Refractory Engineering German Book

Refractory
Engineering
Materials - Design - Construction
2nd revised and updated edition
VULKAN-VERLAG ESSEN
Table of Content
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 3
2. MATERIALS IN REFRACTORY ENGINEERING .............................................................. 4

2.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 SHAPED DENS MATERIALS ............................................................................................... 6
2.3 SHAPED HEAT-INSULATING MATERIALS .............................................................................. 19
2.5 CERAMIC FIBER MATERIALS ............................................................................................ 42
2.6 METALS ................................................................................................................... 49
2.7 SURFACE PROTECTION .................................................................................................. 59
2.8 OTHER MATERIALS ...................................................................................................... 59
2.9 PACKAGING, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF REFRACTORY MATERIALS ............................................. 65
3. DESIGN .................................................................................................................... 72
3.1 GENERAL ................................................................................................................. 72
3.2 PREPARATION ............................................................................................................ 72
3.3 DESIGN WITH SHAPED DENSE MATERIALS ........................................................................... 74
3.4 DESIGN WITH SHAPED HEAT-INSULATING MATERIALS ............................................................ 107
3.5 DESIGN WITH UNSHAPED (MONOLITHIC) REFRACTORY MATERIALS ............................................. 118
3.7 THERMAL CALCULATIONS ............................................................................................. 136
3.8 STATIC CALCULATIONS OF LOAD-BEARING PARTS TAKING THE TEMPERATURE INFLUENCE INTO
CONSIDERATION ............................................................................................................ 184
4. WORKING/APPLICATION ...................................................................................205
4.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 205
4.2 PREPARATION FOR WORKING ........................................................................................ 205
4.3 SHAPED DENSE AND HEAT-INSULATING MATERIALS .............................................................. 213
4.4 UNSHAPED (MONOLITHIC) REFRACTORY MATERIALS .............................................................. 215
4.5 CERAMIC FIBER MATERIALS AND HIGH TEMPERATURE GLASS FIBERS (AES) .................................. 230
4.6 WELDING OF ANCHORS ............................................................................................... 232
5. APPLICATION EXAMPLES ....................................................................................239
5.1 BOTTOMS ............................................................................................................... 239
5.2 WALLS .................................................................................................................. 247
5.3 ARCHES AND CROWNS ................................................................................................ 259
5.4 SUSPENDED ROOFS ................................................................................................... 273
5.5 PIPING .................................................................................................................. 282
5.7 HEXMESH (HEXROST) LININGS ...................................................................................... 293
5.8 ROTARY KILNS ......................................................................................................... 297
5.9 APPLICATION AND WORKING WITH DRY MIXES IN FOUNDRY FURNACES ........................................ 305
5.10 DRYING, HEATING, HEATING-UP AND COOLING-DOWN OF DRY MIXES ...................................... 324
6 DRYING, HEATING, HEATING-UP AND COOLING-DOWN .....................................326
6.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 326
6.2 PROCESSES DURING DRYING ........................................................................................ 326
6.3 DRY HEATING MEDIA ................................................................................................. 330
6.4 PRINCIPLES OF DRYING ............................................................................................... 330
6.5 EXECUTION ............................................................................................................. 331
6.6 PRINCIPLES OF HEATING, HEATING-UP AND COOLING-DOWN ................................................... 332
6.7 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEN DRYING DIFFERENT FURNACES/ PLANTS .................................... 332
7. QUALITY MANAGEMENT ..........................................................................................335
7.1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................... 335
7.2 PROJECT-SPECIFIC QUALITY MANAGEMENT ........................................................................ 335
7.3 INSPECTION PLANS .................................................................................................... 340
7.4 INSPECTION OF MATERIALS .......................................................................................... 348
7.5 INSPECTION OF INSTALLATION ....................................................................................... 377
8. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY, HEALTT1 PROTECTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION ..............................................................................................................385
8.1 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROTECTION ................................................................ 385
8.2 INTER-COMPANY ORGANIZATION .................................................................................... 389
8.3 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH PROTECTION IN THE PROJECT ............................................. 393
8.4 HAZARDOUS· MATERIAL/SUBSTANCES REGULATIONS ............................................................. 400
GLOSSARY ..................................................................................................................412
LITERATURE ...............................................................................................................423
1. Introduction 1
1. Introduction
Our industry needs and relies on refractory engineering. Refractory materials (refractories) are a
necessity in furnaces, stoves, kilns, ovens, and plants operated by the non-ferrous metal, iron, steel,
building material, glass, chemical, petroleum industries, in power plants and refuse incinerators. The
refractory materials have an important objective - to "manage" the fire and protect the supporting
structure against too high temperatures.
Since the first German edition of this book in 1987 the authors have made a tremendous effort to
continuously convey state-of-the-art to engineers, designers, draftsmen, construction experts and
furnace or plant operators who are in close contact with the refractory engineering sector.
Consequently, the first three main chapters of this book feature the topics:
Materials, Design, Working/Application.
Of course the above-mentioned topics can not be strictly separated from one another - for
example, the authors, who describe certain refractory materials, often give specific comments or
instructions for the design of the materials or when working with and applying the materials.
Depending on the load or stress on the refractory lining during ongoing production, the refractory
materials must be carefully selected, designed appropriately and installed meticulously. In order to
underline the correlation the editors decided to add a further chapter focusing on application
examples in various industrial sectors.
Another chapter features proper drying, heating, heating-up and cooling down of refractory linings.
This is likewise an important prerequisite for achieving the service lives requested by the
furnace/plant operators.
Quality assurance/management as well occupational safety, health protection, environmental
protection, hazardous materials/substances (and proper disposal) are further important aspects
and prerequisites for proper handling of an order. Consequently, the topics are dealt with in two
further chapters.
In the appendix there is a glossary with detailed information on the important terms used in
refractory engineering. In the text this is indicated by a G. Furthermore, the appendix includes an
index as well as information on specific literature available in the field of refractory materials and
engineering.
The editors decided not to include lists of standards, guidelines, codes of practice, material sheets
in this book.
Finally, we once again - as in previous editions - focus on the correct choice of words for the term
"insulate". In earlier days one often spoke of "insulation" when speaking of protection against heat.
The term "insulate" is used in so many ways in the technological sector today. A few years ago an
attempt was made to give more precise definitions. These are:
- "insulate" against heat and sound = insulate
- "insulate" against moisture = retention barrier
- "insulate" against electric current = insulate
3 2. Materials in Refractory Engineering
2. Materials in Refractory Engineering

A.-A. Eschner, G. Papp, G. Routschka
2.1 General
Refractory and heat-insulating materials have the objective to manage and control high
temperature processes economically. Furthermore, refractory materials help protect the
environment by ensuring that high temperature processes do not have a harmful impact on our
environment. The refractories (refractory materials) can be stressed
- thermally by temperatures and thermal shock
- chemically by gases, liquids, melts, slags and
- mechanically by pressure, tensile force, friction and/or impact.
The refractories are most always subjected to a combination of the above-mentioned stress
factors. Consequently, the selection of the appropriate refractory materials must take various
stress factors during service into consideration.
According to international definition, refractory products are non-metallic ceramic materials that
have a specific refractoriness G, that is a pyrometric cone equivalent G of 2: 1,500 °C (ISO/R 836,
DIN 51 060). This pyrometric cone equivalent (lSO/R 528, DIN EN 993-12) is determined on small,
slightly slanted elongated trigonal pyramids (samples) which are heated up together with standard
ceramic cones which have a known end point temperature. The pyrometric cone equivalent is the
temperature at which the tip of the pyrometric cone touches the bottom plate (supporting plaque).
Refractories usually do not have specific melt temperatures. They simply soften within a specific
temperature range.
Due to their low pyrometric cone equivalent, some products offered by the refractory industry do
not fulfill the definition "refractory". However, they fulfill other typical properties of refractory
materials and are included in the classification of refractory materials.
Today a tremendous variety of refractories are offered in many designs and compositions. The
refractories can be classified according to their raw material base in oxidic and non-oxidic raw
materials. The main representatives of the refractory oxidic materials are established from oxides
G of the elements Mg, Si, AI, Ca, Zr, Cr or combinations of these (Figure 2.2.). The most important
non-oxidic materials are compounds of the elements C, Si, Band N.
Concerning refractories one differentiates between shaped, unshaped (monolithic) and functional
products.
Shaped refractories have a defined geometric shape and have been subjected to heat treatment.
In addition, they are ready to be installed.
Unshaped (monolithic) refractories obtain their final shape at the construction site by casting,
vibrating, poking, ramming, gunning the refractory castables, friable mixes or blocks. Mortars and
mastics also belong to the group of unshaped (monolithic) refractories. Pre-fabricated parts, usually
large-shaped components out of refractory castable, are also allocated to this group.
Functional products are shaped, exchangeable parts of a furnace or plant which perform a
specific function during the process and are subjected to much higher stress than other sections of
the furnace/plant. Regulation and flow control components for the liquid steel in a continuous caster
are an example of so-called functional products.
Refractories are classified according to:
- main chemical component, for example the content of AI203 or MgO;
- main raw materials, for example natural, synthetic, fired or unfired, melted;
- type of bond, for example ceramic by firing at > 800 °G, inorganic-chemical by reaction
:0; 800 °G, hydraulic, organic or fused cast;
- subsequent treatment/finishing, for example heat-treatment up to 800 °G, impregnated;
- method of application/working for the unshaped materials (monolithics);
- intended application/use.
2. Materials in Refractory Engineering 5
In Europe standards for classification are provided for the most important refractory material groups:
- DIN EN 12475 - 1 to 4
Shaped dense products (bricks, components), porosity G < 45 % by volume
- DIN EN 1094-2
Shaped heat-insulating products, porosity> 45 % by volume, refer to chapter 2.3
- DIN EN 1094-1 and-3
Ceramic fiber products, refer to chapter 2.5
- DIN EN 1402-1 and ISO 1927
Unshaped refractory products (monolithic) (refractory castables, ramming mixes, gunning mixes,
jointing materials among others), refer to chapter 2.4
In the industrialized countries approximately 14 million tons of refractories are produced and
consumed annually. This corresponds to an annual demand of approximately 2.3 kg per person of
the world population. This amount is made up of approximately 45 % unshaped (monolithic) and 55
% shaped products including the functional products.
The important aspects for selecting the refractories, design and lining of the furnace or plant include
the specific consumption of the refractory materials per ton of manufactured product, availability
(continuous operation) of furnace or plant, process energy and costs.
2.2 Shaped Dens Materials

Shaped dense materials are mainly manufactured by pressing a prepared raw material mixture into
a mold followed by drying and firing. Fused cast products are cast into water-cooled molds after the
raw material mixture has melted in the electric arc furnace. Once in the molds the products solidify
slowly according to a given temperature program.
The chemical/mineralogical composition of the raw material mixtures, type of compaction by impact,
vibration, hydraulics, isostatic pressing and the subsequent heat treatment determine the properties
of the shaped dense materials.
During the manufacture of refractory materials it is generally the case that bulk density G, apparent
porosity and cold crushing strength are tested as homogeneity parameters and secured statistically
(in place of all other hot and cold properties).
By reaction with solid, liquid or gaseous process components it is possible that chemical,
mineralogical or structure modifications occur in the materials which change the properties or cause
wear. Thorough knowledge of manufacturing and operational conditions is, consequently, an
important prerequisite for selecting the suitable refractories.
In the following the most important refractory material groups are described:
2.2.1 Refractory Bricks Based on Si0 2-AI203 System
Over 50 % of all shaped and unshaped (monolithic) refractories can be allocated in a chemical/
mineralogical sense to the binary system G Si02-AI203.
In addition to pure crystalline Si02 in form of quartz or cristobalite, in used bricks also tridymite and
pure AI203 - in form of corundum - mullite is the stable compound in this binary system. Mullite
contains between 72 % AI203 (3AI2032Si02) and 78 % AI203 (2AI2032Si02). At 9 % AI203 there is an
G
eutectic with a temperature of 1,590 °C ..
Foreign components such as Fe203, Ti02' CaO, MgO and specifically the alkali oxides Na20 and
K20 - also referred to as flux - are part of natural raw materials. Even minute amounts can shift
II I II III I
I I
equilibrium conditions in the Si02-AI203 system and decrease the share of mullite or free Si02· This
effects the quicker occurrence of the first melt and the amount of glassy phase G is increased.
The type and amount of existing flux consequently strongly influence the high temperature behavior
of products. Free iron as contamination from the raw material preparation aggregates or free iron
oxide effect destruction of the brick during service if there is CO-attack. Due to the high firing
temperatures the iron oxide G largely binds to the silicate glassy phase and is thus insensitive to
CO-attack.
Figure 2.2.2 shows refractoriness (pyrometric cone equivalent), refractories under load (differential)
and service limit temperatures without corrosive influence of products of the A1203Si02 series depending on
AI203-content.
2.2.1.1 Silica Bricks and Fused Silica Products
Raw materials for the manufacture of silica bricks must have a Si0 2-content above 95 %. The raw
material quartzite. a compact granular rock found in nature, undergoes various modifications with
different densities G and volume changes up to 16 % when subjected to heat.
A typical composition of a fired silica brick:
42 % tridymite
45 % cristobalite
0 to 1 % residual quartz
Furthermore, there will be a small amount of pseudowollastonite CaO . Si02 which forms out of the
binder and sintering agent CaO during firing of the bricks. There are only slight amounts of glassy
phase which depend on the shares of alkali oxides and A1 203. For brick grades with low flux
contents used in glass melting tanks the total amount of AI 203 and double alkali content should be
below 0.5 %. For bricks used in coke ovens this amount is significantly above 1 %.
The transformation degree of a silica brick, which is characterized by its residual quartz content, is
determined by a x-ray diffraction analysis. Above approximately 1,450 °C the transformation of the
residual quartz effects slight after-expansion of the brick or brickwork.
The temperature increase in the temperature range between room (ambient) temperature and 800
°C must be very slow due to the high thermal expansion during heating up and cooling down in
order to prevent the bricks from getting cracks or structure (texture) damages. Above 1,000 °C the
silica bricks can be heated up and cooled down quickly (refer to Figure 2.2.3). The instructions for
heating-up procedures are to be followed very carefully due to the above-described behavior of the
silica bricks.
Silica bricks are mainly installed in coke oven batteries and superstructure of glass melting
furnaces.
Fused silica products are a special type of products based on Si0 2• Pure quartz sands are melted
and after cooling consist of over 98 % glassy phase. Fused silica materials possess a very low
expansion coefficient and can, consequently, be heated up very quickly. However, above 1,150 °C
they have a tendency to devitrify and form cristobalite. This effects a shift of the start of softening
from 1,400 to above 1,700 °C upon complete transformation into cristobalite. Once cristobalite has
formed. the material - due to the reversible thermal expansion of cristobalite - becomes quite
sensitive to any cooling down to temperatures below 1,000 °C. Fused silica products are primarily
applied in the glass industry because they do not contaminate the glass.
2.2.1.2 Fireclay Bricks
The composition of fireclay bricks in the binary system Si0 2-A1203 can have between 20 % and 45 %
A1203. Fireclay forms by the firing of clay at temperatures above 1,000 °C. During this process
mullite and Si02 form. Si02 is found as cristobalite in the fireclay grain and - dependent on the degree
of contamination - in the glassy phase. The glassy phase share in fireclay bricks out of plastic
refractory clays is between 40 and 55 % after firing at 1,400 °C. Clays with low alkali content will
reduce the glassy phase share. A low-alkali fireclay brick with 42 % AI203 contains approximately 55
% mullite, approximately 30 % cristobalite, and only about 15 % glassy phase after firing. This
composition is still instable in a thermodynamic sense after the firing process.
Once in service there will be a thermodynamic equilibrium on the face (side) of the brick stressed
mostly by heat. The mullite content will only change slightly. Quartz and cristobalite dissolve in the
glassy phase and increase it. The higher the mullite content and the lower the alkali content, the less
glassy phase will form. Consequently, there will be greater resistance of the fireclay products to
softening under pressure and heat.
Fireclay bricks are manufactured out of mixtures of fireclay grains with fine grain bond clay. The
bricks are shaped by dry pressing, semi-dry pressing, plastic shaping or slip casting G. Table 2.2.1
provides a survey of fireclay brick classifications and the various brick grades.
Fireclay bricks are the most commonly used refractory material in refractory engineering due to
their physical and chemical properties and a favorable price. Fireclay bricks are subjected to many
different stress factors in the multitude of service/application possibilities. Consequently, it is not
possible to evaluate their behavior in service solely on their chemical and mineralogical
composition. An assessment is only possible if also considering the specific process conditions.
Fireclay bricks are mainly installed in blast furnaces, hot blast stoves, foundries, coke ovens, glass
furnaces, cement kilns and for further applications in refractory engineering.
Materials containing cordierite are applied as kiln furniture for ceramic combustion furnaces with
temperatures up to 1,300°C. These materials show very low thermal expansion and, consequently,
possess excellent thermal shock resistance G. They consist of fireclay, mullite and corundum,
embedded in a bond phase which mainly consists of cordierite (2MgO . 2AI203 . 5Si02)·
2.2.1.3 High-Alumina Bricks
High-alumina bricks have an Al203-content between 45 and 99.9 %, the rest is Si02.
The Al203-content increases refractoriness and service limit temperature of the brick. Depending on
the type of used raw materials and accompanying substances, for example Fe203, Ti0 2. alkalies,
alkaline earths, refractoriness under load and service limit temperatures of the bricks can vary
significantly despite the same Al203-content (refer to Figure 2.2.2).
Table 2.2.2 provides a survey of natural and synthetic raw materials for high-alumina bricks.
The high-alumina raw materials are generally pre-fired, sintered densely and melted when applied
as raw materials for the manufacture of bricks. In contrast, the raw materials andalusite and
sillimanite are usually applied without having been pre-fired. Depending on the share of
accompanying substances, for example alkali oxides or alkaline earth oxides, a glassy phase will
form in addition to the crystal phases mullite and corundum. At the standard firing temperatures
andalusite and sillimanite transform slowly into mullite and Si02 so that higher or lower contents of
these mineral phases remain in the fired brick. Due to its high Ti0 2-content (up to approximately
4 %), sintered bauxite contains the additional crystal phase tialite (A1 203 ·Ti02). Table 2.2.3 gives a
survey on the classification and designations of high-alumina bricks.
Combinations of the various raw materials are applied with the objective to generate more mullite or
corundum in the bricks and specifically in the matrix G. Bricks out of natural raw materials are fired
at approximately 1,550 °C and bricks out of synthetic raw materials at approximately 1,700 °C.
High-alumina bricks are also manufactured with phosphate bond and/or with specific additives in
order to reduce wettability by slag and metal melts and to improve corrosion and thermal shock
resistance. For example, the addition of heavy spar (BaS0 4) makes the bricks resistant to the
infiltration of AI-melt.
To resist very aggressive slags or glass melts (fiberglass) the raw materials for high-alumina bricks
are enriched with 3 to 30 % Cr203 and in special cases even with 80 % Cr203' This will ensure that
wear-resistant chrome-corundum mixed crystals will form. The corundum-chrome bricks are
installed in specific areas subjected to intensive corrosion and erosion in glass melting tanks, refuse
incinerators, melting furnaces, and blast furnaces.
The multitude of high-alumina bricks calls for a specification of their properties. This is provided in
the Steel and Iron Material Data Sheet 912-84. Information is provided on properties, designation,
permissible tolerances of property data. Furthermore, this data sheet specifies how the data is to be
tested or verified.
Carbon-Containing High-Alumina Materials
High-alumina bricks are also impregnated with pitch or resin or manufactured with pitch or resin
bond and graphite or carbon black additives. This will improve corrosion resistance and structural
elasticity (thermal shock resistance). These materials and bricks are mainly applied as functional
products in continuous casting, for example as slide gate plates, submerged nozzles and in pig iron
and steel ladles. For the steel ladles SiC is often added to the AI 203-Si02-SiC (ASC) bricks. MgO to
the AI203-MgO-C (AMC) bricks or MgO-AI203-C (MAC) bricks with higher contents of MgO.
G
Such pitch or resin-bonded materials are installed in unfired state after baking (tempering) or after
0
reducing firing in granulated carbon packing at approximately 1,000 C. After pre-firing or once in
service a stable carbon lattice must form in order to effect improved corrosion resistance and
structural elasticity. Glaze is applied on functional products installed in continuous casters in order to
have better protection against oxidation.
2.2.2 Basic Refractory Bricks
Basic refractory bricks mainly consist of magnesium oxide (MgO, magnesite) and calcium oxide
(CaO). These bricks are most commonly applied in the iron and steel industry, cement industry and
in regenerators of the glass industry.
2.2.2.1 Fired Basic Bricks
The main component of fired basic bricks is magnesium oxide with the mineral name periclase.
O
The melting point G of the pure oxide is at 2,800 C. The thermal expansion G of pure magnesia
bricks is quite considerable and thus limits the thermal shock resistance of these bricks. Magnesia
o
bricks possess a high thermal conductivity with 4.5 W/mK at 1,000 C, good resistance against
basic slags, high cold crushing strength, and superb hot properties.
Raw materials, out of which magnesia is extracted, are magnesite (MgC0 3) taken from mines or
magnesium chloride (MgCI2) from seawater or brines. At temperatures in the range of 1,700 °C or
higher magnesite is sintered to volume-resistant magnesia sinter. Magnesium chloride extracted
from seawater or brines is transformed to magnesium hydroxide by chemical precipitation with
calcium hydroxide. The magnesium hydroxide is concentrated, dehydrated, briquette and finally
O
sintered at temperatures of 1,700 C or higher. The ensuing magnesia sinter is extremely pure and
has fewer secondary components than magnesia sinter based on magnesite. Furthermore,
magnesia is produced in molten form as dense fused magnesia.
Accessory oxides of magnesia sinter are mainly Fe203, A1203, CaO, Si0 2, and B203 with the
magnesia extracted from seawater. Depending of the ratio of CaO to Si0 2 (C/S-ratio) a series of
crystalline secondary components form with different melting temperatures (Table 2.2.4).
The secondary components and their relation to one another determine the sintering behavior of
the bricks, hot properties and slagging behavior once they are in service. The most important basic
bricks can be characterized as follows:
- Magnesia Bricks
Usually bricks based on sintered magnesia with forsterite (C/S-ratio approximately 0.5) or di-
calcium-silicate (C/S-ration> 1.9) bond phase to obtain high hot strength. In the temperature
range 40 to 120°C the magnesia products are sensitive to hydration.
- Magnesia-Chromium Bricks
Bricks based on sintered magnesia with changing contents of chrome ore or chromia to improve
thermal shock resistance and corrosion resistance in contact with aggressive slags (rich in
FeO), specifically for vacuum treatment of steel.
- Magnesia-Spinel Bricks
Bricks based on sintered magnesia with contents of spinel or herzynite to improve structural
elasticity and corrosion resistance; specifically in cement rotary kilns.
- Magnesia-Zircon Bricks
Bricks based on sintered magnesia with zircon or zirconia additives. Zircon enhances the
formation of a forsterite bond phase, specifically to protect the magnesia grain against sulfate
attack in the regenerators operated by the glass industry.
Table 2.2.4: Mineral phases in basic refractory products

