DEBRE BIRHAN UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF Engineering
DEPARTEMENT OF Chemical Engineering

Title:-Cement Industry
Course title: Process Industry Two

Name ID

1. Mihert H/mariyam…………………...DBUR/0704/10

Submission date:-28/04/2013

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 History of Cement
Cement has been in use by humans throughout history; variations of the material were used by
the ancient Greeks, Romans and Egyptians, with the earliest archaeological discovery dated to
12-10,000BC in modern-day Turkey. The Romans used a mixture of lime (calcium oxide) and
pozzolan – crushed volcanic ash – to create hydraulic cements, which could set under water.
Other cements used crushed brick, tiles and ceramic pottery as aggregates. Famous historical
buildings made from concrete, still standing today, are the Colosseum and Pantheon in Rome,
and the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

The Middle Ages were a quiet time in the history of cement; any discoveries made during this
era remain unknown, although masons are known to have used hydraulic cements to build
structures such as fortresses and canals.

The Industrial Revolution in Europe in the late 18th century saw a flurry of new developments in
cement and concrete, with important contributions made by John Smeaton, who discovered that
the hydraulicity of lime was directly related to the limestone’s clay content, James Parker, Louis
Vicat and Egor Cheliev.

The precursor to modern-day cement was created in 1824 by Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer
and builder, who experimented with heating limestone and clay until the mixture calcined,
grinding it and then mixing it with water. Aspdin named this Portland Cement, after the
famously strong building stone from the Isle of Portland in Dorset, UK. His son, William
Aspdin, made the first cement containing alite (an impure form of tricalcium silicate).

In 1845, Isaac Johnson fired chalk and clay at much higher temperatures than the Aspdins, at
around 1400-1500oC, which led to the mixture clinkering, and produced what is essentially
modern-day cement.

Since the 1900s, rotary kilns have replaced the original vertical shaft kilns, as they use radiative
heat transfer, more efficient at higher temperatures. achieving a uniform clinkering temperature
and produces stronger cement. Gypsum is now also added to the resulting mixture to control
setting and ball mills are used to grind clinker.

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 Introduction
Cement is made by heating a mixture of limestone and clay, or other materials of similar bulk
composition and sufficient reactivity, ultimately to a temperature of about 1450°C. Partial fusion
occurs, and nodules of clinker are produced. The clinker is mixed with a few percent of calcium
sulfate and finely ground, to make the cement.

The clinker typically has a composition in the region of 67% CaO, 22% SiO2, 5% A12O3, 3%
Fe2O3 and 3% other components, and normally contains four major phases, called alite, belite,
aluminate and ferrite. Several other phases, such as alkali sulfates and calcium oxide, are
normally present in minor amounts. Hardening results from reactions between the major phases
and water.

Alite (C3S) is the most important component of all normal Portland cement clinkers, of which it
constitutes about 50-70%. It is tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO5) modified in composition and crystal
structure by ionic substitutions. It reacts relatively quickly with water in normal Portland
cements & is the most important of the constituent phases for strength development; at ages up to
28 days, it is by far the most important.

Belite (C2S) constitutes 15-30% of normal Portland cement clinkers. It is dicalcium silicate
(Ca2SiO4) modified by ionic substitutions and normally present wholly or largely as the β
polymorph. It reacts slowly with water, thus contributing little to the strength during the first 28
days, but substantially to the further increase in strength that occurs at later ages. By one year,
the strengths obtainable from pure alite and pure belite are about the same under comparable
conditions.

Aluminate (C3A) constitutes 5-10% of most normal Portland cement clinkers. It is tricalcium
aluminate (Ca3Al2O6), substantially modified in composition and sometimes also in structure by
ionic substitutions. It reacts rapidly with water, and can cause undesirably rapid setting unless a
set-controlling agent, usually gypsum, is added.

Ferrite (C4AF) makes up 5-15% of normal Portland cement clinkers. It is tetracalcium alumino
ferrite (Ca4AlFeO5), substantially modified in composition by variation in Al/Fe ratio and ionic
substitutions.

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Chapter One
1.1 Raw materials for cement production
Cement is a finely ground, non-metallic, inorganic powder when mixed with water forms a paste
that sets and hardens. This hydraulic hardening is primarily due to the formation of calcium
silicate hydrates as a result of the reaction between mixing water and the constituents of the
cement.

