45.110

4.2.4. Photosynthetic active radiation

The data in Fig 4.5 showed the significantly high value for PAR due to application of
potassium with comparison to the treatment which was kept control. But there is a non-
significant difference can be seen between the various sources of potassium. So the
potassium not the sources have significant impact on photosynthetic active radiation.

38
 1250

1207

Photosynthetic Active Radiations (µmol)

1200 1194

1150

1108
1100

1050 1037.75

1000

950
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+Mop

Fig. 4.5. Impact of different potash sources on photosynthetic active radiation. In the
graph columns represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The
columns which are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P
<0.05). LSD Value = 133.38

4.3 Agronomic Parameter

4.3.1. Plant height

Plant height is considered as the key factor for plant growth. The data about the
impact of different sources of potassium on maize plant height is given in Fig. 4.1.1which

39
clearly indicates that maximum height was obtained with the application of full dose of
polyhalite as source of potassium. The treatment which was kept control showed more
plant height as compared to treatment which was given the full doze of MOP as potash
source. But this difference is insignificant according to statistical analysis. And the last
treatment in which both sources of potassium was applied showed least plant height. In
this treatment 50% of each source was applied to fulfill the potassium requirement.

98

96

94
Plant height (cm)

92

90

88

86
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite +
MOP

Fig.4.6. Impact of different potash sources on Plant Height In the graph columns represent
the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which are
mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05) . LSD Value =
14.101

4.3.2 Shoot fresh weight

Shoot fresh weight was increased with application of full dose of polyhalite as potassium
source as compared to all others treatments but results are insignificant. The control
treatment showed significantly high shoot fresh weight as compared to treatment in which

40
both sources were added. And this treatment which had both sources of potassium, each
of them 50%, showed significantly low shoot fresh weight.

90
79.54
80

70 64.22
Shoot fresh weigh (g)

60
52.19
49.21
50

40

30

20

10

0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+MOP

Fig.4.7. Impact of different potash sources on Shoot fresh weight. In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which
are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD
Value = 22.64

4.3.3 Shoot dry weight

Shoot dry weight was significantly increased with application of polyhalite as potassium
source as compared to all others treatments. The control treatment showed significantly
high shoot dry weight as compared to treatment in which full dose of MOP was added.

41
And treatment which had both sources of potassium, each of them 50%,showed
significantly low shoot dry weight

25 23.39

20
Shoot dry weight (g)

15 14.11

9.75
10 8.31

0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+MOp

Fig 4.8. Impact of different potash sources on shoot dry weight. In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which
are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD
Value = 4.83

4.3.4 Root fresh weight

Root weight was significantly increased with application of polyhalite as potassium

source as compared to all others treatments. As compared to control all the potash
treatment showed significantly high root fresh weight which is visualized in Fig4.11. And

42
treatment which had both sources of potassium, each of them 50%, showed significantly
low shoot dry weight

25

20 19.33
Root Fresh Weight (g)

15
11.27
10 8.54

4.81
5

0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+MOP

Fig 4.8. Impact of different potash sources on shoot dry weight. In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which
are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD
Value = 4.2517

4.3.5 Root dry weight

Root dry weight was significantly increased with application of polyhalite as potassium

43
source as compared to all others treatments. As compared to control all the potash
treatment showed significantly high root dry weight which is visualized in Fig4.11. And
treatment which had both sources of potassium, each of them 50%, showed significantly
low shoot dry weight

18
15.83
16
14
Root Dry Weight (g)

12
10 9.08
8 6.63
6
4 2.48
2
0
Control Polyhalite MOP Polyhalite+
MOP

Fig. 4.10. Impact of different potash sources on root dry weight. In the graph columns
represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The columns which
are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P <0.05). LSD
Value = 4.2517

4.3 Nutrient concentration in plants

4.3.1. Potassium concentration in shoot

44
 . The data about the impact of different sources of potassium on potassium
concentration in shoot is given in Fig. 4.3.1 which clearly indicates that maximum
concentration was obtained with the application of recommended dose of potassium as
polyhalite as source of potassium. The treatment which was kept control showed lowest
potassium concentration in shoot as compared to treatments which were given the
recommended dose of potassium as MOP as potash source as well as the treatments tht
were applied with combination of both sources significantly.

3.50
2.94
Shoot K Concetration (g/100g)

3.00
2.50
2.02
2.00
1.64
1.50
1.00 0.80

0.50
0.00
Control Polyhalite MOP POlyhalite+
MOP

Fig.4.6. Impact of different potash sources on potassium concentration of shoot. In the

graph columns represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The
columns which are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P
<0.05). LSD Value = 0.27

45
4.3.2. Potassium concentration in root

The data about the impact of different sources of potassium on concentrationf

potassium in root is given in Fig. 4.1.1 which clearly indicates that maximum
concentration was obtained with the application of recommended dose of K as polyhalite
as source of potassium. The treatment which was kept control showed least concentration
of potassium as compared to treatment which was given the MOP as potash source as
well as the treatment which was provided with the combination of both sources But this
difference is insignificant according to statistical analysis.