- Dolomite Bricks
Bricks based on fired dolomite and additives of sintered magnesia with good resistance to basic
slags, specifically in steel ladles and cement rotary kilns. Due to their free CaO they are
extremely sensitive to steam and must be protected against hydration G.
- Calcia and Forsterite Bricks
Bricks based on sintered CaO and bricks based on forsterite out of mines, usually with the
addition of sintered magnesia. Both brick types are of less importance and they are installed for a
few special applications only.
2.2.2.2 Carbon-Containing Basic Bricks
Fired basic bricks can be impregnated with pitch or resin in order to improve their infiltration
resistance and slag resistance. Furthermore, there are bricks with pitch or resin bond with or
without addition of graphite. One differentiates between:
- Pitch or Resin-Impregnated Fired Basic Bricks
The bricks are subsequently impregnated with pitch or resin under vacuum. This ensures that
the pores and surface are enriched with carbon effecting enhanced corrosion and infiltration
resistance of the bricks once in contact with liquid slag or steel. The carbon content in the brick
reaches approximately 2 %.
- Carbon-Bonded Basic Bricks
Bricks based on sintered magnesia, fused magnesia or dolomite with pitch or resin bond and
additives of graphite and/or carbon black with carbon contents up to 20 %. The carbon content is
usually in the range of 10 to 15 %.
Magnesia sinter or magnesia sinter fusion raw materials are used with a CIS-ratio above 2.
Antioxidants G (AI, Mg-metal or carbides) may be added to the bricks to improve strength and
protect the carbon against burnout.
The qualitative influence of the carbon content on the most important properties of the carbon
containing basic bricks is illustrated in Figure 2.2.4. This brick type is installed in converters, slag
zones in steel ladles and steel treatment vessels, sidewalls of electric arc furnaces and bottoms in
DC electric arc furnaces.
2.2.3 Sintered Special Ceramic Bricks
Special ceramic and non-oxidic materials, which require special raw materials and manufacturing
techniques, have up to now only been used for a few very specific applications with special
requirements. Examples are:
Zirconia
Zirconia is very resistant to corrosion since the mineral baddeleyite has a very low inclination to
enter compounds except with Si02. However, before its use as a raw material, baddeleyite must
first be "stabilized" because it undergoes reversible modifications up to 1,100 °C with a density
that varies greatly. With additives of CaO, MgO or Y203 the high temperature modification of Zr02 is
G
kept meta-stable to room temperature so that shaped and fired materials can be manufactured.
The refractories are installed as metering (tundish) nozzle in continuous casters or as
reinforcement in submerged nozzles in the slag zone.
Zircon Silicate
In the system Zr02-Si02, zircon silicate with its mineral name zircon is a highly refractory
compound. Zircon has no melting point. It disintegrates at 1,775 °C into Zr0 2 and Si02·
Furthermore, zircon has a relatively low thermal expansion coefficient and, consequently, good
thermal shock resistance. Bricks out of zircon or zircon and alumina, so-called corundum-zircon
bricks or mullite zircon bricks (sintered AZS bricks) have superb corrosion resistance. They are
mainly used by the glass industry and specifically for the production of borosilicate glass G.
Chromia
Blocks out of chromia are another example of special ceramic materials. They are manufactured
G G
by isostatic pressing or slip casting . With the addition of Ti02 these materials obtain a high
density upon sintering. The blocks are mainly installed in fiberglass melting tanks operated by the
glass industry.
2.2.4 Carbon and Graphite Bricks
Coke, carbon black, anthracite, natural or synthetic graphite serve as raw materials.
The raw materials with desired grain size are mixed with tar in heated mixers and then shaped in
hot state by auger pressing G, vibration pressing or hand ramming. During the subsequent firing
process the tar softens somewhat so that the bricks deform and shrink. At higher temperature the
tar carbonizes into a coke lattice (matrix). This gives the bricks their strength. With additives, for
example AI203 and Si02, the strength and infiltration resistance can be improved. These micro
porous carbon and semi-graphite bricks mainly have pores under 1 flm. In manufacturing graphite
bricks the next step is graphitizing in the resistance furnace or by direct flow of current. The unfired
bricks (green bricks) always have a given limit size and do not obtain their final shape until after
firing by cutting or grinding all sides of the bricks.
3
The bulk density of carbon and graphite bricks is low and at approximately 1.5 g/cm . Due to the
high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion the carbon and graphite bricks possess good
thermal shock resistance. The border surface (interfacial) energy between carbon and most slags is
very low. Consequently, they are hardly wetted, infiltrated and attacked by slags.
In an oxidizing atmosphere the carbon bricks are sensitive to oxygen, steam and carbon dioxide at
temperatures above 400°C. Consequently, the service applications are limited despite favorable
properties and extremely high thermal shock resistance.
Carbon bricks are generally installed in reduction furnaces, specifically in blast furnace bottoms and
furnaces operated by the non-ferrous metal industry, for example as anode blocks in the AI
industry. The chemical industry uses carbon bricks due to their low wettability and good resistance
to acids.
2.2.5 Silicon Carbide Bricks
Silicon carbide (SiC) forms during the electric fusion of silicon dioxide and coke under reducing
conditions according to the Acheson process G. The resulting product contains 96 to 99 % SiC; the
rest is silicon. silicon dioxide and free carbon. Impurities mainly consist of calcium oxide and iron
oxide during the preparation process.
Silicon carbide and materials out of silicon carbide have superb erosion and corrosion resistance,
high thermal conductivity and thermal shock resistance. They are applied widely in many industry
sectors. The applications range from muffle furnaces in the metal and enamel industries, special
bricks in riser (ascension) pipes in the cement industry, melting and heat treatment furnaces in the
G
non-ferrous metal industry, refuse incinerators, kiln furniture for chinaware and advanced
ceramics.
The two most important characteristics of SiC materials are the SiC-content and type of bond.
Depending on the type of bond, one differentiates between the following types of materials:
- Oxidic and Silicate-Bonded SiC:
Most refractories with SiC-contents below 95 % have a clay bond which reacts to mullite and
Si02 during firing. Bricks with less than 70 % silicon carbide also have, in addition to clay and
mullite, corundum in the binder so that a more or less high-alumina bond forms. There are also
SiC-bricks with less than 70 % SiC that contain fireclay in addition to clay as binder. These have
the lowest degree of refractoriness of all SiC products.
In addition, there are some non-oxidic bond systems which were developed to manufacture
products with higher thermal conductivity, enhanced chemical and mechanical resistance, and.
higher refractoriness. These are briefly described below.
- Nitride Bond
To achieve a bond with silicon nitride (Si3N4) or silicon oxynitride (Si2ON2) a shaped body is first
made out of a mixture of SiC and fine grain metallic Si. This shaped body is fired at
temperatures above the melting point of Si in an atmosphere containing N 2. The silicon will react
to Si3N4 or Si20N2. The temperature and reaction time depend on the porosity of the material,
size of the shaped bodies and the desired properties.
- Infiltrated SiSiC
It is possible to obtain bodies (shapes) containing SiC that have no pores by infiltrating a SiC
pressed body (shape) with liquid silicon at temperatures above 1,400 °C (melting point of Si).
The end product is a SiSiC composite material without pores which - in' comparison with the
above-mentioned materials with a ceramic bond - is distinguished by higher strength, thermal
conductivity and oxidation resistance. Applications are limited to temperatures below the melting
temperature of silicon (Si).
- Self and Reaction-Bonded SiC
During firing of mixtures out of SiC, Si powder and carbon in an atmosphere with no oxygen it is
possible to make materials with an own type of bond because the carbon reacts with the Si and
forms a SiC bond phase. If using reactive SiC fine grain so-called bridges out of SiC will form
G
between the primary SiC grains at high firing temperature. One speaks of recrystallized
SiC. The own type of bond or self bond enables the manufacture of products with high strength
and corrosion resistance.
- Hot-pressed SiC
Pure silicon carbide can not be compacted sufficiently for applications in refractory engineering
and engineering ceramics. At high temperatures and pressures, small amounts of additives
enable compaction by way of flow processes at grain borders (interfaces).
o
At temperatures up to 2,000 C SiC is stable in contact with inert and reducing gases such as CO or
o
N2. At temperatures 'above 800 C, oxygen, air, CO2, and specifically steam will oxidize SiC quickly
o
into Si02 and CO2, This especially applies for the temperature range between 1,000 and 1,200 C.
o
The oxidation product Si02 does not form its own glaze on the SiC grains until reaching 1,200 C.
This glaze impairs the progress of oxidation tremendously. Consequently, silicon carbide products
should not be kept for a longer period of time in oxidizing or steam atmosphere at temperatures
o
between 800 and 1,200 C. Often SiC bricks expand with cracks as a result. This is due to the
formation and crystal growth of cristobalite at the grain borders (interfaces).
SiC bricks are very resistant to acids and acidic slags. However, SiC bricks are attacked intensely
by melts of metal oxides and metals. Only the melts of nonferrous metals, for example lead. zinc,
cadmium, copper and aluminum are an exception.
2.2.6 Fused Cast Products
Refractories are attacked more easily by melts or condensates the higher the porosity specifically
the apparent (open) porosity. Melts can infiltrate the bricks by way of the pores and impregnate
them. The ceramic brick structure (texture) can be destroyed from the inside and outside by this
attack via the outer surface. For specific applications one requires bricks with an apparent (open)
G
porosity of practically zero. This can hardly be accomplished in an efficient way or only in a few
exceptional cases with a ceramic sintering process.
The fine grain raw material mixture is melted in an electric arc furnace at temperatures between
o
1,800 and 2,400 C depending on the specific composition. The melt is cast periodically into sand
molds, graphite molds or water-cooled steel molds.
Immediately upon casting the casting skin of the bricks solidifies to its final shape. The brick is lifted
carefully with lifting equipment out of the mold. The inside part of the brick is still hot and liquid. The
brick is placed in a so-called tempering bed. These are cooling boxes which contain loose amounts
of sand or corundum powder. In these boxes the outer skin can heat up again to ensure that any
stress or tension on the brick surface is practically eliminated. The bricks may cool for a period of up
to 3 weeks depending on their shape and size. After cooling, the sand in the molds and residue of
the embedding agents are cleaned off the bricks. Once passing final quality checks the bricks may
be shipped to the customer or sent to the shop for further finishing work.
Due to the manufacturing process, fused cast bricks generally have a wrinkled and uneven surface.
Consequently, the joint surfaces are often ground to ensure that the joints fit well. Due to the
extreme hardness of the material, finishing work on joint surfaces, drilling or cutting (to get a
different shape) is only possible with diamond tools.
Bricks with a ceramic bond often have an apparent (open) porosity between 15 and 25 % due to the
manufacturing process. This porosity is distributed evenly over the brick volume. Fused cast bricks
generally have a very low and closed porosity but contain voids G.
An enormous void volume may form during the cooling of fused cast bricks due to the thermal
contraction and specifically due to the volume difference between melt and crystallized structure.
Often the casting process will make it possible to position this void volume in such a manner that the
bricks can be utilized. Nonetheless, with standard cast bricks the area containing voids can make up
half the brick thickness. Since the void-free brick material practically has no porosity one can
calculate the void volume from the difference between density (true density) of the material and bulk
density of the bricks.
Table 2.2.5: Grades and property values (counts) of fusion cast products
For specific applications bricks without voids are required. They are manufactured by enlarging the
casting mold, which usually only has room for the desired brick volume, with a so-called "lost
head". The void is then positioned in the lost head which is cut off once the bricked has cooled.
Bricks manufactured according to this process are not only without voids but possess far finer
grain and homogenous structure than bricks containing voids.
The dense crystalline structure provides the fused cast bricks with superb strength, corrosion and
erosion resistance at very high temperatures. The glassy phase in the bricks only fills the hollow
spaces between the intercrystalline interspersed crystals. It can exit the brick at high temperatures.
This is referred to as "exudation".
The low thermal shock resistance is a disadvantage. Consequently, fused cast bricks must be
tempered, heated up and cooled down carefully.
Table 2.2.5 lists grades and properties of fused (fusion) cast products.
Most all of the manufactured fused cast products are used in the glass industry. The highest
demand is for corundum-zirconia bricks and alumina bricks. Fused cast bricks containing chromia
G
are installed in furnaces for glass fibers and borosilicate glass and in coal gasification plants.
Fused cast products based on corundum-mullite and zirconia are installed in hearths of preheating
furnaces in rolling mills due to the good resistance to scale.
2.3 Shaped Heat-Insulating Materials

W. Klinger, U. Nebe, G. Routschka
2.3.1 General
Shaped heat-insulating materials are bricks, pre-shaped parts and plates which have a total (true)
porosity of  45 % by volume according to DIN EN 1094-2. They are distinguished by low thermal
conductivity and low stored heat. Both these properties are a result of the high porosity G of these
materials. The related disadvantages are:
- relative low strength and abrasion resistance
_ sensitivity to corrosion due to easy infiltration by gases, vapors and melts.
The thermal conductivity does not only depend on the total (true) porosity of the material but also
on pore size, pore shape, condition or appearance of the structure (texture), and chemical-
mineralogical composition. The physical factors affecting heat conduction, such as solid body
conduction, convection and emissivity depending on the temperature, can have a varying influence.
Gases trapped in the pores can greatly affect thermal conductivity. This applies specifically for H 2
and He which augment heat conduction. In micro-porous heat-insulating materials thermal
conductivity can even be below that of air.
Above 500°C the inner thermal transport is noticeable by emissivity which is greatly dependent on
amount and size of the pores. With rising temperatures the heat inside the pores is conveyed more
and more by emissivity. The pores are bridged by emissivity from pore wall to pore wall and thermal
conductivity increases.
Measured data (counts) on thermal conductivity can only be compared if the same measuring
methods are applied. The counts may differ up to 25 % if applying different methods. The hot wire
method (DIN EN 993-14 or 933-15) is the no.·1 method used in Europe to determine thermal
conductivity.
The advantages of heat-insulating materials in furnace engineering:
- energy consumption is decreased
_ outside wall temperatures are optimized
- less amount of material required for the construction, wall thickness, and total weight of the
construction reduced
- cycle times are shorter for furnaces operated on a periodic basis
- easy to work with the materials / easy finishing.
Linings with a light weight are particularly suited for furnaces or plants operating on a periodic
schedule. Due to the low amount of stored heat theses linings absorb less heat during the heating
up phase. The efficiency is improved because this process avoids the use of energy for a caus~ not
related to the actual process. In addition, it is often possible - as a result of the low stored heat - to
shorten the cold to cold cycle and thus increase availability of the furnace or plant. A prerequisite for
this, however, is sufficient thermal shock resistance.
The standard heat-insulating materials used in refractory engineering are classified as follows: -
insulating refractory bricks and insulating bricks, section 2.3.2
- plates and shaped parts, section 2.3.3
- insulating refractory castables, section 2.4
- ceramic fiber materials, section 2.5
Figure 2.3.1 illustrates how thermal conductivity is dependent on temperature.
2.3.2 Insulating Refractory and Insulating Bricks'

Insulating refractory bricks are classified according to ASTM C 155, ISO 2245 and DIN EN 10942
G
(Table 2.3.1). The properties important for the classification are bulk density and temperature at
which the permanent linear change (in dimensions) of a specimen is maximum 2 % after a specified
G
time period. The thus determined classification temperature is not identical to the permanent load
temperature or maximum service limit temperature.
G
The maximum service limit temperature is dependent on the refractory design temperature cycle
and degree of corrosion. If the refractory material is in permanent service in an atmosphere without
corrosion being a factor, the maximum service limit temperature will be approximately 100 K below
the classification temperature. Higher service limit temperatures are conceivable if the operation
conditions are not stable.
Table 2.3.2 provides information on the typical long term behavior of some products. ASTM C 155
requires a test temperature of 30 K below tile classification temperature. The linear change in form of
linear shrinkage after 24 hours is not above 2 %. However, after 200 hours it reaches higher counts
(far above 2 %) which are totally unacceptable in practice. This circumstance is further exemplified
on a material (Figure 2.3.2) with maximum shrinkage of 2 % after 24 hours. The long
Table 2.3.2: Typical long-term shrinkage behavior of group 26 products according to ASTM C 155
term shrinkage behavior is illustrated at the test temperature and various temperatures below the
test temperature.
The bulk densities allocated to the individual groups of classification are standard (indicative) data
for practical service. For each temperature range there is an optimum bulk density spread at which
the high temperature thermal conductivity is at a minimum and a sufficient stability of the material is
still given or ensured.
0
Corresponding to the wide temperature range of the classification (ISO 2245: 750 to 1,800 c)
various raw materials with widespread material composition are used for heat-insulating refractories.
The specific raw material base or the main component is used for the designating the materials as is
also the case for the dense refractories. Figure 2.3.3 provides a more detailed illustration.
Thermal conductivity and further important properties, such as porosity, bulk density, and strength,
are mainly determined by the processes that are used for pore formation. Furthermore, the
methods of shaping and compaction influence the orientation and design of the pores and,
consequently, affect the properties. For example, extrusion-pressed products have pores stretched
in the direction of pressing and a correspondingly oriented solid material (substance) structure. This
results in a direction dependency (anisotropy G) of properties, specifically in regard to thermal
conduction and strength.
The following production processes are generally used for the formation of pores:
- Substances are mixed into the ceramic raw mix which burn out during ceramic firing, e.g. coal,
coke, cork meal, sawdust, nut shells, foam polystyrol.
- Porous materials are mixed in with the ceramic raw mix, e.g. kieselguhr, moler earth, perlite,
vermiculite, light fireclay, ceramic hollow spheres (balls).
- Thermal decomposition of sulfates, carbonates by release of bonded water resulting in the
formation of hollow spaces in the green brick (blank).
- Ceramic slip is foamed and subsequently shaped by casting.
- Gas developing propellents are mixed into the ceramic raw mix, e.g. aluminum powder,
carbonate of ammonia.
Combinations of these processes are sometimes applied.
The majority of the shaped heat-insulating materials is fired by the same process as the coarse grain
refractory materials. This gives them a ceramic bond. In addition, the chemical bond, for example
with phosphoric acid or aluminum phosphate, and the cement bond are used. They are
strengthened by heat treatment, hydraulic setting or firing above 1,000 °C. There are a small amount
of chemically-bonded bricks with water glass bond which are tempered at temperatures up to 400°C.
Several of these bricks are made as green bricks (blanks) with excessive size and then cut and
finished to desired measurements. This is specifically the case with plastically shaped grades
G
having a high content of clay components. After firing they have a drying and firing shrinkage up to
20 %.
Mainly standardized shapes and suitable shapes, based on or derived from the dimensions of
standard shapes, are installed in the lining. Complicated shaped bricks are made either by
machine finishing of oversized green bricks (blanks), out of standard shapes glued together or by
elastic shaping with subsequent repressing of the green body. In addition, hand shaping, vibration
and casting methods are utilized.
In addition to the group classification and assigned classification temperature, most manufacturers
indicate the following properties according to special test standards:
- bulk density and total (true) porosity DIN EN 1094-4
- cold crushing strength DIN EN 1094-5
- thermal conductivity at various temperatures DIN EN 993-14 and 15
- permanent linear change DIN EN 1094-6
For all other tests the corresponding test standards for dense materials apply. It is also standard
procedure to give information on reversible thermal expansion G, mean specific heat (thermal)
capacity and chemical composition. Usually the contents of the distinct chemical components
A1203' Si02, CaO, MgO, Fe203 and alkali oxides are indicated.
G
Refractoriness under' load (DIN EN .993-8) and creep under compression (DIN EN 993-9) are
2
determined with a pressure load of 0.05 N/mm .
Quality control usually includes a check of bulk density and cold crushing strength. When selecting
the suitable bricks, all properties that are important during service must be considered and
coordinated in regard to the expected thermal, chemical or mechanical stress. The hot properties
and chemical resistance are very important here. Thermal shock resistance is likewise very
important for insulating and insulating refractory bricks. Thermal shock resistance can vary greatly
as shown in Table 2.3.3. Thermal shock resistance of insulating refractory bricks is tested by air
quenching of NF-2 bricks according to DIN ENV 993-11. The obtained results (data) will provide
information if the bricks have sufficient thermal shock resistance on the hot face once subjected to
service conditions.
With chemical attack by gaseous or dust components in the furnace atmosphere it is important to
only install materials with sufficient resistance. These materials must have a suited chemical
composition. For example:
G
- Furnace atmospheres with a high content of carbon monoxide or methane require a material
with a low content of iron compounds capable of reactions. At temperatures between 400 and
500°C carbon monoxide is decomposed, as a result of the catalytic effect of iron oxide, into C +
CO2, The deposit of carbon can result in structure damage which is referred to as carbon
bursting. The resistance of insulating refractory bricks to carbon bursting is assessed according
to ASTM C 288. At temperatures above 900°C methane will also effect carbon deposits. These
processes may occur concurrently and in connection with disturbing reduction appearances.
- Hydrogen and other heavily reducing atmospheres, depending on their concentration at higher
temperature, will effect decomposition and volatilization of Si0 2 and other oxidic components but
not A1203. With chemically-bonded products the aluminum-phosphate is also decomposed. With
a suitably increased Al203-content and no presence of phosphates it can be accomplished that
these materials will be sufficient for the stress. In a pure hydrogen
2.Materials in Refractory Engineering 25
atmosphere and at temperatures above 1,000 °C mainly corundum insulating bricks with a high
purity are installed.
- Alkaline vapors and alkaline condensates will effect corrosion damages, so-called alkali
bursting G.
Except for a few cases, direct contact with slags and melts must be avoided because they infiltrate
materials due to their porosity and permeability. The properties of the refractories can be changed
resulting in destruction.
Bulk density and thermal conductivity can increase once dust and vapors in the furnace
atmosphere penetrate the pores of the refractories. Reactions with the brick can effect intensified
shrinkage and spalling when the materials are subjected to thermal shock. Spalling is the result of
different degrees of expansion in the infiltrated areas of the brick compared to those areas not yet
infiltrated.
Spalling may also occur if the volume of the bricks increases, for example by reactions of free (X-
AI203 with alkalis upon formation of -A1203 connected with an approximate 10 % increase in
volume.
In this context special mention is made of the requirement that mortars and adhesives must be
suited for the refractories. If jointing materials are employed, which are not suited, the insulating
refractory bricks and highly porous heat-insulating bricks will be damaged quickly. The service life
of the lining will decrease rapidly. This can happen if mortars with a high alkali oxide content are
used. These mortars can effect intensified shrinkage, spalling G upon thermal shock, and alkali
bursting. The damage will be even greater if the mortar joints are too thick.
2.3.2.1 Insulating Refractory Bricks
Table 2.3.3 gives typical property data on insulating refractory bricks which are classified in various
groups.
Insulating refractory bricks are resistant at service temperatures above 1,000 °C. They are used for
the rear lining as well as for the hot face.
For multi-layer wall designs they serve as rear lining to optimize heat flux and heat storage
capacity. In the rear the bricks are protected against aggressive dust, infiltration, sudden thermal
shock, and further stress factors.
With furnaces or plants operating on a periodic schedule it must be taken into consideration that
these bricks are quite sensitive to thermal shock. Special insulating refractory bricks must,
consequently, be selected for the hot side of the lining.
The chemical-mineralogical composition mainly corresponds to that of shaped dense materials
G
based on Si02-AI203. This offers various thermal application areas . The classification temperature
generally increases the higher the Al203-content (Table 2.3.3). Silica insulating refractory bricks and
special products are an exception.
For applications up to approximately 1,350 °C a wide variety of grades based on fireclay is
available. Due to their content of glassy components, insulating refractory bricks have a distinct
softening range which is dependent on structure makeup and chemical composition. In this regard
they are similar to dense fireclay bricks. Applications above 1,350 °C require insulating refractory
bricks with Al203-contents above 45 % by weight. They are classified as follows according to their
composition:
.
- High-mullite insulating refractory bricks up to 1,500 °C
- Mullite/corundum insulating refractory bricks up to 1,650 °C
- Corundum insulating refractory bricks starting at 1,650 °C to above 1,800 °C
Due to their content of low-melting components and due to the mainly crystalline structure, these
materials have a low deformation tendency when subjected to force or load at high temperatures.
In coke ovens, hot blast stoves and glass furnaces the silica insulating refractory bricks with the
specifics typical for this material are often installed. On the basis of the material makeup and
composition they can be used for service temperatures approaching the classification temperature
without softening.
For special stress situations insulating refractory bricks based on cordierite, zirconia or forsterite
are used.
2.3.2.2 Insulating Bricks
. Due to their material composition, insulating bricks can only be used for temperatures up to
approximately 1,000 ac. At temperatures below 900 ac, a number of micro-pores in many insulating
brick grades close. These pores are particularly important for thermal insulation. Increasing
sintering activity also effects shrinkage. Tl1ese bricks are specifically suited as rear insulation in
refractory linings.
Due to the various raw materials, pore formation, shaping and bond, one differentiates between
perlite, kieselguhr, and moler bricks.
Perlite bricks are manufactured out of expandable perlite and out of this heat-insulating bricks are
made with ceramic and hydraulic bond. Due to their big pore volume and pore structure, products
based on expandable perlite possess a favorable heat-resisting behavior similar to that of
kieselguhr products. As a result of the softening behavior of their viscous glassy components they
do, however, react sensitively to pressure load in a higher temperature range.
Kieselguhr bricks are generally manufactured out of calcined diatomaceous earth. The bricks
receive a ceramic bond along with burnout materials and clay bonding agents. Due to the fine pore
Table 2.3.4: Typical property data on heat-insulating bricks with different raw material
base, manufacturer data in part according to different test methods
Table 2.3.5: Typical property data on vermiculite materials, manufacturer data in part according to
different test methods
28 Materials in Refractory Engineering
silicic acid lattice, the kieselguhr bricks are superior in their thermal insulation behavior to bricks
having the same bulk density based on expanded vermiculite. With some grades, a low crushing
strength will, however, limit application possibilities.
Moler bricks are manufactured out of moler earth which is a natural mixture out of kieselguhr and
plastic clay. The bricks are shaped plastically without any preliminary heat treatment and bonded
ceramically during firing. Burnout materials are added to increase porosity. As a result of their
structure with very fine pores, they have low thermal conductivity and low gas permeability. Thermal
conductivity increases slightly with rising temperature but is still comparatively low in grades with
higher bulk density. Moler bricks with higher bulk density are distinguished by superb mechanical
strength. Further favorable properties are their thermal shock resistance, low thermal expansion,
G
and resistance to cryolite melts
.
2.3.3 Plates and Shaped Parts
2.3.3.1 Plates and Shaped Parts out of Vermiculite