Cement is a basic material for building and civil engineering construction. In Europe the use of
cement and concrete (a mixture of cement, aggregates, sand and water) in large civic works can
be traced back to antiquity. Portland cement, the most widely used cement in concrete
construction, was patented in 1824. Output from the cement industry is directly related to the
state of the construction business in general and therefore tracks the overall economic situation
closely

All the cement-manufacturing processes have the following operations and processes in
common

1. Quarrying

2. Crushing

3 .Proportionating/Pre-homogenization

4. Raw mill Grinding

5. Homogenization/Silo

6 .Raw meal preheating

7. Kiln operation

8. Clinker cooling/storage

9. Cement mill and gypsum addition/ storage

1.2 RAW MATERIAL MINING AND QUARRYING

. Mining and Quarrying
The most common raw materials used for cement production are limestone, chalk and clay. Most
commonly the main raw material, the limestone or chalk, is extracted from a quarry adjacent to
or very close to the plant (Limestone and chalk provide the required calcium oxide and clay
provides much of the silicon, aluminum and iron oxides required for Portland cement). The
limestone and chalk are most often extracted from open-face quarries but underground mining

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can be employed. The collected raw materials are selected, crushed, ground, and proportioned so
that the resulting mixture has the desired fineness and chemical composition for delivery to the
pyro-processing systems. It is often necessary to raise the content of silicon oxides and iron
oxides by adding quartz sand and iron ore. The excavated material is transported to a crusher.
Normally first a jaw or gyratory crusher, followed by a roller or hammer mill is used to crush the
limestone. The crushed material is screened, and stones are returned. At least 1.5-1.75 tons of
raw material are required to produce one ton of Portland cement.

1.3 CEMENT MAKING RAW MATERIALS

The raw materials for cement manufacture which are the subject of geological exploration are
mainly limestone and clays. Both materials are sedimentary rocks which may occur as hard or
dense material or softer soil deposits. They may be of any geological age

1.3.1 Lime Stone

Lime stone is white or gray solid in nature that found in where sedimentary rocks are found. It is
sedimentary rock formed by crystallization of sea water or by accumulates of sea shell and other
marine organisms. Due to the existence of mainly Calcium Carbonate (CaCo3), and the
remaining is magnesium carbonate (MgCo3) in addition to total carbonate source it also contain
Al2 O3, Fe2 O3, SiO2 in the trace amount. Lime stone is the basic material used to make
cement.

Average chemical combustion of Limestone (%)

LOI SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO 3 P2 O5

41.52 3.98 0.82 0.76 50.96 1.18 - - - -
Table 1 Average chemical combustion of limestone (%)
1.3.2 Clay
Clay is reddish powder which is found around on farm land. Clay deposits are mostly
composed of silicate minerals containing kinds of oxides like limestone. Al 2O3 and Fe 2O3.
Variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure and typically formed over a long
periods of time by gradual chemical weathering of rocks clay found in the mineral forms of shall
and marls. Due to Silica content it has behavior like plasticity when mixed with water in certain
proportions and when dry it become firm and when fired in kiln permanent physical and
chemical change occur and reactions with other changes in the kiln or permanently harden and
other are formed.

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Average chemical combustion of Clay (%)

LOI SiO2 AL2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 P2O5
17.45 47.86 12.12 6.71 10.43 2.50 - - - -

Table 2 Average chemical combustion of clay (%)

1.3.3 Gypsum
It is final raw material which is added 5% amount with clinker of cooled clinker. Like other it
is white hared in nature. The importance of adding gypsum is used to retard setting cement
because it contains hydrated Calcium Sulphate (CaSo4 7H 2O). It is also used to stick other
materials like Silica in addition used as for color of cement.

LOI SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 P2O5
23.52 4.68 1.07 0.77 31.55 1.37 - - 40.26 -

Table 3 Average chemical combustion of Gypsum (%

1.3.4 Pumice
Pumice is a complex natural silicates, consisting mainly of silica (SiO2) but also containing
oxides various elements, notably Aluminum (Al2O3), Titanium (TiO2), Iron (FeO,Fe2O3),
Magnesium (MnO), Sodium (Na2O) and Potassium (K2O). The higher silica content has
considerable influence on the quality of the pumice. In particular it increases the hardness of the
material and its resistance to chemical attack because the longer siliceous chains result in the
alkaline sodium and potassium ions being more firmly attaché. :

Average chemical combustion of Pumice (%)

LOI SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O Na2O SO3 P2O3
4.0 69.16 12.59 5.85 2.09 1.48 - - - -

Table 4 Average chemical combustion of Pumice (%)

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1.3.5 Petroleum cock;
It is dark, pours, light which is imported from Sudan. It is manufacture from final distractive
distillation of petroleum. It is mainly used for burning of clinker the kiln. Due to less power of
burning capacity it initially prooportionate9% with raw mix to milled and homogenised for
complete burning.96% is carbon and the remaining is ash.