2.00
1.81
1.80
1.61
1.60
Root K concentration (g/100g)

1.40
1.20
1.00
0.83
0.80
0.58
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Control Polyhalite MOP POlyhalite+MOP

Fig.4.6. Impact of different potash sources on potassium concentration in root. In the

graph columns represent the mean of the treatments while bars show standard errors. The
columns which are mention with same letters do not show any significant difference (P
<0.05). LSD Value = 0.21

46
Chapter-5 Discussion

5.1. Effect of potassium sources on maize growth

The impact of potassium on root and shoot growth of maize was positive and it
enhanced the growth which is supported by the previous studies (Pandy et al., 2000;
Stone et al., 2001). Results of our study indicates the significance of polyhalite
application which enhanced the shoot growth of maize as compared to MOP which is
supported by the previous studies that polyahlite is alternative source of potassium and
appeared as a promising K fertilizer alternative (Bernadi et al., 2018; Sacks et al., 2017).

Root and biomass was increased with the potassium application which is justifying
the previous study (Aslam et al., 2014), this results was may be because of role of
potassium in increasing plant metabolism. Among sources the polyhalite was gave the
higher root biomass which is corroborating a study before us (Terrones et al., 2020). The
possible reason for this result was might be due to slow but consistent availability of
potassium that increased the uptake of potassium which ultimately results in high biomass
production (Bernadi et al., 2018)

Results showed that the application of potassium as MOP reduced the growth as
compared to the treatment which was kept control. The one possible reason behind it is
that it MOP has high salinity indices, which may injure plants depending on the place and
rate of application (Molin et al., 2020). The reduction in growth from MOP is may also
justified as chloride ion has a negative impact on the absorption of sulfates as this
negative impact is reinforced by the application of potassium sulfate with comparison to
polyhalite (Mello et al., 2018). Same results were observed by other studies (Pavuluri et
al; 2017; Tonhatiet al., 2018; Mello et al., 2018 , Pierce et al., 2018).

Due to its high solubility in water MOP realese immediately (Bernadi et al.,
2018) and gets fix in to Pakistani soils (Wakeel et al., 2017). But polyhalite is relatively a
slow release fertilizer, so it brought about high biomass production and enhanced the
growth as compared to control and MOP (Bernadi et al., 2018; Ozkan et al., 2018). The
ability of polyhalite to release the nutrient slowly makes the availability of potassium in
soil significant.N uptake substantially increased further under polyhalite. The combined

47
effect of S and K in the present study seemed to increase the shoot and root growth of
maize.

5.2. Impact of potassium sources on physiology of maize

In the presence study results indicated that application of potassium not source have
significant impact on photosynthetic active radiation. PAR is one of the part of
electromagnetic radiation which is used as energy source for photosynthesis. Only those
photons constitute the PAR which directly absorb in plant canopy (Mottus et al., 2011),
so it ultimately represent the rate. As photosynthesis display a broad range of value in
which electron transport rate is also include which is co-related with oxygen emission and
also represents the photosynthetic rate. The impact of potassium on photosynthesis can
also be observed as its deficiency ultimately results in decrease the stomatal conductance
which reduces the photosynthesis rate (Erel et al., 2014). Because of this possible reason
treatments which are supplied with potassium have high PAR values.

ETR gives knowledge about the rate of photosynthetic activity (Stemke and
Santigo, 20011). In this study electron transport rate in the treatments with potassium is
higher significantly as compared to control which support the previous studies in which
low potassium impaired the ETR (Erel et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2015). And a decrease in
ETR is results in lowering of photosynthetic rate (Dannehl et al., 1996) which may be
justified by lower oxygen emission (Wang et al., 2015). So the result of our finding is
supported by previous study in which potassium increased the rate of photosynthesis
(Aslam et al., 2014) by improving stomatal conductance. But sources of potassium did
not show statistically significant variation.

5.3. Effect of potassium sources on soil health

The results of our study showed the positive impact of potassium applied on
microbial biomass which is supported by previous studies (Acton and Grehorich, 1995;
Jia et al., 2004; Saha et al., 2008, Chakaraboti et al., 2011; Duan et al., 2015). The
possible reason for this behaviour is may be impact of minrel fertilization on soil organic
matter (Zhong and Cai., 2007; Wei et al., 2019), which links with microbial biomass or it
may be due high biomass production which results in high microbial biomass (Windeatt
et al., 2014). One of the possible reasons for these result is might be that as potassium

48
promote enhancement in soil nutrients thereby results in elevating microbial biomass (Shi
et al., 2020).