Plates and shaped parts are manufactured out of expanded vermiculite in addition to bricks (Table
2.3.5). Good shaping and compressibility of the expanded vermiculite enable the manufacture of
very complicated shapes according to the semi-dry pressing process. These products have an
inorganic-chemical (water glass, phosphate) or hydraulic (clay-cement) bond. An organic bond is not
very common. Vermiculite plates are usually made with a thickness between 15 and 100 mm and a
bulk density of 350 to 800 kg/m 3. Depending on the bulk density it is possible to achieve a cold
2
crushing strength between 1 and 8 N/mm .
Vermiculite products are distinguished by relatively good thermal shock resistance and good thermal
and chemical resistance. They can be installed on the hot side of the lining. For a ceramic material
the vermiculite product has an exceptionally high thermal expansion in a magnitude comparable to
that of steel. This enables the use of this material with metal anchorings pressed in it.
2.3.3.2 Plates and Shaped Parts out of Calcium Silicate

Plates and shaped parts out of calcium silicate are manufactured synthetically out of lime (CaO) and
silicic acid (Si02) by adding fillers and reinforcement fibers in watery slurry. The superheated slurry is
shaped by pressing or casting processes and the green plates/parts (blanks) are subsequently
strengthened in the autoclave G in steam atmosphere through the chemical reaction of their main
components. A calcium silicate hydrate forms. Plates with a bulk density between 180 and 350
kg/m3 and thicknesses of 20 to 100 mm are used along with shaped parts. They can be finished with
simple tools such as wood.
As can be seen in Table 2.3.6, the thermal conductivity of calcium silicate products is very low.
Products which have only a slight increase of thermal conductivity are preferred. Thermal insulation
behavior and crushing strength are, to an extent, only dependent on the bulk density because both
properties are greatly influenced by the composition and structure of the raw material. Thermal
stability is also based on the type and amount of calcium silicate hydrate shares (tobermorite
5CaO·6Si02·5.5H20, xonotlite 6CaO·6Si02·H20) due to their differing shrinkage behavior and
separation of the bonded water. Consequently, the service limit of the grades can range between
0
650 and maximum 1,050 C.
Plates and shaped parts out of calcium silicate are not in the scope of the insulating refractory brick
classification according to ASTM C 155 or ISO 2245. Nevertheless, their classification and
shrinkage behavior are often indicated including the test conditions. This makes selection and
evaluation less complicated.
Plates and shaped parts out of calcium silicate are sensitive to breakage. In order to counteract
these disadvantages these plates and parts can be glued with glass fiber fleece. In addition they,
Table 2.3.6: Typical property data on calcium silicate materials, manufacturer data in part according to different test methods
are not very resistant to thermal shock and tend to embrittle. Consequently, they are usually only
installed as rear material in refractory linings.
They are resistant to:
- gases, e.g. moist air, organic solvent vapors, protective furnace gases, e.g. N 2, inert gases,
reducing atmospheres, e.g. CO, CH4 and
- liquid aluminum.
They are not resistant to:
- strong acids and
- gases which form solutions with a pH < 6 when reacting with moisture, e.g. condensate.
2.3.3.3 Plates and Shaped Parts out of Micro porous Insulation Materials
Micro porous insulation materials are distinguished by their extremely low thermal conductivity.
These materials are preferred in areas where very thin wall thickness and low amounts of
construction mixes are required.
The most important properties:
3
- bulk density 150 to 350 kg/m
- porosity 85 to 90 %
- cold crushing strength approx. 1 N/mm2
- thermal conductivity at
mean temperature 200°C: 0.021 to 0.04 W/mK
mean temperature 600°C: 0.025 to 0.05 W/mK
Standard heat-insulating materials possess the thermal conduction capability of the calm air. which
is enclosed in the pores, as the theoretical lowest limit of thermal conductivity. Micro porous
insulation materials, however, have a thermal conductivity lower than that of calm air.
This property is attained by the use of powdery materials with grains in particle sizes of 0.1 m
which are only bonded by adhesive and friction forces. They can be covered and strengthened by a
glass fiber fabric which is resistant up to 700 ac. The highly dispersive G materials and micropores
assist the very low thermal conduction of the solid material lattice. Their extremely small pores of
less than 0.1 m are within the magnitude of the free stretch length of gas molecules. In order to
conduct heat by these intermolecular processes, it is necessary to prevent free vibration of gas
molecules in the pores of the insulation material. This brings the slow "cold" gas molecules in
contact with the quick "hot" ones.
The main component of these insulation materials is the highly dispersive, amorphous G silicic acid
Si02· Its radiolucency can be reduced by adding Ti02 and Fe203' Materials with selected particle
size (nephelometric agents / opacifiers), which can absorb or reflect infrared, are used as additives
G
, e.g. aluminum, silicon, zircon. By this method the thermal conductivity below 1,000oC is decreased
and the increase of thermal conductivity, dependent on the temperature. greatly reduced.
Due to their structural makeup, it is possible that the material properties of microporous insulation
materials change to a great extent by grain growth and sintering once they are in service near their
service limit temperature. This will effect an increase in thermal conductivity and the possible
reduction of heat-insulating capability.
Microporous insulation materials are often sensitive to moisture so that they can only be finished or
worked on according to special guidelines. Products protected by water repellent finishing G can
lose their moisture resistance at an increased temperature. Consequently. their application
possibilities may be limited by these factors.
2.4 Unshaped Refractory Materials (Monolithics)

R. Krebs
2.4.1 Definitions, Types of Bond
The term "unshaped refractory product" is the correct designation for that what is today still referred
to as "ramming mix". The actual ramming mixes are only a very minor part of the large family of
products. The adjective "unshaped" defines the main difference to a refractory brick. A refractory
brick always has a specific shape, is generally prefired homogeneously, and bricked with mortar.
Unshaped refractory materials (monolithics) are most always positioned behind molds and forms in
sections (panels). After setting, drying and heating-up, the unshaped refractory lining in a furnace
will have far less joints compared to the linings out of refractory bricks. Consequently, one often
speaks of "monolithic" linings. Pre-fabricated parts can also be made out of unshaped refractory
materials.
The following definition of unshaped refractory products is given in standards ISO 1927 [1] and DIN
EN 1402-1 [2]:
••.... mixes (batches), which consist of additives and one or more binders, prepared for immediate use, either
in the state of delivery or after adding one or several suited liquids, and fulfill the requirements in regard to
refractoriness according to ISO R 836. They may contain metallic, organic or ceramic fibers.
These mixes (batches) are either dense or insulating. Insulating mixes (batches) are such that possess a
total (true) porosity of > 45 %, determined according to EN 1094-4 on a sample fired according to specified
conditions.
The maximum grain size is the mesh width of a sieve through which at least 95 % of the entire
material falls.
The material requirement is the amount - in t or kg in the state of delivery - required for
3
making 1 m of installed volume.
One differentiates between four types of bond:
1. Hydraulic bond with setting and hydraulic hardening at room temperature ~.
2. Ceramic bond with hardening and sintering during firing.
3. Chemical bond, inorganic or organic-inorganic with hardening by chemical (and not
hydraulic)
reaction at room temperature or at a temperature below the ceramic bond.
4. Organic bond with strengthening or hardening at room temperature or at higher
temperatures. Often there are mixed bonds, for example a phosphate-bonded ramming mix
(chemical-ceramic) or a hydraulic setting patch or repair mix (=hydraulic-ceramic) which
contains alumina cement and substantial amounts of binder clay. In such cases the type of
bond must be indicated. This is most important for setting and hardening.
Before selecting the product, it is recommended to first check if the material - once installed -
must be subjected to heat or not in order to set and harden. This will prevent big surprises and
long discussions about the time required to install molds/forms, work progress and
commissioning of the furnace. Often so-called support molds or forms are required to give the
construction sufficient support until it has developed sufficient strength on its own.
2.4.2 Classification According to Materials and Installation Method
2.4.2.1 Refractory Castables
Refractory castables are applied and installed by casting with vibration, casting without
vibration (self-flowing), poking, gunning, "shotcreting" or by ramming.
The family of dense and heat-insulting refractory castables is the most important type of
material. The originally relatively uncomplicated mixes out of additives and ciment fondue with
or without the addition of binder clays were continuously further developed and the bond
systems enhanced. This produced the necessity to differentiate and, consequently, the dense
refractory castables were classified as follows according to EN 1402-1:
2.4.2.1.1 Standard Castables, Type RC "Regular Castable"
Standard refractory castables are hydraulic setting mixtures containing cement fondue and/or
G
aluminous cement without deflocculant .
2.4.2.1.2 Deflocculated Castables
The deflocculated refractory castables are classified according to the CaO-content of the
mixture - not according to the cement content (!). Refer to Table 2.4.1. The decreasing CaO
share corresponds to a decreasing cement share. Low cement content can intensify problems
during setting and hardening because ULCCs and NCCs must often be subjected to heat in
order to obtain sufficient green strength G and to remove the molds and forms.
Deflocculated refractory castables must have
- at least one deflocculant and
- at least 2 % by weight ultra-fine particles < 1 mm, for example pyrogenic silicic acids or
reactive aluminas.
Table 2.4.1: Deflocculated castables
2.4.2.1.3 Chemically Bonded Refractory Castables

Chemically bonded refractory castables contain one or more chemical binders which - after addition of
G
a suited mixing liquid and thoroughly mixing - usually set and harden intensively and exothermally
due to a neutralization reaction.
2.4.2.2 Gunning Mixes
Based on the rational and relative simple lining technique the gunning mixes have become very
popular and have conquered a big share of the market. They are classified in three groups, namely
refractory castables, deflocculated refractory castables plastic gunning mixes.
- refractory castables, dense or heat-insulating are standard refractory castables. They are supplied
in dry state. Water is added before or during gunning to the nozzle.
- deflocculated refractory castables are brought to a ready-to-use consistency in paddle mixers and
then conveyed with double piston pumps at a pressure of > 200 bar to the injection nozzle. At the
nozzle the castable strand is completely torn up by the injected compressed air. An accelerator is
injected at the same time to ensure that the material sets and hardens quickly once hitting the final
installation location (shotcreting).
- plastic gunning mixes are supplied moist and ready-to-use. They are gunned with high
pressure and air amounts. Special equipment is also required for this work.
2.4.2.3 Moldable Refractory Materials
2.4.2.3.1 Plastic Mixes
Plastic mixes are supplied as moldable, pre-compacted blocks or discs (slices). They are applied
manually or by ramming with a machine. They harden at temperatures above room temperature.
Plastic mixes are the oldest materials for monolithic linings. They were developed in the USA in 1914
and were used as the standard material for the hot side of the lining of most all furnace types for a
very long period of time.
2.4.2.3.2 Ramming Mixes
G
Ramming mixes are materials that are supplied moist and ready-to-use in friable or granule
condition. They are usually rammed behind stable molds and forms. In special cases mixing liquids
are added which enable installation by the vibration method. The ramming mixes likewise harden at
temperatures above room temperature.
There are also other possibilities of supplying the mixes. For example, the liquid binder can 'be
delivered separately from the dry component. The dry components can be somewhat moist. too. The
right consistency for installing the mixes is then achieved at the construction site with a paddle mixer.
2.4.2.4 Refractory Mortars
Refractory mortars belong to the family of unshaped refractory materials (monolithics). They are
applied for laying, mortaring or gluing refractory bricks, prefabricated parts or insulation materials.
They are composed of fine grain additives and binders which are adjusted to suit a specific brick
grade or application. Additives and binders are supplied dry and ready-to-use.
One generally differentiates between two types
- mortars which set chemically or ceramically at higher temperatures and
- mortars which set at room temperature and harden by a chemical or hydraulic bond, so-called
"air-setting mortars".
2.4.2.5 Other Unshaped Refractory Materials (Monolithics)
2.4.2.5.1 Dry Mixes
Dry mixes are applied dry and, consequently, without mixing liquid. Due to their specific grain
structure G they obtain maximum density by vibration or ramming. They usually contain organic
additives as temporary binder and sintering agents which effect the ceramic bond once the
temperature increases.
Dry mixes are, for example, installed in crucible induction furnaces, channel induction furnaces and
transport ladles in foundries (refer to section 5.9). They are also utilized as rear filling mixes in steel
ladles between permanent lining and wear layer ..
2.4.2.5.2 Injection Mixes
Injection mixes are fine grain mixes which are pressed into their installation location with a pressure
between 10 and 200 bar. They are supplied ready-to-use or mixed at the construction site. A typical
application example is the injection mixes that are pressed through the steel jacket of a blast
furnace into the brick lining with the objective to fill hollow spaces and thus improve cooling
efficiency ..
2.4.2.5.3 Mixes for Surface Protection
Mixes for surface protection· are mixtures of fine grain additives and binders. They are usually
supplied ready-to-use and contain more water or liquid than mortars. They are also known or
referred to as "coatings" G and may set ceramically, hydraulically or chemically. They are applied
with a brush or trowel, by pneumatic or mechanical gunning or by spraying.
In melting chamber boilers and in sections of refused incinerators with pipes the SiC ramming
mixes, so-called studded pipe mixes or patching mixes for boiler pipes, are pushed by hand or
gunned with relatively small thickness between the studs or pipes until they are even with the top
the stud or pipe. Here no mixes for surface protection are installed in the sense of this paragraph
but ramming mixes are employed as "coating" for the water-cooled pipes. Sometimes it can be
difficult to assign the various mixes to specific applications.
2.4.2.5.4 Taphole Mixes
Taphole mixes consist, similar to the plastic mixes, of refractory additives and diverse organic
and/or ceramic binders. They are supplied as pre-compacted blocks with a plastic consistency. After
firing or once in service they usually possess a carbon bond.
Taphole mixes are specifically applied for the filling and sealing of blast furnace tapholes and they
are installed with special equipment.
2.4.3 Classification of Additives According to Chemical Composition