CHAPTER Two

2. Working principle of main equipment for raw material

2.1 Hammer mill
Hammer mill is a piece of crushing/shredding equipment used for grinding and reducing
the size of the materials. The hammer mill has a very simple working principle: it breaks the
material until it gets small enough to freely get out through the opening at the bottom of the
machine. The opening can be adjusted depending on the requirements of the operator. The
hammer mill is used in many different industries and for different applications, including
shredding paper, fruit juice production, ethanol production, crushing large rocks, shredding
garden waste and etc. Also, the hammer mill is extensively used for grinding cement.

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Figure 1 Hammer mill

2.2.1 Advantages of hammer mill

The hammer mill offers many benefits and advantages, some of them as the follows:
Low Initial Investment And Low Operating Costs – When compared with the rolling mill, the
hammer mill is not a costly investment. The hammer mill also provides low operating costs. This
heavy-duty machine is a low-fuel-consumer and does not require any specific maintenance
techniques. Usually, the hammer mill is made from high-quality spare parts which can be
maintained easily.
Easy To Use And Maintain – In addition to the low owning and operating costs, the hammer
mill is very easy to use and maintain. The material is crushed into the chamber by the gravity and
the hammers which are attached to a rotating shaft. The material is crushed until it can freely get
out from the opening at the bottom. The maintenance of the hammer mill is also very easy thanks
to its simple structure with many checkpoints for convenient and quick maintenance.
Ability To Crush Material To Different Sizes – As mentioned, the opening at the bottom of
the hammer mill can be adjusted in order the operators to get the desired size of the materials

Working principles of hammer mill

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 Hammer mills work on the principle that most materials will crush, shatter, or pulverize upon
impact using a simple four step operation. Material is fed into the mill’s chamber typically by
gravity.
1. The material is struck by ganged hammers (generally rectangular pieces of hardened. steel)
which are attached to a shaft which rotates at a high speed inside the chamber.
2. The material is crushed or shattered by the repeated hammer impacts, collisions with the walls
of the grinding chamber as well as particle on particle impacts.
3. Perforated metal screens, or bar grates covering the discharge opening of the mill retain
coarse materials for further grinding while allowing properly sized materials to pass as finished
product.
4. Hard, heavy materials such as glass, stone or metals exit the mill via gravity. Pneumatic
suction used to assist in the discharge of lighter materials such as wood, paper or other low bulk
density products. Varying the screen size, shaft speed or hammer configuration can dramatically
alter the finished size of the product being ground. For example, faster speed, a smaller screen,
and more hammers result in a finer end product. Each component can be changed individually
or in any combination to produce the precise grind required. All of this is determined by taking
advantage of our free test grinding service.

2.3 Roller mill

Roller mills are mills that use cylindrical rollers, either in opposing pairs or against flat plates,
to crush or grind various materials, such as grain, ore, gravel, plastic, and others. Roller grain
mills are an alternative to traditional millstone arrangements in gristmills. Roller mills for rock
complement other types of mills, such as ball mills and hammer mills, in such industries as the
mining and processing of ore and construction aggregate; cement milling; and recycling.

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Figure 2 Advantages of rollerMill

Specialized for the high production of superfine pyrophyllite powder making in glass fiber
industry
A. Specialized for the high production of gangue powder making in coal industry
B. Specialized for the high production of several of chemical raw material powder
making in the chemical industry.

Working principle of roller mill

While working, motor drives the hanger of the grinding roller to rotate through V pulley and
center bearing. The roller, which is hung by bearing and pendulum shaft, will roll along the inner
circle of the roll ring while the hanger is rotating. A dust removal blower will generate negative
pressure at the inlet and outlet of the grinder to prevent dust and radiating the heat in the machine

2.4 Wet scrubbers

Dust collectors that use liquid are known as wet scrubbers. In these systems, the scrubbing
liquid (usually water) comes into contact with a gas stream containing dust particles. Greater
contact of the gas and liquid streams yields higher dust removal efficiency.