Among sources the treatment which was applied by the combination of polyhalite
and muriate of potash which contained 50% of each had high microbial biomass which
may be because of their impact on pH, as high pH tends to increased soil microbial
biomass (Castaldi et al., 2011) which reinforced the negative impact of acidification
caused by urea application ( Tan et al., 2018). Our study corroborating the previous in
which potassium application had higher soil microbial mass with comparison to nitrogen
and phosphorus application (Belay et al., 2002).

As in our results soil organic matter was elevated due to application of poly halite
which is in support to a recent study (Tien et al., 2020), which is ultimately because of
increased in biomass of root and shoot. So, increased in microbial mass may be because
of enhancement in organic matter (Geisseler and Scow, 2014).

5.4. Effect of potassium sources on plant nutrient concentration

This experiment showed increase in potassium concentration of root and shoot

was significantly higher than that of control which because of increase in efficiency of
potassium transporter which are located at epidermis cells (Buschman et al., 2000). From
sources polyhalite had a significant effect which may due to it slow and consistent K
release character (Ozkan et al., 2018).

From results it is concluded that combination of polyhaite is more useful for soil
health and for the growth of maize. Polyhalte also have ability to increase the growth as
compared to muriate of potash.

49
Chapter-6

Summary

Maize is one the important crop of Pakistan and known as queen of cereals.
Although its production has increased as compared to previous years but there still yield
gap. Though there is an enhancement in yield of maize as compared to previous years,
there is still a yield gap. From many factors like late in sowing time, unbalance use of
fertilizers,low organic matter and lack of modern production technology are responsible
for this situation. One of the possible reason is an insufficient supply of potassium to
plant.

Potassium (K) is an essential macro-nutrient required in the highest amount next

to nitrogen. It has a very crucial role in plant metabolism, critical for multiple functions
including enzyme activation, protein synthesis, charge balance, and osmotic regulations.
Potassium also provides resistance to plants against different biotic and abiotic stresses .
It makes up about 6% of the dry matter. Elevation in quality parameters is also observed
with adequate potassium fertilization

Potassium is present in four forms in the soils as, exchangeable, soluble, non-
exchangeable and mineral potassium. Soluble and exchangeable potassium is easily
accessible to plants. Most of Pakistani soils contain an enormous amount of potassium but
this presence does not meet the requirement of the plants as the huge amount of
potassium gets fixed in the clay minerals that are present in these soils and becomes
unassailable to plants. In Pakistan, the deficiency of the potassium is reported, and an
adequate supply of potassium is required to fulfill plant requirements. Plants grown in
potassium deficient soils show stunted growth, low yield and reduction in quality due to
nutrient imbalance. Different crops develop sterile pollen in response to insufficient
supply of potassium.

Fertilizers are those inputs for which farmers must pay and if utilized correctly,
they enhance the yield and give profit more than other inputs. But imbalanced use of
fertilizer can damage the soil quality by causing acidification. Soil K concentrations are

50
decreasing in many parts of the world due to a lack of adequate K fertilization.
Insufficient fertilization of potassium is one the possible factor responsible for the yield
gap in many countries of the world. Optimized K fertilization is crucial to maximize plant
response.

The previously used source MOP have high salinity indices due to which it may the
crop. So for replacing it an experiment was conducted on research area of Institute of Soil
and Environmental Sciences in which a newly discovered potassium source known as
polyhalite. This fertilizer is present in nature and have a ability to supply not only potash
but also the sulphur ,calcium and magnesium.

This experiment contained four treatments with each having three replications.
With one control the second treatment was provided with full dose of polyhalite as
potassium source,third one had given full dose of MOP as potash source while forth one
was given the both sources of potassium with 50% of each to fulfill the potassium
requirement of maize. Harvesting was done after 28 days. Two plants per pot were taken.
Parameters like plant height,shoot dry weight,shoot fresh weight, K+ and Na+ were
determined. Treatments were be replicated three times. All the fertilizers were applied at
the time of sowing. The Data were analyzed Completely Randomize Design with a
factorial arrangement and treatments results were compared using statistical software.
Results of the present study are surmised as as follow:.

 Microbial biomass carbon and soil organic matter contents were increased
significantly with the application of potassium. From the sources, combination of
polyhalite and MOP had high microbial biomass carbon which may be due to its
impact on pH while polyhalite treatment contained higher contents of organic matter
which may be due to increased in biomass which lead o both increase in microbial
bio mass and organic matter.

 Chlorophyll contents did no showed significant response to potassium application

and difference between the sources was also insignificant.

 Photosynthetic rate also gave a significant response to potassium application but all
the potassium treated treatments with different sources did not significant difference.

51
 Over all growth was increased with the application of polyhalite as it is a slow release
fertilizer and provide the potassium to plant consistently.

 Potassium concentration in root and shoot was enhanced by the polyhalite as it does
not leach quickly and provide potassium consistently.

52
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