For AI203-Si02 products the additives mainly consist of A1203• Si02 and alumino silicates.
For basic products the additives mainly consist of magnesia. dolomite, chrome-magnesia, chrome
ore and spinel:'
. Products containing carbon usually consist of the additives mentioned for the other products but
contain more than 1 % carbon or graphite.
Furthermore, there are special products which mainly consist of other oxidic or non-oxidic or other
additives, for example silicon carbide, silicon nitride, zircon silicate and zirconia.
2.4.4 Tests (Inspections), Classification
At the start of the 1970s the manufacturers in western Europe PRE (Federation European des
Fabricants de Produits Refractaires) in cooperation with the steel industry published the 25 th to 28th
and 45th "PRE-Recommendation" which were generally accepted by all. Furthermore, DIN standard
51010, parts 1 - 5, became effective in 1987 and was practically identical to the corresponding PRE
Recommendations.
European EN standards were prepared for these materials a the result of the opening of the
European market. Unshaped refractory materials (monolithics) are now tested and defined according
to the European standard EN 1402. This standard included major parts of the PRE
Recommendations and DIN 51010. EN 1402 consists of the following eight parts:
- Part 1: Introduction and classification
- Part 2: Sampling
- Part 3: Testing at state of delivery
- Part 4: Determination of the consistency of refractory castables
- Part 5: Manufacture and treatment of samples (specimen)
- Part 6: Determination of physical properties
- Part 7: Tests on fabricated parts (products)
- Part 8: Determination of additional properties
There was an agreement on three shapes for the samples (specimen): -
Shape A, 230 x 114 x 64 mm, primarily for heat insulation materials
- Shape B, 230 x 54 x 64 mm, previous standard sample for dense materials
- Shape C, 230 x 64 x 64 mm, reference sample (specimen)
Here it must be pointed out that tested (inspected) data on properties of unshaped refractory
materials (monolithics) are dependent on the used samples (specimen) and dependent on which
standard was applied. For example, it is not possible to compare determined data gathered by
application of the EN standard with data from an inspection or test conducted according to ASTM or
JIS guidelines. Consequently, at the moment many experts are working on ISO standards that are to
be applicable worldwide sometime in the future.
The petrochemical industry has several additional specifications which, for example in regard to the
dimensions of the samples (specimen) and test (inspection) methods, are often not in line with EN
and ASTM guidelines.
Due to the great number of suppliers and huge variety of unshaped refractory materials, tile Steel
Institute (VDEh) issued the steel iron material sheet (SEW) 916 that provides a code for the
identification of unshaped refractory materials (monolithics). This code has been accepted well in
countries speaking the German language. The 12-digit code provides information on the most
important properties of unshaped refractory materials (monolithics) (refer to Tables 2.4.2 and 2.4.3).
This code provides so much information that the properties of an unshaped refractory material
(monolithic) can be describe quite precisely.
However, this code has now lost some of its significance because standard EN 1402-1 provides a
uniform European classification for unshaped refractory materials (monolithics). This standard' contains
the following criteria:
- type of material, refer to Figures 2.4.1 and 2.4.2
- main raw material component
- classification temperature G, combined with linear change after pre-firing, refer to Table 2.4.4
It can be expected that manufacturers will include such data in their data sheets and on packaged
materials.
2.4.5 Application
The service life of a refractory lining will greatly depend on the application/installation of the materials.
This applies for bricklaying the refractory bricks and even more for the installation and correct
finishing/treatment of the unshaped refractory materials (monolithics). Section 4.4. of this book
provides more details. Here only the most important basic rules are listed. These rules apply only to
the large family of refractory castables.
For compaction of the castables usually internal or outside vibrators are used. If compacting
castables with an outside vibrator, it is important to take the consistency of the refractory castable into
consideration. The consistency of the castable should not suit the vibrator but the vibrator should suit
and adjust to the wall thickness. For example, MCC's and LCC's often have a tough consistency. The
consistency can be improved and become more fluid with the addition of water. However, the
equipment used for the application of the castables is no longer as efficient as desired. In the end this
can result in the castables not obtaining the expected properties.
Often instructions for correct application of the castables are printed on the packaging materials. The
instructions provided by the manufacturers for the preparation and use of the refractory materials also
contain important information.
A series of tests and experiments were conducted for applying the materials at cooler temperatures.
The results are summarized as follows:
The properties of the refractory materials are generally determined at room, temperature G which is
usually approximately 20°C. At lower temperatures, specifically around freezing, the setting/hardening
process slows somewhat. Consequently, more time will pass until it is possible to remove molds and
forms. The initial strength is lower and thus there is reduced strength at higher temperatures. If, for
example, one compares a type RC refractory castable with a type ULCC and compares cement
contents of approximately 20 % and 3 % it is easy to conclude that
at these low temperatures the ULCC will take a relatively long time to set and harden. Even a warm
mixing liquid will not be of help. If 5 liters mixing liquid are required for 100 kg of material, this means
that 5 kg of warm water would have to face 100 kg of "ice cold" material. Manufacturers,
consequently, frequently offer deflocculated castables in a "summer" or "winter" version with differing
amounts of accelerators or retarders. Nonetheless, these additives do not mean that measures must
not be taken to deal with existing weather conditions at the construction site. Heat-insulating refractory
castables and type RC refractory castables must often be "treated" after having been installed. During
setting they can become very hot as a result of the hydration process G. The temperature depends on
the amount of installed castable, ratio of sections or panels with molds/forms to the surface shedding
water and the materials used for the molds or forms. During the first 15 to 18 hours after the castable
has been positioned the moisture must remain in the refractory material. If the weather conditions are
unfavorable, the castable must be covered or sprinkled to ensure sufficient moisture content. After the
heat has escaped it is not necessarily required to maintain moisture but recommended if working at a
location with hot temperatures. These refractory castables may not be heated up until 48 hours have
passed.
Deflocculated refractory castables contain low cement amounts. Consequently, they do not get that
hot when setting. The process described above can often be shortened to a period of 24 hours.
Since ULCC's and NCC's usually obtain their green strength without being subjected to heat they will
not need any subsequent "treatment".
Specific ULCC's, which are installed in blast furnace runner systems, contain metallic additives and
catalysts G effecting intensive gas formation, exothermic reactions after adding water and after
installation work. Important: Danger of explosions in closed rooms! Upon leaving the castable
structure the hydrogen having formed will generate capillaries which facilitate heat development and
the self-drying process. Furnaces and plants lined in this manner can be commissioned or start
operations again quite quickly.
Deflocculated refractory castables, which attain self-flowing properties (SFC = self-flowing castable)
after having been prepared and mixed with water, can be applied or installed without any vibration.
These castables are especially suited for veneering G applications and new linings with a more
complicated geometric design that do not enable working with internal or outside vibrators. One
example are single layer, thin wall thicknesses with anchoring elements in water cooled walls with
pipes.
Table 2.4.5: Comparison between conventional gunning and shotcreting
Pressure Gunning Shotcreting

Refractory castable, usually standard Deflocculated refractory castable
rotor or two chamber gunning machine shotcreting pump with paddle mixer
dry transport via compressed air to the nozzle adding of water and preparation until "normal"
consistency is obtained
injection of "mixing liquid" double piston pump, transport to the nozzle
hitting the application/service location injection of compressed air and solidification
accelerator at the nozzle
"normal" solidification behavior solidification at the application/service location

intensive dust formation no dust formation
strong rebound slight rebound
standard properties superb properties
A new gunning technique has been developed in recent years - shotcreting. This new technique is
described in more detail in section 4.4.3.4. Materials, which can be installed by shotcreting, are not
new types of refractory castables. However, they have the advantage that they can be applied by
normal vibration behind molds and forms. They do possess special grain compositions and additives.
This means that not all deflocculated refractory castables can be automatically applied or installed by
shotcreting.
2.4.6 Properties of the Unshaped Refractory Materials (Monolthics)
There are several refractory additives, for example fireclay, andalusite, bauxite, corundum, sintered
alumina. For each one of these additives there are various grain gradations, a number of binders,
additives, and mixing liquids. This enables endless combination possibilities for unshaped refractory
materials (monolithics). Consequently, a qualitative standardization is hardly possible in contrast to
the shaped refractories. However, there are some general correlations which will be mentioned here.
They are, however, only applicable for the family of refractory castables.
All standard (regular) castables, type RC, to which the heat-insulating and hydraulically setting
gunning mixes belong, have a characteristic strength progression dependent on the intensity of pre-
firing. Figures 2.4.3 and 2.4.4 show the progression of cold crushing strength and cold modulus of
rupture on a standard fireclay refractory cast able with different types of aluminous cement but same
application consistency (water/cement ratio G). Generally strength decreases by pre-firing to a
minimum which is in the range of 1,000 to 1,100 °C. This drop in strength is based on dehydration of
the calcium aluminate hydrates and a different pore size distribution (enlargement of pores). The
improvement in strength above 1,100 °C is the result of new minerals forming out of the components
of the aluminous cement and additives. This can be equated with the start of the ceramic bond.
These correlations are typical for the regular castables and, consequently, for most gunning
castables. The final strength is dependent on the type of refractory castable, type of additive, grain
sizing, type of cement, water/cement ratio, and application method ..
40 Materials in Refractory engineering
Figure 2.4.5 illustrates the influence of the mixing liquid on the strength of a refractory cast able
after heating at temperatures between 110 and 1,250 ac. With increasing mixing liquid content the
consistency becomes "more liquid" and strength declines. If one, for example, compares the
strength counts (values) after 110 ac, which were obtained with 9 liters water per 100 kg material,
with those counts obtained with 14 liters mixing liquid, the cold crushing strength drops by
approximately 50 % and the cold modulus of rupture by about 35 %.
The comparison of results obtained in unfired or dried state and after pre-firing at 1,250 °C will be
quite similar. This means that strength, which has been lost by too much mixing liquid, cannot be
compensated by higher temperatures during pre-firing. The properties of a refractory castable are
diminished by too much mixing liquid. More mixing liquid makes working with the refractory
castables easier but in all cases results in disadvantages, for example longer setting times, lower
strength, higher shrinkage and porosity.
Figures 2.4.3. to 2.4.5 show general correlations between standard (regular) refractory castables.
They are typical for all refractory products with a hydraulic bond. On the one hand, there is a
"strength hole" at 1,000 to 1,100 °C . On the other hand, several manufacturing processes take
place in this temperature range. This effected the development of refractory castables with greater
strength and higher density. These are the properties that distinguish deflocculated castables.
Figure 2.4.6 compares the cold crushing strength of two "classic" type RC refractory castables with
one MCC and one LCC. The strength progression of the MCC still generally corresponds to that of
the RC types. However, the strength level is significantly higher and the strength drop is not as
great. LCC type refractory castables usually have a continuously increasing strength progression
without any distinct maximum or minimum levels at a generally high level.
2.5 Ceramic Fiber Materials

G. Routschka, H. Wimmer
2.5.1 General
Ceramic fibers belong to the group of the inorganic,' non-metallic fibers. Depending on their
production method they are classified as glassy or polycrystalline G fibers. Low bulk density, low
storage heat, low thermal conductivity, flexibility and superb thermal shock resistance are typical
properties of ceramic fiber materials. These properties make ceramic fibers specifically suited for
energy savings in high temperature applications.
Fibersused in industrial furnace engineering are usually based on the systems AI203-Si02 and AI203-
Zr02-Si02' Glassy ceramic fibers are classified in the EU Directive 97/69/EG in category 2
(carcinogenic in animal experiments).
Also available are high temperature glass fibers (HTGF) and, based on their chemical composition,
also referred to as AES fibers (alkaline earth silicate fibers). They were developed as an alternative to
ceramic fibers and mainly contain the elements CaO, MgO, A1203' Si0 2 in various compositions. They
were not classified in EU Directive 97/69/EG. In practice, however, it has turned out that these fibers
can replace ceramic fibers only for a few selected applications, e.g. in household appliances or for the
prevention of the outbreak of fire.
Glass, slag, and rock (mineral) fibers are not in the ceramic fiber group due to their low application
temperatures.
2.5.2 Manufacture
Ceramic fibers are either made by melting or spinning solutions, the so-called sol-gel-process G. The
resulting raw fibers are the initial products for all products made out of ceramic fibers.
Up to a share of approximately 60 % AI203 the ceramic fibers can be extracted from melts with a
temperature of about 2,000 °C. The raw materials - alumina, quartz sand, zircon silicate - are melted
in an electric resistance melting furnace at approximately 2,000 °C. The resulting melt
Table 2.5.2: Application examples for products out of ceramic fiber materials
form of delivery typical applications at temperatures between 1,000 °C and
1,800 °C for high temperature furnace engineering
loose wool stuffing and filling of hollow spaces, preliminary product for vacuum-
shaped parts
lining of high temperature furnaces up to approx. 1,100 DC;

blankets (mats) on rolls insulation of piping, material for expansion joints, preliminary
product for modules and punched parts
felts as plates or on rolls material for heat insulation and expansion joints
organic or inorganic bonded heat insulation in lab furnaces and for other high temperature
vacuum-shapes plates applications up to a maximum of 1,800 °C
shaped parts, vacuum- products that can be made to suit the specific design of a product:
casting siphons, stoppers, transport crucibles, furnace parts, half
shaped shells, pipes and shaped parts with integrated heating elements
paper sealing material for high temperature applications, protection during
welding work, filters
cartons, cardboards, intermediate layer between castables and linings out of refractory
pressure-resistant plates mixes
tissue refractory tissue to cover casting parts
ropes, strings sealing material for doors and joints
adhesive modules to improve heat insulation in existing furnaces up to 1,600 °C
modules with metallic lining of all types of high temperature furnaces up to 1,600 °C
fixation
fiber mixes and coatings repair material for existing furnace linings, hardening of the surface
of the lining
fiber foam, pressed fibers filling of joints, repair of cracks

Fig. 2.5.1: Temperature ranges for application of inorganic mineral fibers

2. Materials in Refractory Engineering 45 .
stream is either fiberized by opposite quick-rotating discs or it is blown sideways or parallel to the
stream direction in a high-speed air jet. Tile fibers thus manufactured have a glass structure due to
their quick cooling and contain a high share of non-filamentary components, the so-called “shots".
These are melt beads in the shape of a ball, drop or otherwise irregularly formed particles. They are
undesired because they reduce fiber volume amount and, consequently, increase the bulk density of
the fiber material products without contributing to heat insulation. Further disadvantages are less
resilience and possible damage to the ware being fired, e.g. glaze or rolling defects.
Fibers with a higher than 60 % AI203 content and, consequently, significantly higher service limit
temperatures are extracted from spinning solutions. The spinning solutions consist of aluminum salts,
Si02 additive and organic carrier material. Next they are subjected to several stages of thermal
treatment. The organic components are burned out and the fibers are changed into a polycrystalline
state. Corundum and mullite are typical crystalline phases. The properties of such fibers can be
influenced by the intensity and duration of the prefiring temperature.
2.5.3 Forms of Delivery
The raw fiber (bulk) accumulated during manufacture is the basic material for all components made
according to the vacuum-shaping process. The raw fiber can be used without further
finishing work for stuffing joints and hollow spaces.
By sewing/needling the fibers are tailored into mats (blankets) without a binder additive. They have
different bulk densities and thicknesses. These materials serve as lining materials for annealing and
combustion furnaces, boilers, hoods, etc. The materials are attached to furnace walls and
roofs with specific fixtures.
Modules G are made by layering, folding or gluing of mats (blankets). The modules are pre
compacted so that they can close the working joints after installation because of their resilience
behavior. Modules have provided good service results in all applications as furnace lining. They are
often glued on existing brickwork for additional· heat insulation (veneering G).
Vacuum-shaped plates and shaped parts with their higher strengths and bulk densities are often
used in furnace engineering. With special additives and fillers they can be applied at service limit
o
temperature up to 1,800 C.
Moist felts are usually mats (blankets) impregnated with a colloidal G silica. Due to their moist state
upon delivery they can be easily shaped and adjusted for applications. They harden once
subjected to heat.
Plastic fiber materials and foams are used to fill hollow spaces, for sealing, and repair of larger
surfaces.
Paper, ropes, tapes, threads, tissues also belong to the family of fiber products.
G G
2.5.4 Classification Temperature and Service Limits
During furnace operation the microstructure of ceramic fibers changes with rising temperatures and
longer service. Glassy fibers recrystallize at temperatures above 900°C during longer service periods
and mainly form mullite and cristobalite. After long periods of service, the originally smooth fiber
surface is roughened. The crystallites G grow and brittleness increases.
These processes are connected with changes in volume and strength. Shrinkage is the most
important criteria. Analogous with the classification of insulating refractory bricks in DIN ENV 1094-3
shrinkage is the main characteristic for determination of the classification temperature of fiber
products. The classification temperature is the temperature at which a specimen will have a linear
shrinkage of less than 4 % within 24 hours upon heating of all sides. This ten1perature serves for the
comparison of various products and provides some orientation.
Table 2.5.3: Continued
Further properties, such as bulk density, thickness, resilience capability, tensile strength, shot
content and thermal conductivity are tested according to DIN ENV 1094 -7.
Even though a furnace wall lining out of ceramic fibers, for example, is only impinged on one -side
by heat in practical operation, the maximum permissible temperature for continuous operation is
clearly below the classification temperature. It is common practice to use ceramic fibers at
o
approximately 150 C below the classification temperature if normal furnace operation conditions
prevail. This ensures that the changes of the fiber components, dependent on temperature and
service period, are taken into consideration.
Figure 2.5.1 gives a survey of service temperatures of ceramic fiber materials.
Before the application of high temperature glass fibers (AES fibers), the chemical and physical
service conditions must be checked in addition to the service temperature. Specifically in furnaces,
which are operated on a periodic basis, one must expect the formation of condensate. This may
effect the failure of the AES lining. In such cases it is required to install ceramic fibers.
Table 2.5.3 is enclosure 1 to draft 1/2002 connected to TRGS, sheet 1, "Required Profile for
Replacement Material Testing according to § 36 of Law Governing Hazardous Materials/
Substances". This makes the selection of fiber products easier.
2.6 Metals
p. Nebgen
2.6.1 General
Metals are chemical elements in solid or liquid aggregate state. They are distinguished by various
characteristic properties: strength, brightness/polish, possibility of alloying, deformability (ductility
G) and good conduction of heat and electricity. In practice mainly alloys from metals are utilized
which, however, are likewise designated as metals.
Refractory engineering and metals have several correlations:
- The production processes for metals, e.g. steel, always require heat in furnaces or plants which
contain refractory materials.
- In many furnaces and plants the refractories are anchored and held in place with metallic
"holding elements.
- composite materials with special technical properties are made out of refractory castables and
metallic fiber~. They reduce the danger of crack formation in linings.
- Metals serve as construction elements/components in refractory linings, for example consoles
or anchoring systems.
Normally steels (various alloys) with high creep resistance and good resistance to acids are used
in refractory engineering.
2.6.2 Definitions, Standards and DataSheets
2.6.2.1 Types of Steel
The structure types can be modified within greater limits. by way of varying cooling speeds in
steelmaking. Heat-treatment processes are based on controlled heating, cooling and holding time
of a metallic product resulting in various structural and hardness conditions: The most important
structure types formed by heat treatment are
- ferrite, perlite, bainite, martensite, austenite, cementite.
Mainly austenitic steel is used in refractory engineering which is a non-magnetizable, creep-
resistant, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant steel.
There are two forms of steelmaking:
- cast alloy where the steel in a liquid phase is converted to its final shape required for
use/application and
- wrought alloy where, at first, so-called semi-finished products (e.g. sheet metal, strip, sections,
wires) are manufactured by shaping processes (e.g. rolting, forging, drawing) out of which
construction parts can be subsequently made.
2.6.2.2 Classification According to Resistance
Stainless steels (alloys) are very resistant to chemical attack.
Creep-resistant steels are steels with good mechanical strength at temperatures up to
approximately 600°C
Highly creep-resistant steels are steels with high mechanical strength over a long period of tinle
when subjected to high temperatures.
Heat-resistant steels are steels with good resistance to hot gases and ~combustion products
above 550°C.
More and more nickel base alloys and special alloys are being used because of the increasing
requests for better corrosion resistance and, consequently, longer service life.
2.6.2.3 Standards and Technical Data
There are a great number of DIN standards, steel iron material sheets and lists·, for example the steel
iron list and steel codes that provide typical data on steels. Table 2.6.1 provides some of the more
important DIN standards and steel iron material sheets. Table 2.6.2 features important international
standards. A precise assignment of standards is not that easily possible. For each specific application
case it must be decided if one can simply replace one standard by another. This enables the
possibility to compare similar steels and alloys with different grade or product names.
Table 2.6.1: Some of the DIN standards and Stahl-Eisen-Werkstoff materials sheets
standard designation type' description

round steel wire,
DIN 177
cold drawn
DIN 671 bright round bar steel
DIN 1013-1 hot-rolled bar, hot-rolled bar general applications
DIN 1025-
sectional steel hot-rolled I-beams
Part 1 to 5
hot-rolled round-cornered channel
DIN 1026 hot-rolled bar, sectional steel
steel
creep-resistant and highly
quality
DIN 17 240 creep-resistant materials for
specifications
screws and nuts
for steel sheet hot-rolled, wire rod.
DIN 1 7 440 stainless steel technical drawn wire, hot rolled pieces and half-
terms of wrought materials
delivery for cold-rolled strips and slit coil and
DIN 1 7 44 1 stainless steel
steel sheet cut from it
highly creep-resistant steel sheet, cold-rolled and hot-rolled
DIN 17 460
austenitic steel -strip, hot-rolled bar and forged pieces
SEW 400 stainless rolled and forging steel
heat-resistant rolled and forging
SEW 470
steel
SEW 471 heat-resistant cast steel
2.6.3 Characteristic Properties

Tables 2.6.3 to 2.6.6 give a survey of technical data on various steels and cast steels (alloys). The
characteristic properties of steels used in refractory engineering are also indicated. These are mainly
the following mechanical test counts (data):
2.6.3.1 Mechanical Test Counts (Data)
Elongation A: This indicates the permanent linear change in % based on the initial length of the
sample (test piece) after fracture/rupture (fracture-expansion).
2.6.3.2 Corrosion
Corrosion is the reaction of metals to the surrounding substances with a negative change to the
initial properties. One differentiates between chemical and electro-chemical corrosion.
Chemical corrosion is described as the direct reaction of the· metal with a reaction partner. If
oxidation is involved, also referred to as scaling during high temperature applications, there will be
substantial changes in volume. In extreme cases the oxide layer can grow to several times the size
of the original thickness of the metal part. This effects high pressure within the composite out of
metal and refractory material resulting in destruction.
Electra-chemical corrosion is the reaction with aqueous media or other metals.
Sulfur and Sulfur Compounds can attack n1etals, e.g. nickel, in various ways. With gaseous
sulfur compounds it is a gas - solids reaction 'during which compounds form with the alloy
components of the metals. Upon falling below the dew point temperature,' aqueous solutions of
sulfuric acid form which effect abrasion and drilling. Salt melts can form in connection with alkalies
and alkaline earths. These likewise attack and weaken the metal matrix.
Chlorine and its Compounds are similar to the sulfur compounds. Corrosion is likewise a gas -
solids reaction. Upon falling below the dew point G hydrochloric acid will form: This effects drilling
and possibly stress corrosion cracking if there is mechanical stress. Salt melts of the chlorine form
and the surface of the metal is subjected to abrasion.
With Alkalies G and Alkaline Earths when falling below the dew point, aqueous solutions - Iyes -
form which subject the metal to abrasion and possibly stress corrosion cracking if there is
mechanical stress.
In addition to these pollutants other substances can effect corrosion but this will not be treated in
detail here.
2.6.3.3 Embrittlement
In addition to corrosive influences there are modifications in the metal matrix under certain ambient
conditions. These likewise have a major influence on the service life of the metal.
475°C - Embrittlement: Chrome steels with a chrome content above 12 % embrittle after a long
heating period in a temperature range of 400 to 550°C due to the so-called short range order
reactions.
Sigma-Phases-Embrittlement: In steels with above 16 % chrome a sigma-phase can occur in
a temperature range from 600 to 800°C. This can lead to the steel losing its toughness. The sigma
phase consists of 50 % Fe and 50 % Cr. Alloy components, such as molybdenum, titanium and
silicon; favor the formation of a sigma-phase.
Carburization: Gaseous carbon compounds can react with alloy components. Resulting
carburization will generally decrease ductility G of the metal matrix.
2.6.4 Selection Criteria and Application '
2.6.4.1 Selection of Materials
For any application the selection of a material is based on several criteria:
- What thermal and mechanical stress is expected?
- What pollutants will attack?
- Can it be assured that the materials are installed correctly and welding work done with
appropriate care?
The above criteria must be taken into consideration in order to make the right decision for a
specific application. For example, one should not select one material simply because of its scaling
resistance because the scaling resistance is based on air temperature. This can not be compared
with conditions once the material is embedded in a refractory lining. It is recommended to make
use of the experience of manufacturers and users of such metallic construction parts.
Standard metallic materials lIsed in refractory engineering:
Material no. 1 a4301 (304) is an acid-resistant alloy type for multiple applications. Corrosion and
temperature resistance is good up to 750°C. Specifically suited for applications with constant
temperatures since the n1aterial tends to brittle if subjected to intensive temperature cycles.
Material no. 1.4828 (309) is specifically suited for applications up to temperatures of 1 ,000 QC.
It contains a relatively high chrome content and low nickel content. Due to its low nickel content
this material is also well suited if sulfur attack is expected. Due to its composition the material is
not suited for furnaces or plants operated cyclically. It will brittle due to the single-phases
formation.
Material no. 1.4841 (314) can be Llsed for applications up to 1,150 QC. Consequently, it is the
standard alloy in refractory engineering. Just as material no. 1.4828 it is sensitive to the formation
of the signal-phase. Consequently, the material should only be installed where damaging conditions
do not exist.
Material no. 1.4845 (310S) has silnilar properties and technical data as material no. 1.4841.
The material contains less silicon and is less sensitive to sigma-phases-embrittlement.
Consequently, it can be installed at temperatures above 11150 QC. This alloy is being
erllployed more frequently in refractory engineering today.
Material no. 1.4862 (330}/1.4864 (DS) can be installed at temperatures up to 1,250 °C in
heavy carburizing or nitriding conditions. It possesses good strength and due to its
composition is protected against formation of the sigma-phase. The material is suited for
furnaces and plants operated cyclically. It is not resistant to sulfur due to its high nickel
content.
2.6.4.2 Applications
As already discussed in section 2.6.11 metals are generally used for anchoring systems and
consoles in refractory engineering. The material number alone is not sufficient for making
the correct decision even if the described selection criteria regarding the alloy have been
observed. Further important criteria are the supply condition of the materials, shape of the
anchoring and how this shape was made.
2.6.4.2.1 Feedstock
Round bar steel will be used here as an example for the anchoring systems. A single initial
size may influence the service life. For the manufacturing of anchoring it is best to use bright
round bar steel which has been drawn according to DIN 671. The diameter tolerances
enable a uniform cross-section over the entire construction component. In contrast to this,
rolled round bar according to DIN 1013 and round bar wire according to DIN ·177 allow for
much higher tolerances. Table 2.6.7 provides information on the tolerance limits.
2.6.4.2.2 Basic Anchoring Systems
Round Bar Anchors
In order to obtain a uniform metal matrix the round bar anchors· must be made of solution
heat treated, semi-finished materials. Only this will ensure that alloy components spread
evenly in the entire matrix. Solution heat treatment G enables achievement of the properties
desired in the material. They should, if possible, not be changed for the shaping procedure
Table 2.6.7: Comparison of diameter tolerances