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 Figure 3 . Bag house
A bag house is an air pollution control device that removes particulates out of air or gas
released from commercial. Unlike electrostatic precipitators, where performance may vary
significantly depending g on process and electrical conditions, functioning bag houses typically
have a particulate collection efficiency of 99% or better, even when particle size is very small

 Types of Bughouses - Cleaning Method

Bag houses are classified by the cleaning method used. The three most common types of bag
houses are mechanical shakers, reverse gas, and pulse jet. From those type of bag house dashen
cement factory use reverse pulse jet.

 Pulse Jet Bag houses

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In reverse-pulse-jet bag houses, individual bags are supported by a metal cage (filter cage),
which is fastened onto a cell plate at the top of the bag house. Dirty gas enters from the bottom
of the bag house and flows from outside to inside the bags. The metal cage prevents collapse of
the bag.
Bags are cleaned by a short burst of compressed air injected through a common manifold over a
row of bags. The compressed air is accelerated by a venture nozzle mounted at the reverse-jet
bag house top of the bag. Since the duration of the compressed-air burst is short (0.1s), it acts as
a rapidly moving air bubble, traveling through the entire length of the bag and causing the bag
surfaces to flex. This flexing of the bags breaks the dust cake, and the dislodged dust falls into a
storage hopper below.
Reverse-pulse-jet dust collectors can be operated continuously and cleaned without interruption
of flow because the burst of compressed air is very small compared with the total volume of
dusty air through the collector. Because of this continuous-cleaning feature, reverse-jet dusts
collectors are usually not compartmentalize.

Figure 4 reverse pulse jet

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Advantage and disadvantage of bag house
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Shaker Bag houses Have high collection efficiency for Have low air-to-cloth ratio
reparable dust (1.5 to 2 ft./min
Can use strong woven bags, which can Cannot be used in high
withstand intensified cleaning cycle to temperatures
reduce residual dust buildup
Simple to operate Require large amounts of
space
Have low pressure drop for equivalent Need large numbers of filter
collection efficiencies bags
Consist of many moving parts
and require frequent
maintenance

Personnel must enter bag

house to replace bags, creating
potential for exposure to toxic
dust
Can result in reduced cleaning
efficiency if even a slight
positive pressure exists inside
bags
Reverse Air Bag Have high collection efficiency Have low air-to-cloth ratio
houses
The Screw conveyors is one of the most reliable and cost – effective ways for conveying
or transporting bulk materials, It consists of a several of blends of helix shape welded to pipe or
wide variety of materials free flowing materials in cement production, such as raw mix, coal and
cement.

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Figure 5 Screw conveyors

2.7 Bucket Elevator

Bucker elevator is a conveyor for carrying bulk materials in vertical or include path. It is
for the mechanical, vertical transportation of material have become a crucial link in the
production process in cement, which used to move cement, coal, clay, limestone and basalt.
When the chain engages the upper sprocket, the buckets are tipped and conveyed. Objects are
discharge occurs either with centrifugal force or continuously, which used the bottom side of
bucket as guide for the next bucket

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Figure 6 bucket elevator

2.8 Belt conveyor

Belt conveyor is the type of conveyer that is used to carry or transport materials from one
part to the other in which the materials are conveyed horizontally on a continuous moving belt
supported on rollers and passing over larger rollers throughout its length. Belt conveyers can be
made, of fabric, rubber or plastics that can resist abrasion and corrosion the belt is driven by the

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motor and rolled on the supporting roller and transport the material to be conveye

Figure 7 Belt conveyer

2.9 Ball mill

The ball mill is used for grinding materials such as coal, pigments, and felspar for pottery.
Grinding can be carried out either wet or dry but the former is performed at low speed.

A ball mill, a type of grinder, is a cylindrical device used in grinding (or mixing) materials like
ores, chemicals, ceramic raw materials and paints. Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis,
partially filled with the material to be ground plus the grinding medium. Different materials are
used as media, including ceramic balls, flint pebbles and stainless steel balls. An internal
cascading effect reduces the material to a fine powder. Industrial ball mills can operate
continuously, fed at one end and discharged at the other end. Large to medium-sized ball mills
are mechanically rotated on their axis, but small ones normally consist of a cylindrical capped
container that sits on two drive shafts (pulleys and belts are used to transmit rotary motion.

Advantages of the ball mill

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 Ball milling boasts several advantages over other systems: the cost of installation and
grinding medium is low; it is suitable for both batch and continuous operation, similarly it is
suitable for open as well as closed circuit grinding and is applicable for materials of all degrees
of hardness.
Key properties of grinding media are size, density, hardness, and composition.
o Size: The smaller the media particles, the smaller the particle size of the final
product. At the same time, the grinding media particles should be substantially
larger than the largest pieces of material to be ground.
o Density: The media should be denser than the material being ground. It becomes
a problem if the grinding media floats on top of the material to be ground.
o Hardness: The grinding media needs to be durable enough to grind the material,
but where possible should not be so tough that it also wears down the tumbler at a
fast pace.
o Composition: Various grinding applications have special requirements. Some of
these requirements are based on the fact that some of the grinding media will be
in the finished product.
 Working principles of Ball mill
A ball mill works on the principle of impact and attrition: size reduction is done by impact as the
balls drop from near the top of the shell. A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell rotating
about its axis. The axis of the shell may be either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal.
It is partially filled with balls. The grinding media is the balls, which may be made of steel
(chrome steel), stainless steel or rubber. The inner surface of the cylindrical shell is usually lined
with an abrasion-resistant material such as manganese steel or rubber. The length of the mill
approximately equal to its diameter.

2.10 Air compressor

Air compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of the gas by reducing its
volume. Compressors are similar to pumps; both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can

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transferred the fluid through a pipe. As the gases are compressible the compressor also reduces
the volume of a gas.

2.11 Blower
Blower is a mechanical device that blowers strong current of air used make a fire burn inside
a kiln.

Figure 8 Blower

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 CHAPTER Three

3. Cement production Processes description

3.1 There are four process routes of cement production.

1) dry process
2) Wet process
3) Semi-dry process
4) Semi-wet process

3.1.1 Dry process:-In the dry process, the raw materials are ground and dried to raw meal in
the form of a flow able powder. The dry raw meal is fed to the preheater or precalciner kiln or,
more rarely, to a long dry kiln. Semi-dry process: - In this process raw meal is palletized with
water and fed into a grate preheater before the kiln or to a long kiln equipped with crosses. Semi-
wet process: -the slurry is first dewatered in filter presses. The filter cake is extruded into pellets
and fed either to a grate preheater or directly to a filter cake drier for raw meal production.

3.1.2 Wet process:- the raw materials (often with high moisture content) are ground in water
to form pump able slurry. The slurry is either fed directly into the kiln or first to slurry dryer.

The major processes involved in cement production are:-

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  excavation of limestone (quarrying)
 crushing of limestone
 preparation of other raw materials
 grinding of raw materials in the raw mill
 storage of raw meal in a raw meal silo
 burning of raw meal to form clinker
 grinding the clinker and pumice with gypsum in cement mill
 storage of cement in silo
 packing and distribution of cement
 winning of raw materials
 raw material storage and preparation.
 fuel storage and preparation
 clinker burning
 cement grinding & storage
 packing & dispatching

3.1.3 Semi-dry process: Dry raw meal is pelletized with water and fed to a travelling grate
preheated prior to the rotary kiln or in some cases, to a long kiln equipped with internal cross pre
heaters. .

3.1.4 Semi- wet process

The vertical cement kilns in Dashen cement factory use semi wet process because of
some water is sprayed in the noduelizer to form nodel.in semi wet process some water is
to be evaporated in evaporation zone and less obviously the process of transferring heat is
efficient than wet process. Sludge form the sludge then burned in the kiln to produce dry
quality product.
wet process. Sludge form. The sludge then burned in the kiln to produce dry quality product.

WATER

RAW MIX NODULIZER

KILN CLINCKER

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Figure 9 .Semi- wet process flow diagram
3.2 Quarrying
It is the process of digging out raw material mainly limestone from its naturally
occurring source after checking the content of cao3 in the location.
Quarrying : also comprise three main steps such as
1. Quarrying identification: mean that distinguish the particular location that
has our desired raw material placed.
2. Blasting: is fragmenting of raw material from the ground surface using chemical
explosive.

3. Loading & transport:

The muck file (blasted material) is loaded in to dumpers with the help of excavators to transport
lime stone to the crusher.
Rock blasted from the quarry is transported to the primary crusher where
large"runofmine" rock sarebroken in to pieces of approximately100mm

Figure 10 Quarrying
3.3 Crushing
Cement plant raw materials blasted in the quarry requires size reduction for
further processing size reduction is performed in crushers and grinding mills.
Crushing is commination in the coarse range.