The anchor parts should be formed carefully in cold state, if possible. It must be prevented that the
cross-section of the semi-finished material yields (stretches) too intensively .. The stretched out
parts should, consequently, be formed by bending because such yielding (stretching), as occurs in
a forging die, is to be prevented.
Round bar anchors are usually corrugated anchors with a spread angle of 80 0 in a stud-welding
setup. The designer must decide if round bar anchors with 6, 8, 10, or 12 mm are installed
depending on the expected load or stress on the anchor.
For larger installation lengths it is possible to vary the spread angle of the anchor in order to
prevent intensive drifting apart of the anchor ends. This is accomplished with a smaller spread
angle across the entire installation length or by way of a smaller angle in the lower part and larger
angle in the upper part of the anchor.
The shape of the corrugation is of special importance on round bar anchors. The holding strength
of an anchor with a corrugation depth of less than 0.5 d (d = diameter of the round bar) is low.
Consequently, only anchors with ·corrugations of at least 1.0 d should be used. For anchor areas
not subjected to much load or stress 0.5 d may be sufficient. For the more complicated anchor
areas with high load/stress it is necessary to install round bar anchors with corrugation depth of 1.?
d and more. Possibly double corrugation anchors may even be required.
Flat Bar Anchors'
Similar to the round bar anchors described above, the flat bar anchors n1ust be made of solution
heat-treated, semi-finished materials. However, cross-sections with rounded off edges should be
used. They will prevent that the anchor edge generates cracks in the refractory lining. Flat bar
anchors are usually welded in place with electrodes.
Flat bar anchors and flat bar corrugated anchors are not suited for anchorings subjected to heavy
loads because they have several disadvantages. In order to bend the steel, greatly varying forces
must be generated in both main directions due to the rectangular cross-section. Consequently, the
flat bar anchors have greatly varying resistance to movements in the refractory lining. This can be
an advantage if forces are only along one axis in a lining. Flat bar anchors should. be welded 90 0
at an angle to one another in order to avoid any disadvantages affecting the refractory material
and holding function due to the anisotropic G cross-section.
Slit Stud (Slotted Pin)
The slit stud (slotted pin) consists of round bar and has a diameter of 10 n1n1. On the end holding
the refractory material the stud has a sawed in slit. The stud (pin) is positioned with stud-welding
equipment. Since the slit stud is not bent open until after having been positioned it is easy to
install an insulation layer in addition.
The legs with which the refractory lining is held can break off when they are bent. Then they will
not be able to absorb the existing forces. Due to the slit that is sawed in, the legs only have a
cross-section of approximately 24.5 mm 2 each. This adds up to a total of 49 n1m 2 in comparison
to the original cross-section of approximately 78.5 mm 2• Due to this cut the metal is also open to
various attacks on its structure.
2.7 Surface Protection
H. Sauer
2.7.1 General
Coatings, protective layers and claddings are always only required if the untreated original material
will not resist the expected stress in service. The surface protection itself will be damaged over a
longer period of tinle, for example by thermal stress, but in most cases increases the service life of
the materials ..
2.7.2 Protection· of Metallic Surfaces
Metals are often found in furnaces lined with refractories. These metals are subjected to higher
corrosion when faced with aqueous, acidic solutions. In areas, where temperatures fllay fall below
the dew point, metallic surfaces must be protected.
Corrosion protection work should be planned according to DIN EN ISO 12944-8. It is
recommended that a concept be prepared for the specific case in cooperation with the company
providing the corrosion protection and the company operating the furnace to agree on the best
suited coating material. It must, however, also be mentioned that upon heavy corrosion attack, as
described in 2.6.3.2, the coating materials can only help to a certain extent. Consequently, one
often tries to avoid falling below the dew point of sulfuric acid, for example, by exposing the
endangered steel part Uta heat" by an other thermal insulation.
Examples for the surface protection of metallic materials include
- epoxy resins - filled
- epoxy-pitch mixtures - filled
- silicon resin coatings
- silicon rubber coatings
- water glass-bonded coatings
- vinylester flake glass coatings
- polyurethane resin coatings
- mineral oil derivatives, for example bitumen, waxes
2.7.3 Protection of Ceramic Surfaces
Refractory materials are usually installed without any surface protection. There are some
exceptions. For example, SiC mixes for studded pipes can be protected against slag attack by
spraying or coating with coating materials. Ceramic fiber linings can be sealed with coatings G.
2.8 Other Materials

H. Sauer
2.8.1 Wall Tiles and Sand-Lime Bricks

In refractory engineering, tiles are used according to DIN 105 and sand-lined bricks according to
DIN 106. They are, however, sensitive to high temperatures and temperature fluctuations and,
consequently, only play a minor role. Their suitability must be tested for the specific application
case. Generally they can only be used for auxiliary construction, e.g. as foundation, stlloothing
(equalization) layers, rear brickwork, other casing or as faced brickwork.
2.8.2 Concretes with Calcium-Silicate Cements

The behavior of these concretes, once they are subjected to heat, must be considered if using them
in refractory engineering. With concretes based on Portland cements the behavior of additives and
binding agents differs greatly under the influence of heat. The thermal expansion of several
additives and pure Portland cements is shown in Figure 2.8.1. Rocks containing quartz, e.g. quartz
coarse sand, sand or granite expand suddenly at 573°C due to the transition from aquartz to p-
quartz and lose strength due to micro cracks.
Given temperatures up to 900 QC, calcareous rocks expand. Above this temperature lirne
decolllposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Additives out of volcanic rocks, e.g. basalt or
synthetic slags, expand suddenly above approximately 700 QC. The pure Portland cements
expand very little at temperatures up to 300 QC. Above this temperature they shrink due to loss of
crystalline water.
Consequently, in refractory engineering it is recommended to use concretes with additives
containing quartz only up to 300 QC and concretes with additives containing slag rocks or volcanic
rocks should not be used above 600 QC.
2.8.3 Fused Cast Basalt
Fused cast basalt is a mineral material which is distinguished by great strength, superb abrasion
resistance G, and good resistance to chemical attack. However, a certain sensitivity to impacts
must be taken into consideration.
For the manufacture of fused cast basalt products a dense, selected basalt is fused at a
temperature of approximately 1,250 QC and cast into shaped parts. Next they are heat-treated so
that the stress is relieved and the structure can form. Plates, shaped parts, bowls and pans are
manufactured with thicknesses of 30 or 40 mill. These are installed with. cement mortar and, if
special stress conditions exist, in water glass or synthetic resin mastic. Furthermore, metal
anchors are utilized, if required.
Linings out of fused cast basalt are used especially for temperatures up to 350 QC in areas with
intensive wear by friction, for example for pipings, cyclones, hoppers, slides, chutes, silos, and
chain conveyors.
2.8.4 Expansion Joint and Burnout Materials
Expansion joints are defined recesses or clefts in refractory and heat-insulating layers in cold state.
They serve to absorb reversible and irreversible brickwork expansion. In linings for round vessels or
piping it is possible to arrange concentric or sickle-shaped expansion joints between the individual
layers.
Expansion joints must often be designed in such a way that they do not completely close once
subjected to heat after the start of operations. This ensures that there will be a small gap once
operations have started. If for operational reasons these gaps may not remain open during
operations it is possible to install fiber materials in the expansion joints, for example ceramic felt or
a strip taken from a ceramic fiber blanket (mat). Due to the heat expansion of the refractory lining
once subjected to higher temperatures, the fiber material is compressed and closes the joint.
Expansion joint materials out of aluminum-silicate fibers and AES fibers can be compressed to
approximately half their original volume. However, the resilience property of this fiber type is usually
not sufficient to attain its original volume and completely close the joint once the furnace is in cold
state. If the expansion joint is to remain closed at any temperature level it will be necessary to
select an expansion joint material out of pure alumina fibers with good resilience properties.
If one expects that the expansion joint materials out of ceramic fibers will be destroyed, removed or
displaced during operation, for example by erosive components in the furnace atmosphere, melts or
slags, it is possible to use materials which burn out during commissioning of the furnace. These
materials will keep mortar and dirt out of the joints during the construction work up to line of
commissioning. In special cases and for small sizes, these materials include hard foanl plates,
installation foam and also cardboard. Application examples for the expansion joint materials and
burnout materials are given in Table 2.8.1.
Table 2.8.1: Expansion and burnout materials
material application examples
ceramic fibers
- loose wool covered expansion joints
- blankets or felts expansion joints in cold and hot layers
hard foam expansion joints in cold and hot layers

cardboard expansion joints in hot face layers
2.8.5 Filler Materials

There are often hollow spaces between the steel casing and last layer of the refractory lining which
are a result of the design or dents in the steel casing. Since temperatures are usually relatively low
in this area the hollow spaces can usually be stuffed with less expensive heat-insulating materials.
If, however, certain forces must be transmitted in this area, the filler materials must, consequently,
~lave a certain strength. Fireclay brick, tile brick or refractory castables can be installed. It is not
possible to use cast materials in bulk in this area because there is the danger of a collapse and
subsequent forming of an uncontrollable hollow space.
2.8.6 Separation Layers
The task of separation layers is to separate layers out of different materials or to prevent the
exchange of moisture between two layers. The following materials can be applied to accomplish
such objectives:
- Water-resistant coatings without solvents as protection against mixing liquid and binder loss by the
suction activity under the ground surface. The previously often used foils do not provide
sufficient protection near the anchors and can hardly be placed without wrinkles. Nevertheless,
plastic foils are sometimes used because they do not contain contaminants such as
homogeneous elements, for example.
Table 2.8.2: Materials for separation joints and application examples
material application examples

weatherproof coatings as separation layer on calcium silicate plates, moler bricks or heat-
without solvents, e.g. acrylic insulating plates out of highly dispersive silica acid if castables are
paint adjacent
foils, glued on the steel casing as protection against falling below the
e.g. out of high-grade steel dew
plastic point, covering against moisture loss of mixes just applied, insert for
aluminum sliding joints
paper, insert for sliding joints,
e.g. oiled paper separation layer to prevent moisture loss
graphite paper "
lubricants or oils for molds separation agent for molds/templates.
coatings containing solvents,
e.g. bitumen distance coating for metallic anchorings > 8 mm diameter
paraffin
other separation layers for roofs out of plastic mixes on which in unfired
e.g. insulating refractory tiles state castables are placed
One layer of insulating refractory tiles with Water-resistant coating as protection against moisture,
for example for roofs out of plastic mixes on which, in unfired state, a castable is poured.
- Coverings out of plastic foil as protection against premature drying or migration of chemical
binders.
- Papers or foils as protection against undesired bond of two layers, e.g. in sliding joints.
- Mortar layers that once they are sll100thened prevent hooking of adjacent brick layers.
Table 2.8.2 provides a summary of the materials used for separation layers and application
examples.
2.8.7 Mixing Water for Castables and Mortars
2.8.7.1 General
The quality of the mixing water makes a big contribution to the hardening of the bonding agents in
refractory castables and mortars. Slight deviations from the limit values indicated in section 2.8.7.2
below can have a negative effect. Greater deviations may even have a disastrous effect on the
technical properties of low-cement castables, for example.
In Germany and most European countries clean tap water is almost always available. Most of the
time it fulfills the requirements needed for best quality of the mixing water:
- Water must be clear, free of color, without odor, and not become muddy after sitting for two
days.
- Water must not contain sugar, oils, fats, excretions, decay products.
_ Water should have a pH-value G of 7.0, if possible. Deviations up to pH 7.5 are not
problematical. However, falling below pH 7.0 is not permissible.
_ Water should not fall below a hardness range (classification) 2 = 1.3 to 2.5 mmol/I.
2.8.7.2 Evaluation Criteria
If tap water according to the specifications, as listed in the section above,. is not available, for
example in tropical or subtropical countries, a lab test will be required to check if the mixing water
intended for use can actually be used. The following analyses values (counts) may not be exceeded
(refer to Table 2.8.3).
Table 2.8.4: Hardness range of drinking water
hardness range and water classification depending on water hardness
hardness total hardness hardness degree hardness

range mmolll Od classification
1 up to 1 .3 0 to 7 soft
2 1.3 to 2.5 7 to 14 medium
3 2.5 to 3.8 14 to 21 hard
4 above 3.8 above 21 very hard
In determining the content of oxidizable substance in the water the potassium permanganate
consumption (KMn04) should not be above1 0 mg/I.
2.8.7.3 Water Hardness
The total hardness of water is indicated in degrees (range) of hardness. The unit applied in
Germany is referred to as "German hardness degree" with its designation Od. 1 od corresponds to a
content of 10.0 mg CaO per liter of water. For the total hardness, according to DIN 2000, the
substance amount concentration in the water - legal unit is millimol per liter (mmol/I) - must be
indicated. There are different degrees (ranges or classifications) of hardness. Refer to Table 2.8.4.
2.8.7.4 Natural and "Artificial" Water
The following waters' may not be used as mixing water without testing because of their more or less
degree of contamination:
- Industrial and Everyday Use Water:
In some European industrial plants this water is available. It often contains chemical
contaminants, oils and fats.
- Rain Water:
It contains components of air such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and dust. It can also
contain aggressive constituents from emissions, e.g. sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid, potassium
nitrate. -
- Groundwater:
Part of rain water penetrates the ground and absorbs easily dissoluble salts as well as
decomposition products of organic substances, e.g. carbon dioxide and organic acids. In
addition to alkali metals G groundwater contains salts of the alkaline earths, iron, and
manganese.
- Surface Water:
Depending on flow patterns or groundwater, spring water or rain water, the surface water can
contain various salts. These can also vary according to the season of the year. Surface water
often contains organic contaminants such as sediments, suspended or floating matter.
- Ocean Water:
Ocean water usually has a relatively high salt content of 1 to 3.5 % NaCl.
- Briny Water:
This water is a mixture of ocean and river water. Some rivers, which transport wastewater of the
potassium and soda industry, have the properties of briny water.
- Swamp Water:
Usually this water has a yellow or brown color. It contains hurnic acid, humic nlatter and often
sulfuric acid.
2.9 Packaging, Transport and Storage of Refractory Materials
H.-J. Grass, H. Schnitzer
2.9.1 Packaging
The packaging will closely accompany the product from the point of manufacture to its installation
site. Consequently, it must fulfill the following requirements:
- it must be stable and stay stable
- protect the materials against mechanical, chemical and climatic influences
- enable practical and easy handling
- enable identification of the content at any stage of the transportation chain
The type of packaging is dependent on the following factors:
- type of refractory material
- loading and unloading possibilities/conditions
- climatic conditions
- storage and stock conditions
- probable period of time in stock
- working/installation requirements and site conditions
With shaped products the individual brick shapes are at the same time the packaged units. For
unshaped products (monolithic) the packaged unit usually consists of 25 kg sacks out of paper
and/or polyethylene foil. Often bigger sacks with contents from 500 to 1 ,500 kg, so-called "big
bags", are used as packaged unit. Liquids and mastics are· generally transported in polyethylene
hobbocks G. There are types of special packaging, for example sheet-met~1 containers that are
welded shut to protect against hydration or boxes for premium-grade materials, skeleton
containers, etc.
The packaged units are usually set and stocked on pallets. There are different types of pallets.
They are differentiated according to the possibility of multiple use and access possibilities for
handling. In regard to multiple use one differentiates between:
- no return or lost pallets which are only used once, simple design and make,
- multiple use pallets for continuous use, stronger make, can be used approximately 6 to 10
times.
Concerning the access possibilities one differentiates between
- two side access pallets which can be accessed front two sides and
- four side access pallets which can be accessed and handled by the lifting equipment on all four
sides.
For some types of multiple use pallets there are pallet pools where it is possible to trade in so-called
swap or pool pallets from time to time.
In Germany refractory materials are generally transported with EURO pallets, DIN pallets or the so-
called uswap pallet for the refractory industry". For transport of refractories to foreign countries the
industry usually uses no return pallets. The sizes (dimensions) of these pallets are shown in Table
2.9.1.
These pallets can hold - if the load is distributed equally - between 1,SqO kg and 7,500 kg if stocked
on one another. A pallet that has all pieces on it is referred to as a packaged unit.
2 .. 9.2 Transport
Corresponding to the specific requirements the packaged units receive further covering or
packaging materials. Further requirements also include the shipping instructions of the customer,
duration of transport, distance, loading and unloading possibilities, and transport costs.
If requirements are not that high, shrink-wrapping with polyethylene foil is frequently used in the
refractory industry. For highest requirements, cushioning materials and/or edge protection materials
are also used,. These materials should be out of the same material as the packaging. This helps to
simplify recycling or disposal of the packaging materials. Figure 2.9.1 shows covering and
packaging for standard and container shipping.,
For transportation in Germany the packaged units are loaded with forklifts, by crane, elevating
trucks or C-hooks on flatbed trucks or trailers. Once the loading procedure is finished the packaged
units must be secured against sliding or jolting and in some cases even against jumping up into the
air.
For export the packaged units are loaded in containers and secured. Quite often the containers are
shipped on boats. Many requirements must be observed if shipping refractories to foreign countries.
Specific requirements of the country of destination must also be considered. One example is the
spraying of products or packaging to combat insecticides. Attention must also be given to the
various regulations governing transport of hazardous substances.
Customs formalities and subsequent or repeated handling of the shipped refractory products can
take a lot of time. Consequently, a clear agreement with the shipping company must be made in
regard to how the current location of the shipped items can be identified at any moment. If the
shipment is going overseas it must be considered that the items may have to be unloaded and
reloaded on other ships in so-called feeder ports G before reaching the final destination. This can
considerably delay the scheduled inspection and time of arrival.
2.9.3 Storage
Refractory materials must always be stored in dry, solid places with stable ground underneath. The
storage areas must be selected in such a manner to ensure dry storage of the materials even if
extreme weather conditions prevail, e.g. monsoon periods in tropical countries or flooding. Specific
refractory materials may not be subjected to freezing conditions. For each shipment it must be
checked if any additional storage requirements are required. Section 4.4.1 "Supply and Storage"
gives more information on special requirements for the storage of refractories.
It is important not to stack heavier materials on lighter ones in storage. Do not stack more than 3
pallets on top of one another. If the refractories have a good crushing strength it is possible to stack
up to 5 pallets on one another. All materials must be stored in such an arrangement that grade and
shape names or designations are always visible. Furthermore, all refractories are to be arranged in
such a manner that they are accessible at all times without having to move other materials around.
Consequently, sufficiently wide paths must be ensured between the individual stacks. For larger
amounts of materials, storage of several grades and brick shapes storage plans must be prepared
in advance. These plans are to be continuously updated.
Engineering - Delivery of material - Installation The main
emphasis of our activities is put on the following fields:
 Aluminium-Industry
 Wood-Industry
 Power plants
 Incineration plants
 Petro-chemical industry
 Reconstruction and demolition of bricklayed
chimneys
 Special plants
• Cement-Industry
Headauarters Niirnbera Branch Berlin
Krau(1stra(1e 8 Thomasiusstra(1e 4
90443 NOmberg 10557 Berlin
Phone: +49 (0) 911 2 38 90 Phone: +49 (0) 30 323040 16
Fax: +49 (0) 911 2 37 55 25 Fax: +49 (0) 30 32 304061
E-Mail: [email protected] E-Mail: [email protected]
Internet: www.toelke-feuerfest.de
67____________________________________________________________3. Design
3. Design
R. Bruder, H. Ketllnitz, H. Knorth, P. Nebgen, H. Sauer, E. Schmitt, B. Wilhelmi
3.1 General
Designing means to make things obvious. For example, the design of a furnace is the clear
illustration of technical characteristics and structural shapes in drawings which are supplemented'
by written documentation. The drawing contains all data required to make the object by hand or
machine. Today design work is mainly done on the computer and CAD (Computer Aided Design)
has established itself. The advantages are: The possibility to apply standards, isometric and spatial
projection, data transfer, memory and modification possibilities. But even today some design work
is still done manually on the drawing board.
3.2 Preparation
3.2.1 Recording of Operation Data
Before start of design work it is necessary to have the precise operation data of the furnace. This
is done best by using the following checklist:
- Furnace type
In what industrial sector is the furnace/plant to be used?
- Process
What process, what furnace G or plant part is involved? What furnace system, what make? Size
and performance?
- Fuels
What fuels are to be used? How is the furnace/plant to be heated? What type of combustion?
- Operation
How is the furnace to be operated? Is continuous or intermittent operation planned? Is thermal
shock a factor? What temperature fluctuations occur and over what period of time?
- Operation temperatures
How high are the expected operation temperatures? With what temperature peaks is the
furnace/plant operated? How or by what means is the combustion chamber stressed
otherwise?
- Limit temperatures
What are the maximum and minimum limit 'temperatures of the design components, e.g. steel
shell temperature, temperature of outer covering, border layer temperatures?
68 3. Design
- Heat loss
What heat loss will occur with and without consideration of heat bridges?
- Surrounding (arllbient) conditions
What are the surrounding (ambient) conditions? These include the parameters of the heat flux
calculations, influence of adjacent plants or components, maximum and minimum ambient
temperatures, wind speed, possible forced cooling, radiation coefficient.
- Furnace atmosphere G
Is it neutral, oxidizing, reducing or changing? How is it made up?
- Operation pressures
What operation pressures are expected? Is under-pressure or over-pressure involved? How is
pressure distributed in the combustion chamber? What pressure differences arise that are
dependent on time? Do pulsations occur?
- Measuring and control equipment
What kind of measuring and control equipment must be installed?
3.2.2 Selection Criteria for Refractory and Heat-Insulating Materials