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•Primary crushing involves limestone rocked through large capacity crushers.
This reduces the rock to maximum size of approximately 150mm. Secondary
crushing further reduces this to 75mm rounder. Residue material is stacked
and reclaimed with abridge reclaimed in across section so that the
homogeneous limestone is fed further in the process
The limestone as mined is fed to a primary and secondary crusher where the size is reduced to
25 mm. The crushed limestone is stored in the stockpile through stacker conveyors. The crushed
limestone, bauxite and ferrite are stored in feed hoppers from where they are fed to the raw mill
via weigh feeders in the required proportion. Limestone is crush with hammer crusher due to its
high strength. Other raw materials clay, sand stone, and petroleum coke crush with jaw crusher.
Limestone is crush with hammer crusher due to its high strength. Other raw materials clay, sand
stone, and petroliumcok crush with jaw crusher.

3.4 Proportionating/ pre-homogenization

The raw materials are then proportioned to the correct chemical balance and
milled together r to affine powder raw meal, to ensure high quality of cement,
the chemistry of the raw materials and raw meal is very carefully controlled.
 Limestone =70_75%
 Clay =18_20%
 Sandston =4_5%
 Pet coke =9_10%

3.5 Raw mill Grinding

Grinding refers to commination in the fine range .The grinding
media (steel ball) and the feed material to be ground are brought
to gether in rotating tubularordrum-shaped compartment. The
media and material rises to an optimum height, necessary for
grinding operation, and come tumbling down (cascading and/or
contracting).

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-

Figure 11 Ball mill

Ball mill; It is rotary revolving cylinder consists of chambers

1st chamber and 2nd chamber’s each chamber consists of screens which
separate particles size depending on their particle size. The first chamber
consists of steel balls which is 60_70mm diameter. The milling section looks
like cylindrical metal which consists of bolts for preventing damage. This rotary
revolving cylinder as it rotates the still balls collide to each other and crush
materials and material stay in the action zone until it reduces its size.

3.7 Blinding and homogenizing; the raw mix is homogenized in the blending silo by
injection of air by using blowers at the bottom of the blending silo. After homogenization is
completed by opening the valve the homogenized powder is stored in the storage and feed in to
the nodular.

3.8 Kiln section; from storage silo the mixed raw materials are taken in to nebulizer with the
help of screw conveyer and bucket elevator .Then water is sprayed on the raw mix to make

Nodules with the help of nodulizer. In the kiln there are four zones such as evaporation zone,
decomposition zone, centering/burring zone and cooling zone. The moisture content of the
nodulesis removed in evaporation zone and calcium carbonate is decomposed in to calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide at decomposition zone.

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Figure 12 Nodulizer
3.8.1 Reactions for the formation of clinker minerals

C3S (Alite), 3CaO+SiO2 → Ca3SiO5

Is prevalent clinker mineral in determining to early & later strength of cement (main strength constituent of
cement)

Used for rapid hydration, high initial & good final strength

C2S (Belite), 2CaO+SiO2 → Ca2SiO4

Has low heat of hydration & contribute to late strength

C3A (Aluminite), 3CaO+Al2O3 → Ca3Al2O5

Used for rapid hydration that promotes early strength

Reacts with sulfate and undergoes volume expansion

Shrinks appreciably on hydration

C4AF (Ferrite), 2CaO+Al2O3+SiO2 → Ca2AlFeO5

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Contribute little or no for strength development

Gives normal cement its colors

Has moderate heat of hydration

According to cement industry notation, CaO = C, SiO2 = S, Al2O3 = A, Fe2O3=F, MgO=M, F-CaO =
Free CaO, K2O=K, Na2O=N, C¯=CO2, S¯=SO3.

TEMP IN ( 0C) CLINKER MINERAL FUNCTION

<1200 C3A FOR LATER STRENGTH
1200-1250 C4AF COLOR& APPERANCE OF CEMENT
1250-1300 C3S FOR EARLY STRENGTH
1300-1450 C2S ADDITIONAL LATER STRENGT
Table 5 Series formation of clinker minerals
3.8.1 Clinker mineral parameters and calculations

 AM (IM) = Al2O3/Fe2O3 (Alumina modulus)

It governs the proportion of aluminate to ferrite Phases in the Clinker, which has important effects on Cement
Properties and also determines the quantity of liquid formed at relatively low temp.

If the value of IM higher than the usual :( 1.5-1.65)

 Viscous Slag Clinker

 Hard burning
 High early cement strength with low Sulfate resistance.

When AM is lower than the Usual

 Clinker is fluid slag easy burnable

 Low early cement strength with high sulfate resistance & low heat of hydration.
 SM = SiO2 (silica modulus)

Al2O3 + Fe2O3

 It Characterize the ratio of Solid to liquid in the Clinker.

 Its major effect is on the quantity of flux or liquid phase potentially present out clinkering
temperature.

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 3.8.2 COOLER
Cooling of clinker takes place at two locations:

 In the kiln after the material passes the burning zone region, and
 In the specially designed clinker coolers after the material falls out of the kiln.

The rate of cooling can be critical to the clinker quality and performance of cement. The rate of
cooling in the kiln is determined by the flame and resulting heat flux, flame temperature, and
speed of material flow through the kiln. As the clinker temperature exiting the kiln is
normally1200°C to 1250°C, the clinker characteristics have been already largely established
before the clinker enters the cooler. A long flame gives slow heat-up and slow cooling of the kiln
charge before it falls from the kiln.

3.8.3 Clinker coolers perform the function of:

 Transporting clinker from the kiln to the clinker delivery system

 Cooling the clinker to a safe temperature for subsequent transport
 Finalizing the clinker mineralogy through rapid cooling
 Preheating combustion air by heat exchange with hot clinker

3.8.4 Cooling zone:

It is the final stage of clinker production. At this stage there is additional formation of C3S by
combination of free lime (CaO) and Belite (C2S) and solidification of the liquid phase
(crystallization).

3.9 Cement mill

In this final sub process clinker is transported to cement mill for grinding and finally packed for
transportation.

The finish mill system in cement manufacturing is used for reducing the size of the clinker from
as large as several centimeters in diameter to a size that is a maximum of 100 micrometers
across. This process is accomplished by grinding (milling) with the use of ball mil.

Primary concerns in the handling, packaging and shipping of cement and clinker are the
need to keep the products protected from moisture and to guard against impacting the
environment in any negative manner. These products, provided they are protected from

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 degradation by exposure to moisture, exhibit virtually an endless useful life. Clinker is
relatively more tolerant of adverse weather conditions than cement. The handling
considerations for clinker are different from the handling considerations required for the
finished cement

Processes flow diagram of Dashen cement factory.

Pet cock HOPPER

Quarry of raw
material HOPPER
 CLAY
 sandstone
 limestone

 HOPPER

HOPPER
 CRUSHER
HOMOGNIZA
RAW MILL PRE HEATING
 TION
RAW MILL PROPOTIONI
 G
 Gypsum pumi
KILLEN OPRATION
CLINKER COOLING
CEMENT
PACKAGING CEMENT MILL SECTION
Figure 13 stages in cement manufacturing process

3.10 QUALITY CONTROL

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Quality of cement determined chemically and physically by raw mix design and
measured the load pressure of the cement respectively. In Dashen cement factory
only physical laboratory test.
3.10.1 Physical properties of cement
Portland cements are commonly characterized by their physical properties for quality control
purposes. Their physical properties can be used to classify and compare Portland cements. The
challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily
characterize key parameters. Setting Time, Soundness, Fineness, Strength

3.10.2 Setting Time

Setting cement is the stiffening of the cement paste. Broadly it refers to change of fluid to rigid
state.
Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness, water-
cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and admixtures.

3.10.3 Soundness

When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste
to retain its volume after setting without delayed expansion. This expansion is caused by
excessive amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland cement specifications
limit magnesia content and expansion.

3.10.3 Soundness

When referring to Portland cement, "soundness" refers to the ability of a hardened cement paste
to retain its volume after setting without delayed expansion. This expansion is caused by
excessive amounts of free lime (CaO) or magnesia (MgO). Most Portland cement specifications
limit magnesia content and expansion.
4.10.6 Strength
Cement paste strength is typically defined in three ways: compressive, tensile and flexural.
These strengths can be affected by a number of items including: water cement ratio, cement-fine

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aggregate ratio, type and grading of fine aggregate, curing conditions, size and shape of
specimen, loading conditions and age.
Dashen cement factory use compressive strength test .cement strength analysis is with sample taking and
mixed with water .It stay 2,7,28 days and measure the strength by breaking down by using force in mega pas
cal(MPa).