In order to design furnaces or furnace parts and to optimize the wall design it is necessary to have
more information than just the thermal conditions. Further criteria will likewise be of importance for
the selection of suitable refractory materials:
- Properties of the materials
The properties of the materials are decisive in making a selection. They are discussed in
chapter 2. Further data are given in data sheets provided by manufacturers and in the
standards.
- Installation conditions
The space conditions and technical possibilities on site can require the use of specific materials
and application/working methods.
- Moisture and wet conditions
Various refractory and heat-insulating materials are sensitive to moisture coming from other
materials, the surrounding area or the process itself.
- Gases
Flue gases G, process gases, and protective gases can penetrate, attack the refractory lining
chemically, effect erosion or damage the lining by crystallization pressure depending upon
composition, temperature, pressure, and speed.
- Mechanical service limits
These are determined by the statics and size of the furnace in addition to the mechanical stress
during operation of the furnace.
- Storage and application/working capability
With extreme climatic conditions there may be special requirements for storage and working
with the refractories on site.
- Thermal shock
Thermo-mechanical stress will occur if there are frequent thermal shocks in a furnace that is
not operated continuously. This can destroy the refractories.
- Thermal service limits
The operation temperature of the furnace is also decisive for the selection of suitable
refractories. The service limit temperatures are determined by examining the softening and
shrinkage behavior as well as on the basis of empirical data.
- Availability and installation (service) possibility
The availability and installation (service) possibility of certain refractories clay be of illlpol1ance
for your selection. For example, some materials clay not be imported by so many countries.
69 3. Design
- State of the charge to be heated

The state of the charge to be heated can be solid, liquid, gaseous or in several aggregate states.
Solid materials can stress refractories statically, dynamically and/or by abrasion and by contact
reactions G. Liquids, such as melts or slags, can react chemically with refractories. Mineralogical
and physical changes are likewise possible.
Much experience and many reports have been gathered on the same or similar furnace types with
the same or cOlllparable operation conditions. These reports should be of assistance when
selecting suitable refractories.
3.2.3 Regulations and Conditions on Site
Before design work can start it must be further checked what regulations have to be observed and
what final conditions must be taken into consideration. These may include:
- special regulations or requirements for the installation of refractory linings by the party placing
the order or the end customer,
- existing DIN/EN standards or other technical regulations,
- special conditions on site,
- regulations governing safety and occupational health.
Finally, there are also special regulations in regard to documentation, e.g. drawing patterns,
comments on drawings, drawing head, language used in the text.
3.3 Design with Shaped Dense Materials
3.3.1 General
One differentiates between standardized and non-standardized shaped refractory products. The
standardized are designated as standard shapes and the non-standardized as shaped bricks.
3.3.2 Standard Shapes

The standard shapes are listed in:
- ISO 5019 refractor)' bricks, dimensions,
- the brochure HStandard Shapes for Fireclay Bricks", published by the Association of the
German Construction Industry, German Construction Business Association, German Refractory
Association,
- a publication of German Cement Producers (VDZ) and
- catalogues of renowned German refractory material manufacturers.
In addition to the shapes listed here there are further standard shapes for specific industries, e.g.
steel and glass industry, and foreign standard shapes which are not listed here.
3.3.3 Shaped Bricks

As mentioned above, shaped bricks are bricks which do not correspond to standard bricks. To a
certain degree, pre manufactured parts out of unshaped materials (monolithics) are also assigned
to the group of shaped bricks.
Shaped bricks are used, for example, if tile shape of the construction part does not penllit the use of
standard bricks and unshaped materials (monolithics) cannot be used.
The manufacturing process limits the shape, size, and weight of the shaped bricks. The designer
must check with the manufacturer if the desired shape is possible and required quality attainable.
70 3. Design
Size and weight of the shaped bricks also depend on the existing transportation means to the
construction site, existing space conditions on site, and available equipment/tools for installation.
The following must be specifically considered:
- The smallest and largest dimensions of the shaped brick must be determined by the specific
brick grade taken- into consideration.
- Shapes with greatly differing main dimensions should be avoided.
- The radii of the curvatures must suit brick grade and shape.
- The arrangement of tongue and groove must be determined.
- The strengtl1 can differ greatly in pressing direction and vertically to this direction.
- Complicated shapes are expensive, larger series (runs) lower the mold cost share per brick
made. The decision to press a brick by machine or to make it by hand depends on the number
of bricks required and the shape. Not every brick can be pressed with the pressing technology
available today. In many cases, shapes, which would be suited for pressing due to the amount
to be pressed, are nevertheless made by hand for commercial or plant operation reasons. Upon
reordering pressed shapes, e.g. due to breakage during transport or at the construction site or
for later repairs, there will be substantial tooling costs if only a small amount of the brick is
required. It may, however, be necessary for plant operation reasons to make the shaped bricks
by hand.
- The delivery time must be considered because of slow manufacturing speed for the hand-
shaped bricks.
- Time required to make the molds.
- Molds for pressing are generally much more expensive than handmade molds.
- Wear on molds effects dimension deviation (linear tolerances). The wear depends on the quality
of the material. It may be the case that several molds will be required for a relatively small
amount of bricks.
- Individual shapes can be varied by placing inserts in the mother mold. Consequently, mold costs
and manufacturing times can be reduced.
- With shaped bricks the manufacturing risk is especially high. Consequently, the quantity of pieces
should be set higher at the start than the amount actually required.
- The property data provided by manufacturers on bricks refer to standard shapes capable of being
easily pressed. With shaped bricks the properties can be worse if these bricks cannot be
subjected to uniform compaction as a result of their shape. It is not always possible to apply the
property data of pressed shapes to shapes made by hand.
- Specific properties of refractory bricks cannot be attained by machine-pressing or shaping by
hand. Other shaping methods may be required, e.g. plastic shaping, casting, vibration with or
without load, isostatic pressing G and cutting out of standard shapes.
- Many properties of refractory materials are connected directly to the bulk density. It depends on
the raw materials and manufacturing process. Fluctuations of bulk density can influence weights
and prices of the ordered deliveries. Since greater deviations can result when compared to the
data indicated in the catalogues, the actual amount to be delivered should be precisely agreed
upon between manufacturer and customer.
3.3.4 Anchoring with Holding (Anchor) Bricks
The refractories are often connected with anchors to the supporting construction, for example a steel
construction. The anchors can consist of ceramic or metallic materials. Ceramic anchors are always
connected with a metallic holding elerllent to the steel construction. The holding (anchor)
3. Design 71
bricks rl1ust have the sanle good quality as the material installed on the hot side (face). The
arrangement is shown in Table 3.1. The selection of type and material depends on the
requirerl1ents given by the design of the construction part as well as temperature load and corrosion
stress.
3.3.5 Joints
Joints are design elements of a lining. They can have various functions. Consequently, there are
different types of joints according to the illustrations in Figure 3.4:
1.according to construction - mortar or mastic joints .. - dry joints
- working joints
72
3. Design
3. Design 73
2. according to arrangement in the construction part - bed joints

- vertical joints
- ring joints
3. according to design requirements - smoothing (equalization) joints
- sliding joints
- separation joints
- expansion joints
Bed and vertical joints connect the individual bricks to a compact and stable construction
C0l11pOnent or part. They distribute and transfer loads and forces uniformly. Generally the joints
are filled with refractory mortar or mastic.
The selection of the specific joint material and design of joints depends on the type of furnace
operation, process in the existing furnace, and applied shaped refractories.
As a general rule for the firebrick bond it can be stated that vertical joints have a staggered
arrangement. Bed joints in vertical or inclined linings are mainly horizontal all the way through. Bed
joints and vertical joints must be designed differently depending on the specific operation
requirements:
- In furnaces without aggressive atmospheres and without problematical pressure conditions, e.g.
heating furnaces, ceramically setting refractory mortar can be used for brickwork out of standard
and shaped bricks if the furnace chamber temperature is sufficient for sintering G and,
consequently, hardening of the mortar. The joints must be thick enough so that mortar covers
the entire joint surface and compensates unavoidable size tolerances of the bricks. Generally
the joints have a thickness ranging from 1 to 3 mm.
+
74 3. Design
Fig. 3.4: Types of joints ,

1 bed joints, 2 vertical joints, 3 ring joints, 4 smoothing joints, 5 sliding or separation joints, 6 expansion
joints
- If the brickwork is already stressed or attacked in cold state before having set ceramically, e.g. by
flue gases with aggressive particles and high speeds, the joint material must already have
hardened at low temperature. Consequently, refractory mortars with chemically-setting binders -
refractory mastics - are used frequently. The joints should have a thickness below 3 mm, if
possible. Most important is, however, a full joint over the entire brick surface.
- Highest requirements exist for the imperviousness of joints in furnaces containing liquid metals
and/or slags. Here joints should be less than 2 mm thick. They are filled with refractory mastic.
- In furnaces with gases and dust particles streaming through at high speeds, the joints must be
strong and sealed tightly so that gases or dust do not flow through or behind the heat-insulating
layers. In flow direction the joints should have a staggered arrangement. In addition to the
design measures described above - up to maximum 2 mm thick joints with refractory 111astic as
joint material - further design features may be required, e.g. bricks with continuous tongue and
groove.
- Higher requirements exist for joints of the silica brickwork in heating walls of coke ovens.
Modern coke oven plants may have heating wall sizes of 20 m length and 8 nl in height. Such
wall surfaces must be' constructed without any expansion joints. Upon heating up to
approximately 900°C, the silica brickwork will expand by 1.3 to 1.4 % depending on the type of
material. For a wall length of 20 m this corresponds to up to 250 mm which is spread out equally
from the middle of the chamber wall to the coke and machine side. The refractory mortar must
absorb part of this expansion. In order to avoid high pressure on the edges, which effects
spalling of the bricks, the joints are filled with at least 3 mm and on the average even 4 mm with
a very plastic silica mortar. This mortar permits distortions in coke ovens at operation
temperatures.
- The brickwork in blast furnaces and other reduction furnaces consists of carbon or graphite blocks
in the area of the liquid metal. This refractory 111aterial is selected in order to prevent metal
infiltration and to conduct heat. Consequently, the joints usually have a narrow arrangement. The
carbon and graphite blocks are pre manufactured with suetl preciseness that joints::; 0.3 mm are
even possible for blocks tlaving dimensions of 3,000 x 600 x 600 nlnl. A
75 3. Design
refractory rnastic with very fine grains is used as joint material. Often the joints are designed as dry
joints without any mortar in them.
Ring joints are preferred for cylindrical, laying linings. This applies specifically for rotary kiln linings.
Here a ring joint is required in order to compensate for relative brick movements and to prevent
resulting shearing forces. Furtherrnore, repair work is easier.
Smoothing (equalization) joints occur where the shape of the brickwork deviates to such an
extent from the furnace vessel that hollow spaces occur. They must be filled with a material that
resists the stress occurring in those spots.
Sliding and separation joints enable or make sliding easier for the construction parts so that they
can involve in diametrically opposite directions to one another as a result of thermal expansion G. A
typical example are sliding joints in coke oven foundation walls which are fitted with graphite paper.
Different expansion occurs due to the switch from fireclay brickwork in the lower area to silica
brickwork in the upper area. Another example are the sliding joints between the combustion
chamber brickwork and checkerwork in hot blast stoves. Sliding joint materials include ceramic fiber
materials, dry mortars or metal foils. Another possibility is to place oiled paper under the refractory
mortar.
Expansion joints are required in most all brickwork out of shaped refractories in order to absorb
the expansion during heating up. Distance and thickness of expansion joints must be designed
after considering the expansion behavior of the refractories and operation conditions. The
expansion joints must be arranged in such a manner that damaging stress buildup in single bricks
and the entire construction part is avoided. The joints must, however, be designed in a way that
sealing and safety of the part is ensured during operation. Expansion joints are often filled with
strips of ceramic fiber materials or cardboards. In furnaces with higher amounts of dust and which
operate on a discontinuous basis, so-called self-cleaning joints have worked well. The dust having
penetrated the joints is pushed out of the joints upon renewed heating up of the furnace.
3.3.6 Designation of Courses and Bonds

Shaped refractories in refractory engineering can be laid in different arrangements. One
differentiates between:
76 3. Design
3. Design 77
- header courses
- stretcher courses
- rowlock courses
- flat courses
Several courses (layers) are connected to form a firebrick bond. One differentiates between -
stretcher bond
- header bond
- English bond (alternate header and stretcher courses)
- cross bond
The arrangement of the bricks in these bonds is shown in Figure 3.6.
3.3.7 Design Examples

This section shows a series of design examples for walls, roofs, expansion joints, skewbacks, etc.
The following examples are illustrated:
Figure 3.7: Round and flat arch (crown) out of standard shapes, number of arch bricks in the arch
Figure 3.8: Graphical determination of piece number for side arch bricks for round and flat arch
(crown) out of standard shapes, 2 mm joint
Figure 3.9: Graphical determination of piece number for end arch bricks and end arch double
bricks for round and flat arch (crown) out of standard shapes, 2 mm joint
Figure 3.10: Furnace crown - specific measurements/interrelationships
Figure 3.11: Furnace crown - preferred measurements (size)
Figure 3.12: Furnace crown - arch brick requirement
Figure 3.13: Arched walls, ring bond, tooth bond, horizontal tooth bond
Figure 3.14: Dome arch, circular and flat
Figure 3.15: Suspended roof out of standard shapes ED
Figure 3.16: Suspended roof out of standard shapes HD
Figure 3.17: Suspended roof for tunnel kiln
Figure 3.18: Inclined suspended roof
Figure 3.19: Boiler roof and side roof connection
Figure 3.20: Design of a level bottom
Figure 3.21: Pipe ducts, reformer bottom between tunnel walls
Figure 3.22: Arched bottom out of standard shapes
Figure 3.23: Vertical expansion joint in bond in level wall
Figure 3.24: Vertical expansion joint without bond in level wall
Figure 3.25: Vertical expansion joint in a corner
Figure 3.26: Special design of vertical expansion joints in an arched wall
Figure 3.27: Horizontal expansion joint in an arched wall
Figure 3.28: Horizontal expansion joint in an arched wall
Figure 3.29: Expansion joints in suspended roofs
78 3. Design
Figure 3.30: Staggered expansion joints in bottoms

Figure 3.31: Anchoring of a wall out of standard shapes
Figure 3.32: Anchoring of a wall out of half brick brickwork with continuous expansion joint
Figure 3.33: Skewbacks out of standard bricks
Figure 3.34: Skewbacks out of shaped bricks
Figure 3.35: Open'entry door
Figure 3.36: Special design for the anchoring in a wall out of standard bricks
3. Design 79
Figure 3.7: Round and flat arch (crown) out of standard shapes, number of arch bricks in the arch
80 3. Design
Application example for determining number of pieces for the rise arch:
- Starting at the runner (duct) width for 900 mm go vertically upwards along the orange line
- At the point of intersection with the slanted black line going upwards look to the right and
find the total number of side arch bricks = 16 pieces
- At the point of intersection with the slanted black line going downwards look to the
right to find the number of needed 2 H 10 bricks = 14 pieces
- Consequently, 14 pieces H 10 and 2 pieces 2 H 6 will be needed
(for determining the pieces in the ring look to the left at the points intersection)
Figure 3.8: Graphical determination of piece number for side arch bricks for round and flat arch
(crown) out of standard shapes, 2 mm joint
3. Design 81
Application example for determining the number of pieces in the ring:

- From the radius scale at 1250 mnl go vertically upwards along the orange line
- At the point of intersection with the slanted black line going upwards look to the left and
find the total number of end arch bricks = 130 pieces
- At the point of intersection with the slanted black line going downwards look to the left
to find the number of needed 2 G 16 bricks = 46 pieces
- Consequently, 46 pieces 2 G 16 and 84 pieces 2 G 10 will be needed
(for determining the pieces in the rise look to the right at the points intersection)
Figure 3.9: Graphical determination of piece number for end arch bricks and end arch double
bricks for round and flat arch (crown) out of standard shapes, 2 mm joint
82 3. Design
Figure 3.10: Furnace crown - specific measurements/interrelationships

3. Design 83
Figure 3.11: Furnace crown - preferred measurements (size)

84 3. Design
Figure 3.12: Furnace crown - arch brick requirement

3. Design 85
Fig. 3.13: Arched walls, ring bond, tooth bond, horizontal tooth bond
86 3. Design
Fig. 3.15: Suspended roof out of standard shapes EO

3. Design 87
Fig. 3.16: Suspended roof out of, standard shapes'HD

88 3. Design
Fig. 3.17: Suspended roof for tunnel kiln

3. Design 89
Fig. 3.19: Boiler roof and side roof connection

90 3. Design
Fig. 3.20: Design of a level bottom

3. Design 91
Fig. 3.21: Pipe ducts, reformer bottom between tunnel walls

92 3. Design
Bild 3.22: Arched bottom out of standard shapes

3. Design 93
Fig. 3.23: Vertical expansion joint in bond in level wall

94 3. Design
Fig. 3.25: Vertical expansion joint in a corner

3. Design 95
Fig. 3.26: Special design of ver1ical expansion joints in an arched wall

96 3. Design
3. Design 97
Fig. 3.29: Expansion joints in suspended roofs

98 3. Design
Fig. 3.30: Staggered expansion joints in bottoms

3. Design 99
100 3. Design
3. Design 101
102 3. Design
3.4 Design with Shaped Heat-Insulating Materials

3.4.1 Standard Shapes
Insulating refractory bricks are generally manufactured as standard straights (rectangular bricks)
and as arch bricks. The shapes NF-1, NF-1-76, NF-2-76 and 2 0 are usually kept in stock by most
manufacturers. Wedge (end arch) and side arch bricks with varying taper can be made out of these
straights. The thickness of the initial (standard) shapes is,. consequently, the greatest possible
taper of wedge (end arch) and side arch bricks.
SOIlle of the standard shapes (refer to section 3.3.2) are not manufactured as insulating refractory
bricks because simple and less expensive bricks can be used instead. These include, for example,
checker bricks K3, holding bricks for walls, suspended roof bricks and expansion joint bricks for
suspended roofs as well as wall bricks with tongue and groove.
3.4.2 Shaped Bricks

The size of insulating refractory bricks is limited by the manufacturing process because unifoflll pore
fornlation and distribution is not guaranteed in large shapes. It is, however, easy to finish and work
on the material of insulating refractory bricks. It is possible to glue standard shapes together by
applying refractory mastic and thus form big blocks. The desired shape is obtained by cutting,
drilling, and grinding. Generally the cold and hot crushing strength G of the glued spot is higher
than that of the insulating refractory bricks so that such shaped bricks have provided good service
results. Certain refractory mastics are sensitive to climatic conditions (tropical locations, freezing
conditions). This sensitivity can be reduced by heat treatment. It must be discussed with the
manufacturer if this is required before delivery.
3.4.3 Anchoring
Heat-insulating brickwork is anchored with specific metallic anchors. Instead of special shaped
anchor bricks, it is necessary to drill recesses at regular intervals (distances) in the bricks of the
brickwork. The anchors slip into these recesses.
The selection criteria for the anchor materials is discussed in chapter 2.6. Table 3.2 provides data
(based on experience) on anchor distances.
If the lining thickness of the combustion chamber is relatively thin the anchor distances shown in
Table 3.2 must be reduced. The covering over the inserted metallic anchors should be as thick as
possible. However, the remaining brick thickness must be able to absorb the tensile forces of the
anchors.
Figures 3.37 and 3.38 are examples of the anchoring for shaped heat-insulating materials.
Table 3.2: Distances between anchors
application distance in mm
≤ 350 mm
roof
wall
vertical
≤ 500 mm
horizontal ≤ 1,000 mm
bottom anchorings only in special cases depending
stress factors
3. Design 103
104 3. Design
3. Design 105
3.4.4 Joints
Generally the same applies for joints in the brickwork of shaped heat-insulating materials as for the
joints in brickwork out of shaped, dense refractory bricks (section 3.3.5). For gound bricks the joints
should always be :::; 2 mm.