Physically quality is determined the strength of the cement by using comparative

The sample is take and mix with water, its stay1, 2,7,28 days and measured the strength.
Physically determined of cement quality
N.B area of plate=6.4×10-4m2
Applied force for days
1day=48KN
2day=65KN
7day=100KN
28day=200KN
For one day (24hr)
P=F÷A
Where P=Pressure
F=Fore
A=Area P=48KN÷6.4×10-4m2=7.5×106N/m2

For 2days P=65KN÷6.4×10-4m2=1.01×106N/m2

For 7days P=100KN÷6.4×10-4m2=1.5625×108N/m2

For 28days P=200KN÷6.4×10-4m2=3.125×108N/m2

Physical test
In this unit it try to see what is going on according to the strength of cement
- Mortal =cement +H2O + sand
- Concrete= cement +H2O + sand +grev
- Paste =cement+ H2O
For mortal
- H2O = 125 ML
- sand = 1350 gram
- cement = 450 gram

Different steps for compressive strength test

1st - half of mortal apparatus

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2nd -jolting table for 1 min ( 60 vibration)
3rd - full amount of mortal apparatus
4th -again joilting table for 1min
5th -cabinate for one day
6th -cure room
In the case of OPC 1,2,3,7,28 days and for the case of PPC 1,2,7,28 days will be store in the
curing room.
7th - fleuxral strength machine which use to break at the middle of our mortal with small
surface area applied.
8th - compresation strength machine with larger surface area applied.
Our mortal then must be 32- 5r (Mpa) within 28 days.

CHAPTER Four

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4. Material balance

In the production of cement, the production capacity taken as 400tone/day, produced in two
cement mill. Individually 200 ton /day, 0.5% of raw mix is lost in the raw mix section.

For one day clinker mineral analysis C3S 47%, C2S 25%, C3A 9%,C4F 11% and the remaining
8% are impurities, mixed with 4% gypsum.

Clinker in vertical shaft kiln produced= K

Pumice=P(28%) Cement mill Amount of gypsum added = 4%

Cement produced(C) = 200 tons/day

 Overall balance:-

K+P +G = C

K+P +G = 200 tons /day

K+(0.28X200) +( 0.04 X200) ton /day = 200 tons/day

K = 136tone/day

 Composition of clinker:

C3A =0.09 x P =0.09 X192 tone/day = 17.28 ton/day

C4AF = 0.11 X P= 0.11 X 192 ton/day = 21.12 ton/day

C3S = 0.47 X P = 0.47 X 192 ton /day = 90.24 ton/day

C2S = 0.25 X P = 0.25 X P= 0.25 X 192 ton/day= 48 ton/day

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Impurity = 0.08 XP = 0.08 X 192 ton/day = 15.36 ton/day

For the calculation of oxides from the clinker minerals is based on mole- mass relationship.

C2S, 2CaO + SiO2 2caO.SiO2

112 g/mole 60 g/mole 172 g/mole

60
Mass of SiO2 in C2S = x 48 tone/day = 16.72 tons /day
172

3CaO + SiO2 3CaO.SIO2

168g/mole 60 g/mole 288 g/mole

60
Mass of SiO2 in C3S = x90.4 ton/day = 18 .8 tone/day
288

The total mass of SiO2 is the sum of mass in C2S and C3S,

Mass of SiO2 = 16.72 ton/day + 18.8 ton/day = 35.54 ton/day

Mass of Fe2O3 in C4AF :

C$AF , 4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

160g/mol 422 g/mol

160
Mass of Fe2O3 = X 21.12 tone/day = 7.04 tonn/day
422

Mass of Al2O3 in both C3A and C4AF,Mass of SiO2 in C3S ,

IN C4AF , 4CaO +Al2O3 +Fe2O3 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

102 g/mol 422g/mol

102
= x 21.12 tone/day = 5. 1 tone /day
42

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In C3A , 3CaO + Al2O3 3CaO.Al2O3

102g/mol 238g/mol

102
X 17.28 tons/day = 7.4 tons/day.
238

Total mass of Al2O3 = mass in C3A and C4AF

= 7.4 + 5.1 = 12.5 tons/day

Impurities = 15.36 tons/day

Analysis of ofCaO

For the calculation of CaO in clinker minerals we add all the amount fond in the minerals.

3CaO +AL 2O3 3CaO.Al2O3, C3A = 17.28 tons/day

4CaO + Fe2O3 + AL2O3 4CAO.Fe2O3.Al2O3, C4AF = 21.12 tons/day

2CaO = SiO22CaO.SiO2, C2S = 48 tons/day

3CaO + SiO2 3CA.SIO2, C3S = 90.24 ton/day

From the above gram per mole relationship, we can calculate the amount of cao.

112 168 168 222

CaO = X 48 tone/day + X 90.24 tone/day + X 17.28 tone/day + X 15.84
172 228 272 486
tone/day= 115.54 ton/day

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 REFERENCE
. Job description for production attendant and sampler, Mugher Cement Enterprise.
. Blue Circle Industries PLC - Technical Centre; Cement Technology 1999
. 2nd Edition cement chemistry

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