Insulating refractory bricks and insulating bricks are positioned on the hot side if their main task is
that of heat insulation and other properties, such as low strength, are not that important. In regard to
refractory engineering these bricks are often dealt with as if using dense, shaped refractories.
The following illustrations for refractory engineering with shaped, dense refractories also apply for
shaped heat-insulating products:
- designation of the courses and bonds Figure 3.6
- crowns and arches Figures 3.7 to 3.9
- design of a level bottom Figure 3.20
Figures 3w39 to 3.48 give engineering/design examples which specifically apply for shaped, heat-
insulating materials.
Fig. 3.39: 1 brick thick brickwork out of insulating refractory bricks with corner expansion joint
106 1) 3. Design
3. Design 107
Fig. 3.42: Suspended roof out of insulating refractory bricks

108 3. Design
Fig. 3.43: Wall out of insulating refractory key bricks with corner expansion joint and anchoring
3. Design 109
Fig. 3.44: Bottom to wall connection with insulating refractory bricks

110 3. Design
Fig. 3.45: Roof to wall connection with insulating refractory bricks

3. Design 111
Fig. 3.46: Wall and arch out of insulating refractory bricks

112 3. Design
Fig. 3.47: Design in burner area

3. Design 113
3.5 Design with Unshaped (Monolithic) Refractory Materials

3.5.1 General
Wall thickness and design are not dependent on the brick shapes when using unshaped refractory
products (monolithics) in design work. The designer is in a position to make a choice in regard to
shape and dimensions. For example, the designer can adapt the layer thickness according to the
specifications for heat insulation and the shape according to flow requirements. After installing the
mix one speaks of a lining in "green" or "unfired" state which is subsequently dried and heated. This
can be done immediately after setting or later on. Linear changes will occur for various
reasons such as:
- Shrinkage as a result of drying and setting/hardening reactions
- Firing shrinkage G and/or firing growth
- Reversible linear change effected by temperature
The second and third reasons mentioned above overlap one another.
Monolithic linings are generally split up in sections and anchored. Each section is then a self-
supporting unit.
3.5.2 Anchoring
Depending on the dimensions and position, the monolithic parts of the construction must be held in
place by anchors. They connect the parts to the outer wall and/or steel construction. The monolithic
sections, which are anchored individually, can be replaced without endangering the stability of the
entire refractory construction. For temperatures up to 1 ,200 QC metallic anchors are usually
installed and above 1 ,200 QC ceramic anchors. The arrangement is shown in Table 3.3. Several
rigid and flexible anchoring systems are available for different arrangements, temperatures and
process conditions. Examples are given in Figures 3.49 to 3.52.
Table 3.3: Distances and covering of metallic and ceramic anchors used with unshaped
refractory materials (monolithics)
anchor type metallic anchor ceramic anchor

Application up to 1,200 °C above 1,200 °C
2
material typ1) part part distance ) part distance2)
Refractory castable roof 1.5 to 2 S roof 1 .5 to 2 S
wall max. 350 nlm max. 400 rnm
2 to 2.5 8 wall 28
bottom 38 bottom -
Insulating roof 2 to 3 S roof max. 300 mm
refractory nlax. 300 rnm
castable wall 2 to 3 S wall nlax. 400 rllln
bottom 38 bottom -
plastic mix roof 200 to 300 mnl roof nlax. 400 mm
wall max. 400 mm wall nlax. 450 Innl
covering = > 20 nlm none
1) material type and temperatures of hot front layer

2) S = thickness of the supporting 110t front layer
114 3. Design
3. Design 115
116 3. Design
3. Design 117
118 3. Design
Fig. 3.52: Metallic consoles for walls
Upon welding anchor elements the electrodes must suit the anchor material and the material of the
steel construction. The welding spots must be clean in a metallic sense. In those areas, in which the
anchoring is to have movable clearance, the movableness must be ensured after installation, too.
Holding elements and eyelets must be kept free of mortar and castable residue. To ensure that there
is no loss of force, anchor systems must always be installed in the direction of stress.
With plastic and semi-plastic mixes the shape of the anchor brick must be configured (contoured) in
the mix with a mold or a specifically marked anchor brick that clay not be used again as anchor brick.
This will prevent anchor bricks from being damaged during installation. Anchor bricks should not be
hit or touched by the equipment used for ramming.
3.5.3 Joints
Refractory mixes cannot be installed ill sections of arbitrary size. The total surface must be divided
into sections by positioning section molds (forms). There are some exceptions to this such as a few
special designs or products (patching material). Since the mixes are placed section by section,
working joints will form at the section borders. They can also be configured as expansion joints and
will then have inserts, for example ceramic fiber inserts. Walls thicker than 100 111m generally
3. Design 119
have a staggered joint arrangement to eliminate the risk of radiation exposure and the danger of walls
not being sealed tight.
For plastic construction mixes, working joints are constructed or cut/carved immediately after removal
of the forms. These are the so-called notch joints.
In design drawings the different types of joints are indicated by specific symbols. Figure 3~53 shows
the symbols for the joints used in monolithic construction parts or components. -
Fig. 3.53: Symbols of joints in construction parts and components out of refractory mixes
120 3. Design

This section shows some typical design examples for walls, roofs (arches), pipe walls, curvatures,
combustion chambers, tuyere bottoms, side of a hearth. The following illustrations are shown in
detail: .
Figure 3.54: Sidewall and roof out of plastic mix
Figure 3.55: Roof out of plastic mix with .burner
Figure 3.56: Arrangement of anchor bricks, inclined roof
Figure 3.57: Roof out of refractory castable with wall connection
Figure 3.58: Refractory wall on fin pipe wall
Figure 3.59: Burner lining with plastic mix
Figure 3.60: Curvatures out of gunned or rammed refractory mixes
Figure 3.61: Combustion chamber
Figure 3.62: Tuyere bottom
Figure 3.63: Hearth
Fig. 3.54: Sidewall and roof out of plastic mix

3. Design 121
Fig. 3.55: Roof out of plastic mix with burner

122 3. Design
Fig. 3.56: Arrangement of anchor bricks, inclined roof
Fig. 3.57: Roof out of refractory castable with wall connection

3. Design 123
Fig. 3.58: Refractory wall on fin pipe wall

124 3. Design
Fig. 3.59: Burner lining with plastic mix
Fig. 3.60: Curvatures out of gunned or rammed refractory ~ixes

3. Design 125
Fig. 3.61: Combustion chamber

126 3. Design
Fig. 3.62: Tuyere battonl

3. Design 127
Fig. 3.63: Hearth plateau
3.5.5 Lining of Cylindrical Vessels
Genera! rules exist for the lining of cylindrical vessels. The load distribution is different in upright
th
vessels than in a laying position. The general rule for the hot face layer of laying vessels is 1/10 of
the clear vessel diameter but not less than 100 mm. Linings must not be anchored in the bottom
third of laying vessels having a diameter up to approximately 1,300 mm. For transportation it is
recommended to secure the lining with anchors 'and/or consoles or by transport forms even if this is
not required for installation ·state. The transported construction parts must be checked for damages
which possibly have occurred during transport before installation on site.
128 3. Design
3.6 Design with Ceramic Fiber Materials and High Temperature
Glass Fibers (HTGF) .
R. Bruder, H. Kemnitz, H. Knorth, P. Nebg~n, H. Sauer, E. Schmitt, B. Wilhelmi, H. Wimmer
3.6.1 Forms of Delivery
Ceramic fiber materials and high temperature glass fibers (AES) are used in different forms of
delivery and with varying bulk densities. The method of attachment or anchoring also depends on
the form of delivery. Details are given in Table 3.4.
3.6.2 Attachment and Fixation
Products out of ceramic fiber materials and AES fiber materials can be . attached or fixated as
shown in Figures 3.64 and 3.65.
3. Design 129
Table 3.4: Forms of delivery, dimensions, bulk densities, attachment (fixation) of ceramic fibers and higtl
temperature glass fibers (HTGF or AES)
130 3. Design
.
Fig. 3.64: Holding elements for linings out of ceramic fiber blankets (mats); round studs with twist clips up to
maximum 1,000 °C; cuplocks depending on length up to maximum 1,350 °C
Fig. 3.65: Anchoring elements for components out of ceramic and HTGF/AES fibers - metal sheet screen
3. Design 131
3.7 Thermal Calculations
H. LLitcke, u. Posingis
3.7.1 Problem Definition and Explanation of Terms
3.7.1.1 Preliminary Remarks

The calculation of the temperature distribution in refractory linings of industrial furnaces is of
extreme importance for selection, size and arrangement of lining materials. For technical and
efficiency reasons refractory linings consist of several courses (layers) of varying materials. The
main objective of the first course facing the combustion chamber is to resist the process
conditions. The courses behind the first course generally handle heat insulation and regulation of
heat exchange.
Computer programs are available today to calculate the temperature field. These programs
generate calculations and offer several solutions for an efficient design that also fulfills given
technical requirements. Multi-dimensional and non-stationary calculations as well as the inclusion
of stress calculations are no longer a mathematical problem.
Multi-dimensional means that temperatures are different is several space directions, for example
with consoles. Non-stationary describes the condition at which the temperatures also change in
regard to time as is the case for heating-up or cooling down procedures. During such procedures
the arising stress factors are of special interest.
In many cases a one-dimensional, stationary calculation will be sufficient. After explanation of
some general terms, the following expositions focus first of all on this simple case. The
accompanying solution methods are illustrated completely and the required calculation values
(quantities) explained. Even though it is hardly the case today to not work with computer-assisted
calculation programs, the following expositions will give the user a feeling for the calculation
methods serving as a basis.
The user is still required to define the framework/peripheral conditions for his calculations and be
able to correctly assess the results of computer calculations. He will need some experience in
order to correctly focus o~ the important influencing factors and to configure his calculation model
to fit the problem definition.
Consequently, in the following chapters some of the theoretical principles of thenl1al engineering
are described to the extent that they are relevant for therrl1al calculations in refractory engineering.
3.7.1.2 Temperature
Temperature is an occurrence connected to what we sense as "warm" and "cold". These

perceptions are, however, not suited to make precise statements about the temperature. Only after
examining the intensity of molecular kinetic activity or energy of a body over a longer period of time
will it be possible to notice that the result of this activity or energy is the cause for the temperature.
There is a specific proportionality between the activity of the molecules and temperature of a body.
The higher the activity energy of the molecules in a body is, the higher the temperature will be. On
the other hand, this means that with decreasing activity energy of the molecules, the temperature
will drop. If the molecules run out of activity energy, the temperature has reached the absolute zero
0
of -273.15 C= 0 K.
132 3. Design
For conversion of a unit to another unit the following applies:
In thermal engineering the temperature is usually measured with thermocouples, radiation

thermometers (pyrometers), resistance thermometers or thermal colors.
3.7.1.3 Heat, Heat Amount, Heat Capacity, Heat Flow, Heat Flow Density
If two bodies with different temperatures touch one another the temperatures will adjust to one
another. If, for example, one puts a piece of warm metal consisting of matter (mass) m 1 and
temperature 19, in cold water of matter (mass) m2 and temperature 192 the water will heat up and the
metal will cool down until both water and metal have the same temperature rJe. The metal gave
energy to the water: Heat flowed. It is proportional to the specific matter, the obtained temperature
difference and so-called specific heat capacity (often referred to only as "specific heat"). The
O
specific heat c [Wh/kg C] of a substance indicates how much energy is required to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one degree Celsius. If one describes the specific
heat capacity of the metal with c, and that of water with C2 then the following applies for the heat
distributed or absorbed: .
Since the specific heat of water is known (according to definition 1 kcal/kg K = 1 .163 Wh/kg K =
4187 J/kg K), it is easy to apply these formulas and calculate Q and then the specific heat of the
metal once all matter (masses) and temperatures have been determined for this model.
In connection with the definition of specific heat one is often confronted with the term kcal as the
unit of heat. In connection with the energy unit of work [Nm] and [J] the following applies:
Heat is the transportation form of energy. It only occurs during a process as long as there is a
difference in temperature.
For theoretical considerations. it is usually helpful to consider heat flow (flux) Q or also the heat
2
flo'vv (flux) density q instead of Q. Q [W] is the heat flowing (heat flux) per time unit and q [W/m ]
per time unit and surface unit. For a pipe one additionally considers a heat flow (flux) density q L
(based on the pipe length) with the dimension [W/fll].
3.7.1.4 Storage Heat

If a furnace is heated up, the operation temperature will be reached after a certain time in the
furnace. The furnace wall, however, will not have reached its final temperature. Actually, even more
energy supply will be needed until the furnace wall is "heated through". If a heated and operating
furnace is shut down, the furnace wall will give off heat according to (1.4) above to the surrounding
area. Since the surrounding area can absorb this heat without its temperature having increased
dramatically then l?e in (1.4) is to be considered equivalent the surrounding (ambient) temperature
17a· If m is the matter (mass) and c the specific heat of the wall, then the heat distributed to the
surrounding area is calculated according to (1.4) based on an operation temperature 19B :
3. Design 133
Certainly heat insulation measures will be applied here to "shield" the furnace from the surrounding
area in order to keep heat loss as low as possible at least for a certain period of time. Upon heating
up the furnace again the "lost" heat must be brought back. Consequently, an attempt will be made to
"store" as much heat as possible in the wall. Equation (1.6) gives the "storage heat" of the wall. This
is tile amount of heat that has been absorbed by the wall during heating up (based on or starting
from on the initial surrounding (ambient) temperature) and, on the other hand, is distributed or given
off again upon complete shut down of the furnace.
It must be r8nlenlbered that OB is not constant inside the wall and the mean value is to be used. If the
wall consists of several courses and different refractories then the value must be calculated
separately for each course due to the varying matter (mass) and specific heat. The individual values
must be totaled for the entire wall. If one looks at the storage heat S per surface of a wall course
having density p and course thickness s then the following applies:
S = p s C (198 - 19aJ [Wh/n12] (1 .7)
3.7.1.5 Heat Transfer via Heat Conduction, Convection and Radiation, Heat
Transmission In regard to heat transfer one differentiates between
- heat conduction
- convection and
- heat radiation
Heat conduction is the process of heat transportation by the collision of the molecules in a body.
Energy is transferred by slowing down the quicker molecules and speeding up the slower ones. All
metals conduct heat well. Wood, for example, conducts poorly. Consequently, the good old frying
pan has a wooden handle.
The golf stream is a good example of convection. By radiation, the sun heats up the water at the
equator. This heated water streams towards Europe. Without the movement of this ocean stream
only a very minimal percentage of this heat would reach Europe because heat conduction of water is
not that good.
The sun is the best example of heat radiation. Its heat even reaches our earth despite the vacuum
provided by space between sun and earth. Consequently, in regard to heat radiation one also
speaks of a heat transfer not connected to a substance in contrast to heat transfer by heat
conduction and convection that is connected to a substance.
If two bodies with different temperatures touch one another, the same temperature will exist at the
contact spot after some time. Furthermore, due to heat conduction, the same temperature will exist in
both bodies in the end unless a different temperature is maintained continuously by an outside
supply or source of energy. Regarding convection and radiation, the bodies remain separated from
one another and there will always be a difference in temperature. The process is described by the
"heat transition".
One usually does not take much time during the day to think about which method of heat transfer is in
progress at a specific moment. Actually all forms occur concurrently even jf to a differing degree. For
technical processes a differentiation is essential in order to quantify heat transfer and connected
magnitudes. Consequently, the following chapters focus on types heat transfer, the influence and
specification factors.
3.7.2 Heat Conduction

3.7.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Coefficient
The thermal conductivity coefficient A is the physical parameter of thermal conductivity of a substance.
The unit of A is W/rnK. Its magnitude is determined by the following substance properties:
134 3. Design
- bulk density
- porosity and grain sizing
- pore structure
- chemical composition
- mineralogical makeup
Furthermore, A depends on temperature, pressure and other process conditions.
A dependency on pressure is at first only given for liquids and gases. However, this means that
pressure becomes an influencing factor for materials having a high porosity. With liquids and gases
heat conduction is hardly worth mentioning for most applications in comparison to heat
transfer by convection or radiation ..
Heat conduction is the decisive factor for heat exchange in a solid body. Due to the above-
mentioned influencing factors the multitude of refractory materials have greatly varying thermal
conductivities which can change again depending on pre-firing temperature, ageing process,
attacks by pollutants, gas atmosphere and moisture.
Thermal conductivity can be determined by various methods, e.g. according to the
- hot wire method,
- plate method,
- Klasse method or
- laser impulse method.
Radiation and convection also play a role when porous bodies are subjected to higher
temperatures. Actually the following applies:
If thermal conductivity is measured as a characteristic value of the examined substance, then the
radiation and convection share are also included. The partially strong temperature dependency of
thermal conductivity is, however, already based on the fact that radiation increases tremendously
the higher the temperature is.
Figure 2.3'.1 in section 2.3 shows the temperature dependency of thermal conductivity taking
shaped heat-insulating materials as an example. In addition, Figure 3.7.1 illustrates thermal
conductivity curves of standard refractory materials.
The values (counts) for the wide range of refractories and heat-insulating 11later-ials will be
indicated by the manufacturers. The results will deviate somewhat depending on the applied
measuring method. Deviations of up to 15 % have been recorded by several test laboratories upon
having applied different measuring methods with the Same material. Furthernl0re, it must be
considered that the determined values (counts) are based on lab conditions. These values 111ay
have to be corrected for practical calculations in order to take the real operation conditions into
consideration.
The convection in a substance I11USt only be considered carefully if a gas flows through the
material because of the apparent (open) porosity and pressure difference. In the refractory
engineering sector most furnaces are shielded to the outside with a steel casing. Even if high
pressure exists inside there is no pressure c0l11pensation with the outside surrounding area.
Consequently, one may rarely expect convective gas streams inside materials if there are pressure
differences inside a furnace.
The influence of the combustion chamber atmosphere must be consider-ed very carefully. Tile
values (counts) given by the manufacturers refer to pores filled with air.
3. Design 135
2)
8
13
---------
~1 1
1
Fig. 3.7.1: Thermal conductivity of fired, refractory bricks depending on temperature

136 3.Design
Fig. 3.7.2: Thermal conductivity of gases depending on temperature

3. Design 137
Figure 3.7.2 shows the thermal conductivity of some gases when dependent on the temperature at
1 bar", One notices the following: In regard to thermal conductivity many gases and gas mixtures
behave the same way as air. A significant factor is the influence of hydrogen and helium with
thermal conductivities several times higher than air.
Formula (2.2) is also suited to consider the dependency of the thermal conductivity on air by way of
AG' However, Figure 3.7.3 proves that only in a few cases will the pressure have a significant
influence on thermal conductivity.
Changing thermal conductivity, as a result of the temperature, is taken into consideration by
adjusting the values (counts) iteratively when making thermal calculations.
3.7.2.2 Heat Conduction in a level and Single-Layer Wall

In a level wall out of the same 111aterial with thickness s, thermal conductivity A and the surface
temperatures 191 and 192 < 137 the heat will flow by conduction from the hot to cold side due to the
difference in temperature. Figure 3.7.4 gives a simple model. Here it is assumed that the wall is
large enough and the best case would be if the wall has "no end" to it so that peripheral aspects
would not have to be taken into consideration. Assuming ~hat at first the thermal conductivity
coefficient i is constant, the temperature changes rectilinearly in the wall. The following applies to
the heat transferred to a surface A [m2] during an observed time span z [s]:
It is, consequently, proportional to the observed wall, thermal conductivity, temperature difference,
and time but inversely proportional to the wall thickness.
138 3. Design
As already explained in the foregoing

chapter, the thermal conductivity of many
materials is heavily dependent on the
temperature. In most cases the above
formulas will be sufficient to get good
results if putting in the value (count) for the
mean temperature tJM = (tJ1 + 192J/2 for A. The
achieved preciseness depends on the layer
thickness and actual fluctuation of A in this
temperature range.
3.7.2.3 Heat Conduction in a level and Multi-layer Wall

The wall design in thermal plants / furnaces often consists of several layers of different materials
behind one another. The hot face layer is usually a dense, solid material with high thermal
conductivity and service limit temperature G. The second layer is often a lighter material with better
Fig. 3.7.5: Heat conduction in a level and multi-layer wall

3. Design 139
heat insulation properties, e.g. insulating refractory bricks or insulating refractory castables. Heat
insulating bricks or heat-insulating plates with low thermal conductivity and low service limit
temperature are installed as third layer.
Figure 3.7.5 is an explanatory example of a wall out of three layers. The thickness of the first layer
is expressed as s 1 and thermal conductivity as A l' Consequently, 52 and A2 apply for the second
layer, 53 and A3 apply for the third layer. Tile temperatures at the outer surfaces 191 and lJ4 are given.
Due to contacts between the layers the adjacent surfaces have the same temperature. These
temperatures l?2 and 193 are, however, not known at first. They will become known, as other
values/quantities, by making the following calculation.
The heat flow density q must be equal for each of the three layers since the same amount of heat
is transported through all three layers. Consequently:
Since all values/quantities are known on the right side it is possible to calculate the values for q and
next, by way of (2.7), the temperatures 1J2 and 133 at the border layers.
(2.9) shows that the heat flow (flux) results directly from the temperature difference .dlJ = 131 - 134 and
a value/quantity characteristic for the wall. With the so-called "thermal resistances" of the individual
layers and the total thermal resistance
140 3. Design
3.7.2.4 Heat Conduction in a Cylindrical Wall
In a (endlessly long) pipe that has a temperature 191 on the inside and a temperature (}2 on the outside
we are still dealing with one-dimensional heat flow (flux). It flows in radial direction. The nlain
difference in comparison to a level wall is that the flow cross-section is not constant but increases
from the inside to the outside with the diameter.
Equation (2.4) for the level wall is derived from the Fourier series on heat conduction
in which the infinitesimal temperature gradient d 19/ds is integrated via the temperature difference and
via the wall thickness. For the pipe one must now put in ds = dr and for the surface A observed at
radius (, within a piece of pipe having the length L, one must put in the expression 2 J[ L r so that the
following applies for the heat flow (flux) density based on the pipe length:
3. Design 141
3.7.3 Heat Transmission

3.7.3.1 Heat Transfer (Transmission) Coefficient
Heat transmission is recorded with the heat transfer coefficient cx. The coefficient cx has the same
meaning for heat transmission as A for heat conduction. In regard to the transport of heat we are
dealing with surfaces adjacent to one another. The unit is W/m 2K. The heat transfer coefficient a is by
no means a substance value/quantity as is the case for the thermal conductivity coefficient X . The
heat transfer coefficient is a value/quantity dependent on process conditions such as flow,
temperature of the medium or surface condition. It is defined via the heat flow (flux) density q and the
temperature difference Lll3:
142 3. Design
Both shares are unified to a total heat transfer quantity (count) for the heat flux (flow) calculations in
section 3.7.4:
0: = ak + as (3.2)
The heat transfer coefficient on the hot face is usually given at 100 W/m2 at the transition from a
combustion chamber atmosphere to a refractory wall. Its exact value is not all that important for the
precise result if the wall has sufficient heat insulation. For the cold side, however, the heat transfer
coefficient must be calculated more precisely. The convection share is determined by the flow
conditions at the surface of the construction part. The radiation share depends on the long wave
emissivity factor effective in the infrared wavelength range and the temperature of the partner with
which the surface of the construction part is exchanging radiation.
3.7.3.2 Heat Transfer (Transmission) by Convection
Heat transfer (transmission) by convection is the transfer of heat between a flowing substance or
matter, for example water or air, and the surface of an adjacent wall. In order for the heat to be
transferred there must be a temperature difference between the flowing medium and surface of the
wall. Both media have contact as is the case for heat conduction .. However, they are not in a resting
state when dealing with one another. This means that there will be a very small transition zone with
varying temperatures. Taking 19w for wall surface temperature and 19M for the temperature of the
flowing medium the following applies for heat flow density (based on 3.1):
The heat transfer coefficient CtJ( depends on the

surface condition of the wall and increases with
the flow speed, density and temperature of the
medium. fXJ( is 3 W/n12K with resting air and
normal temperature. With condensing vapors
the quantity aJ( will reach its maximum count in
the range of 100,000 W/r1l2K. That is why it
gets so hot in the sauna when water is thrown
on hot stones.
3. Design 143
There are extensive and well-known experimental and theoretical examinations (often featured with
the expression "similitude theory") in order to determine (XI( for various practical models. One
differentiates between "free" convection, due to the existence of a difference in temperature plus
effected convection as a result of constructional factors and "forced" convection which is upheld by
external forces. Furthermore, one must differentiate between "Iaminar" and "turbulent" flow.
In the following a few standard formulas are given which in most cases will be sufficient for the
applications in refractory engineering presented in this book.
Formulas for free convection:
For the free convection of a gas having the temperature 19G on a hot wall having the temperature
l~\\I there are formulas for (XI( which are dependent on the temperature difference L\ 0 = Ow - [)G'
For vertical and horizontal walls in general:
144 3. Design
3.7.3.3 Heat Transfer (Transmission) by Radiation
The sun is the best example in regard to illustrating how heat is transferred from one body to
another without a medium in between. This mode of heat transmission is referred to as heat
radiation. It consists of a spectrum of electromagnetic waves which extend into the light wave band
at high temperature. At lower temperatures the heat radiation is no longer visible. Nonetheless, it still
may be of importance in regard to heat transfer.
For heat transfer by radiation the same applies in that a transfer of heat is only possible because of
the existing temperature difference. The absorbed radiation energy is referred to as absorption and
the released radiation energy as emission. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law the emitted
energy per surface and time unit is:
E = C T4 [W/m2] (3.15)
and proportional to the fourth power of the temperature in Kelvin of the emitting surface. C is a
radiation coefficient dependent on the substance and type of surface. For any substance C is to be
at least considered as a constant in a specific temperature range and can be found in tables of
8 2
handbooks. The radiation coefficient of the "black body" is highest; it is Cs = 5.77 10- W/m K4 and is
a natural constant. The ratio of radiation coefficient C of a "gray" body to the radiation coefficient Cs
of a black body is termed emissivity ratio:
C
E=- (3.16)
Cs
If one looks at parallel opposite surfaces with temperatures T1 and T2 and the emissivity ratios £1
and £2 the following applies for the transferred heat flow density as a result of mutual emission and
absorption:
q = £Cs T/ - T24 with E = (El )E( ) (3.17)

( ) 1- 1- £1 1- £2
The quantity £ is to be understood as emissivity ratio of the constellation. For parallel and level
walls often only £ = £1 • £2 must be applied. If the surfaces are not plane-parallel then E must still be
multiplied with the so-called "angle ratio" of the surfaces (refer to VDI-WARMEATLAS handbook).
For the ring gap or for the space between two concentric ball surfaces where the outer surface
belonging to diameter 02 completely surrounds the inner surface belonging to diameter 01 the ratio
of inner to outer surface must be included:
e= £1 . £2 with 8 = _°_1 (3.18)

1- ( 1- El 52 ) (1- £2 ) 02
If the heat transfer by radiation is to be expressed by way of a corresponding heat transfer count as
then one obtains from the comparison of (3.1) and (3.17) and consideration of t 7 - t2 = T7 - T2:
4
T 4 - T2
fl.s = cCs 1 (3.19)
T1 - T2
With the mean temperature T M = 112 (T1 + T2) and the temperature difference L.\ T =: TJ - T2 it is possible to
transform (3.19) to:
3. Design 145
For the heat transfer on the outer surface to the surrounding air, T., = T w is the same temperature in
Kelvin on the wall outer surface (steel sheet temperature) and T2 = Ta is to be the same as the air
temperature. The same applies for the heat transfer on the inside. Here dT is small in comparison to
T M so that the quadratic term in (3.20) can be neglected. From this we get the frequently applied
approximation formula:
C is a radiation coefficient that must be applied depending on the condition of the surface. Table
3a7.1 gives the radiation coefficients for some surfaces. When applying these values (counts) it must
be remembered that for calculations in the planning phase of a furnace it is often not even known
how the surface will actually be once in operation. Information such as "heat-resistant corrosion
protection" does not give sufficient data in order to figure out the radiation coefficient C of the
coating.
Up to now the radiation of surfaces of solid bodies has been examined. The expansion of the bodies
vertically to the examined surface is of no importance because layers having only a few 1/100th of a
millimeter thickness do not permit passage of radiation. Consequently, one speaks of a radiation of
technical surfaces. The surfaces of liquids can also be included here.
Gases can absorb heat radiation and likewise emit heat. However, this effect is only possible with
ugas bodies" which are several millimeters thick. In addition to the temperature and thickness of
Table 3.7.1: Radiation coefficient of technical surfaces at temperatures in the range 0 to

200°C according to VDI 2055
146 3. Design
the layer, the intensity also depends on the type 'of gas and its partial pressure. The elementary
gases °2, N2J and H2 as well as air and all inert gases are weak emitters. Other technical gases and
vapors such as H20, CO2, CO, S02 and HCI are strong emitters. The gases radiate in various
characteristic wave lengths according to the Beerschen law which states for the emissivity ratio:
with p the partial pressure, s the layer thickness, and k(c) the "absorption coefficient" for the wave
length μ · For a gas it is necessary to observe several wave lengths. The theoretical examination is,
however, quite complicated. For practical cases one relies on tables in handbooks which are based
on measurements of the total radiation of different layer thicknesses and partial pressure values
(counts). (Refer to the VDI-WARMEATLAS).
In addition to the radiation of technical surfaces and gas bodies one must also consider the flame
radiation. This is the radiation of bright flames with small glowing carbon particles floating around
that give off an intense solid body radiation. This radiation is far stronger than, for example, the gas
radiation from carbon dioxide, but only of interest in exceptional cases when considering all the other
applications presented here.
3.7.3.4 Heat Transfer (Transmission) in a Gap, Equivalent Thermal Conductivity

Coefficient If there is a gap filled with air in a wall, it will be necessary to calculate on both contact
surfaces a convective heat transfer according to 3.7.3.2 and a radiation share according to 3.7.3.3.
In addition, there is heat transfer by conduction according to 3.7.2. The total heat flow density q is
made up of a convection share, a radiation share, and a conduction share so that:
s is the gap width, AL the thermal conductivity coefficient for air, T7 and T2 the temperatures of the
surfaces in Kelvin, £7 and £2 the related emissivity ratios, (;(7 and (;(2 the related heat transfer
coefficients for the convective transfer and dT = T7 - T2. With these quantities the following applies:
3. Design 147
then it is (based on the previous regressions):
By way of Rs = S/As one can define an "equivalent" thermal conductivity coefficient As for the gap
with which the heat transport through the gap can be calculated as for heat conduction according to
3.7.2.3. This is:
If! however, the gap is filled with an intensively radiating gas instead of air, then a share of gas
radiation must be included in the calculation by way of as.
It must be further considered that the quantities (counts) for ex and A are dependent on the
temperatures according to above formulas. If, on the other hand, one intends to determine these
temperatures with A, as in section 3.7.2.3, then one obtains complicated non-linear regressions. One
gets help with iterative methods by calculating the temperatures with suitable initial quantities
(counts) and then by adjusting the connected quantities (counts) for ex and A. This is nothing special
or peculiar because one must also work with thermal conductivity coefficients of "real" material
coatings which are dependent on the temperatures having to be calculated.
3.7.4 Heat Flux (Flow)
3.7.4.1 Definition, Peripheral Conditions and Specification/Determination Factors,

Objectives
One speaks of heat flux or heat flow if a heat source transfers heat through a solid wall to a cold
medium. According to the above expositions this process can be divided into three phases:
- heat transfer from hot medium to wall
- heat conduction through the wall
- heat transfer from the wall to the cold medium
The following quantities (counts) are considered to be known: -
the temperature inside the furnace 15j [QC]
- the surrounding (ambient) temperature behind the outside furnace wall l.9a [CC]
- heat transfer coefficient CLi [W/m2K] for heat transfer inside
- heat transfer coefficient aa [W/m2K] for heat transfer outside
- wall design taking the shape and layer thicknesses s [m] into consideration
- thermal conductivity coefficient A [W/mK] of materials dependent on temperature
The following must be calculated:
- heat flow Q [W] and heat flow (flux) density q [W/m2]
- temperatures on the wall surfaces and at the border. layers
- the mean temperatures of the material layers
- the heat flux (flow) count k [W/K] as the characteristic quantity (count) of the process
- storage heat S [kWh/m2] of the wall per surface unit
148 3. Design
It must be pointed out that - in contrast to the c~lculatiol1s in 3.7.2 - the surface temperatures of the
wall are not considered to be known but only the temperatures of the adjacent media.
The objective of the calculation is to evaluate the refractory lining in regard to selection of materials
and sizing of walls. The calculated heat flow density is important to assess heat loss and,
consequently, for the energy which is given off to the outside. New energy must then be continuously
supplied to the inside of the furnace. Based on the border layer temperatures and mean
temperatures it can be assessed if the materials intended for installation can resist the thermal
stress. Often several, comparable calculations are required in order to focus on extreme conditions,
In regard to the temperature inside the furnace it is necessary to differentiate between actual
operation temperature and the temperature at which the furnace is designed to operate. In regard to
the outside temperature it may be necessary to also consider special climatic conditions and furnace
construction aspects. This is especially important if the surfaces of the steel casing of the furnace will
have low temperatures or dew point conditions must be considered.
3.7.4.2 Stationary Heat Flux (Flow) Through a level and Multi-Layer Wall
In the stationary case t.9j and t9a remain constant and the other peripheral conditions do not change in regard to time.
The heat flowing from inside the hot furnace to the wall is the same as that being conducted through
the wall and, subsequently, given off by the wall to the cold air outside. According to the expositions
in 3.7.2 and 3.7.3 the following applies for the connected heat flow (flux) density:
for the heat transfer inside
3. Design 149
150 3. Design
In regard to the importance of the model one speaks about the heat flow (flux) density q also of heat
loss per time and surface unit. During the time z the energy amount
is pushed in the form of heat, by way of surface A, out of the inside of the furnace to the outside. This
heat must be replaced continuously by a heat source to ensure that the process remains stable and
stationary at the same time.
3.7.4.3 Stationary Heat Flux (Flow) Through a Cylindrical and Multi-Layer Wall
As far as the calculations for the heat flux through a cylindrical, multi-layer wall are concerned, these
are analogous to those for the level wall by considering corresponding thermal resistances.
The wall consists of n layers with an inner diameter Ok and border layer temperatures Ok (k = 1 to n +
1). Dj = 01 is the inner diameter and 0n+1 = 0a is the outer diameter of the hollow cylinder. 151 is the
temperature on the inner surface and tJn+ 1 is the temperature on the outer surface; l3j is the
temperature in the inside of the pipe and l3a on the outside.
The following applies for the heat flow inside or outside according to (3.6) and considering the heat
flow (flux) density based on the length of the pipe:
3. Design 151
and the thermal conduction resistances of the wall already discussed in section 3.7.2.4:
3.7.4.4 Calculation Examples for Heat Flux (Flow)

If one looks at the lower part of an aluminum melting furnace with the refractory lining consisting of
three layers:
st
1 layer: bauxite brick s 1 = 300 mm = 0.300 m (4.19)
nd
2 layer: insulating refractory castable 51 = 120 mm = 0.120 m
rd
3 layer: heat-insulating brick 53 = 65 mm = 0.065 m
The steel casing of the furnace does not have to be considered because it has no influence on the
surface temperature due to the high thermal conductivity of steel.
The focus is on a level bottom section which is far enough away from the corners so that the
calculation methods in section 3.7.4.3 can be used for the level wall.
The aluminum bath is kept at 900°C and the surrounding (ambient) temperature at 30°C. With the
designations in section 3.7.4.1 this yields the following peripheral conditions:
13; = 900 [OC] ai = 10,000 [W/m2K] (4.20)
iJa = 30 [OC] aa = 14 [W/m2K] (4.21)
The indicated heat transfer coefficients are based on experience. Since the liquid aluminum is in
direct contact with the furnace wall it is obvious that a high count rnust be applied for inside.
However, the precise value (count) is not at all important for the result. Here the right magnitude in
th
form of the 10 power is sufficient.
According to (4.8) the following applies for the heat transfer resistances
152 3. Design
VM1 designates the mean temperature in the first layer and, correspondingly, VM2 the mean
temperature for the second layer and 19M3 the mean temperature for the third layer. For the first
calculation step, for which the border layer temperatures also still have to be determined, these
temperatures must be estimated, for example:
3.Design 153
For the total thermal resistance and heat flow (flux) count the following applies according to (4.9):
154 3. Design
Table 3.7.2: Results table for heat flux calculation

In the upper part this table contains all constant values/counts based on peripheral conditions and
wall design for all calculation steps. The mean temperatures are estimated for the first calculation
step and for the next steps they are derived from the border layer temperatures calculated in the
bottom part (to the preceding step). The A-values/counts belonging to the mean temperature are
taken from Fig. 3.7.10.
3. Design 155
3.7.4.5 Computer Calculation of Heat Flux (Flow)

The calculation methods developed and illustrated in the preceding sections are the basis for
corresponding computer programs. The different materials are placed in a databank with information
needed for calculations such as bulk density} specific heat} service limit temperature and thermal
conductivity. For the thermal conductivity one records several substantiated values (counts) that are
connected to different temperatures so that the thermal conductivity for the specific layer
temperature being calculated can be adjusted automatically by the program via interpolation.
The program user only needs to enter the wall design in form of material designations, layer
thickness and peripheral conditions for heat transfer inside and outside. Possibly even calculation
options are offered for the heat transfer values (counts). This enables the user to quickly calculate
alternatives for the wall design in regard to different materials and layer thickness. In this connection
reference is made to the objectives formulated in 3.7.4.1 and the discussion of wall design in 3.7.5.
If service limit temperatures are recorded in the program there will be warnings if these
temperatures are exceeded. Some programs offer the possibility to modify the thermal conductivity
values (counts) interactively via a factor in order to assess their influence on the result. The result is
usually illustrated automatically in graphical form.
Figure 3.7.11 shows the computer printout of the result for the calculation of a level wall lined with
unshaped refractories (monolithics).
Figure 3.7.12 shows the Computer printout of the result for a cylindrical wall.
3.7.5 Discussion of Wall Design

3.7.5.1 Comparison of Various Wall Designs
Figure 3.7.13 shows three different wall designs next to one another. The walls have the same
thermal peripheral conditions and consist of three layers. The wall thicknesses were designed so
that a furnace casing temperature of 80°C will be achieved. The heat losses in stationary state are
2
the same due to the given conditions and are in the range of 802 to 809 W/m . There are differences
in regard to the storage heat which, as already discussed in section 3.7.1.4, is of importance for
furnaces operated periodically. The following are the results:
Example 1: storage heat 121
Example 2: storage heat 42
2
Example 3: storage heat 8 [kWh/m ]
The conventional or standard wall design (1) will resist heavy mechanical stress. This characteristic
is already much more limited for the wall out of insulating refractory brick (2) and non-existent for the
pure fiber lining (3). However, the fiber wall can be subjected to intensive thermal shock, for
example. The operation conditions will be the decisive factor when making a decision in favor of one
of these three wall types.
3.7.5.2 Demand for Thin Wall Design

If extremely thin walls are requested} there is the possibility to install microporous G insulation
materials with extremely low thermal conductivity. However} an additional layer out of a different
material is usually required due to their low resistance to mechanical stress and relatively low
service limit temperature of approximately 1,000 QC.
3.7.5.3 Demand for Low Outside Wall Temperatures
Low outside wall temperatures are a sign of low heat loss. If, however, very low outside wall
temperatures are requested by furnaces operators, then the refractory lining will be too thick and
156 3. Design
3. Design 157
158 3. Design
3. Design 159
not as efficient. If, on the other hand ,one

permits high outside wall temperatures, the
high heat loss will increase operation costs.
Investment in a wall design that takes
required technical and energy factors into
consideration may contradict the objective of
keeping overall operation and process costs
low. In the end, it is necessary to make a
compromise. As a general rule it may be
assumed that heat insulation is efficient if the
outer wall temperature is between 6 and 1 0
% of the inside temperature of the furnace or
plant.
3.7.5.4 Subsequent Heat Insulation on

the Outside
Older plants and furnaces are often operated
with high outside wall temperatures and
resulting high heat loss. Consequently, with
increasing energy prices, the question is often
posed if subsequent heat insulation is called
for. It is rarely possible to install additional
heat insulation on the cold side. If an
additional layer of mineral fibers, for example,
is installed on the outside it is possible to
lower the outside wall temperature and
reduce heat loss. However, the layer
temperatures inside the wall will increase
tremendously as shown in Figure 3.7.14.
This increase in temperature can effect that
the service limit temperatures of the installed
refractories are exceeded resulting in
substantial damages.
Additional insulation on the outside can be
applied without limitation when drying plants
or furnaces. The temperatures remain
relatively low and drying can be speeded up
with the assistance of additional insulation.
3.7.5.5 Subsequent Heat Insulation on

the Inside
Additional heat insulation on the inside is
conceivable on the inside of refractory linings
in plants or furnaces with a standard lining
design. The objective is t~ reduce heat flow
(flux) through the furnace wall or lower the
storage heat. Additional heat insulation is of
special interest for furnaces not operated on a
continuous basis because a tremendous
amount of energy is always needed to heat up
the brickwork.
160 3. Design
An additional lining out of ceramic

fiber modules is certainly of
interest if a complete new lining
of a furnace is too expensive and
the production process does not
present a
. problem. The ceramic fiber
'modules are "wallpapered"
(veneering G) on the inside of the
lining. This will significantly
reduce the storage heat of the
entire wall. Far less time will be
required for heating-up and
cooling down.
A typical furnace in the steel
sector serves as an example.
The furnace lining consists of:
- 250 mm dense refractory
material on the hot side (face)
- 75 mm heat insulation layer
-100 mm heat insulation layer
The furnace chamber
temperature is 1) 100°C and
alternatively 1,400 QC. The
energy savings indicated in Table
3.7.3 are accomplishable with
additional heat insulation on the
hot side (face). The data refer to
heat loss in walls and roofs in a
stationary operation state.
3.7.6 Non-Stationary Calculation

3.7.6.1 The Fundamental Equations of Non-Stationary Heat Flux (Flow)
A wall is observed that is subjected to different terl1peratures on both sides. These temperatures
change over a period of till1e, for example in a furnace wall during the heating-up period. The heat
flowing from the inside to the outside and the temperature gradient in the wall will also change as
time passes by.
The temperature field tJ:= tJ (x,t), which is dependent on tin18 t and location X, is determined with the
following equation:
3. Design 161
With different layers, the values (counts) for thermal conductivity, specific heat and density are
dependent on the locus coordinate. In the previous sections it was mentioned that at least for the
coefficient of thermal conductivity the dependency on temperature must be taken into consideration
additionally.
The partial differential equation (6.1) results from looking at an "infinitesimal!! wall segment with
squared bricks and the edges dx, dy, and dz. Due to a temperature gradient in direction x a certain
amount of heat will enter the squared brick through the cross-section surface dF := dy dz in the time
dt. Corresponding to (2.4) the following applies for this heat amount according to the Fourier series
(2.13)
162 3. Design
The peripheral conditions (6.2) and (6.3) describe the heat transfer (transmission) at the inside and
outside of the wall. The inside temperature 19; = 19; (t) and the outside temperature t3a = z9a(t) are functions
of time as well as the surface temperatures 19{OJ t) and [)(sJ t) which must be viewed separately.
Equation (6.4) gives the initial state. 190 = 190(x) is an initial temperature distribution considered to be
known, for example the result of a corresponding stationary calculation.
The system, can only be precisely solved for a few exceptional cases. I n practice one works with the
methods of approximation which are based on difference calculus or finite element methods (FEM G).
3.7.6.2 Difference Calculus with Constant Material Counts (Values)

In explaining difference calculus (methods) it is assumed at first that the material counts (values) are
constant. In other words, the wall consists of only one refractory material and the material counts
(values) are not dependent on the temperature. For this simple case the so-called thermal diffusivity
3. Design 163
164 3. Design
For n = 1 the matrix elements and the right side of the system are known. By solving the equation
system one gets the connected temperature values (counts) with which it is possible to calculate the
required values (counts) for the next time step n = 2 and so on.
The standard methods are to be applied when solving the equation system (for example MARSAL).
It is significant that the matrix is diagonally dominant and, consequently, the system is clearly
resolvable. However, one must always remember that one only gets a solution of the difference
equations and, consequently, only an approximation of the temperatures determined by (6.1) to
(6.4). By perfecting discreteness, that is reducing the step ranges hand k, one will tend to increase
approximation preciseness. It is necessary to be careful because time and locus discreteness must
be in a certain relation to one another if the convergence of the method is to be ensured.
Mathematical scrutiny leads to the sufficient stability condition:
3.7.6.3 Difference Calculus with Various Material Layers

Now let us take a look at a wall consisting of J various layers. For each layer j a locus discreteness
is done and tailored to the specific layer thickness Sj so that:
4.Design 165
166 3. Design
In contrast to section 3.7.6.1 the system matrix is not constant due to the A-values changing over
time. Consequently, as far as effort is concerned, there is no difference if one allows the changing of
heat transfer coefficients over time with (6.28) and (6.31). Furthermore, it can be appropriate to
calculate with a different time step range k. The method can also be modified according to the
CRANK-NICOLSON method.
3.7.6.4 Difference Calculus for the Cylindrical Wall
As for the stationary case with the cylinder the temperature field is locally only dependent on the
radius (. For this rotation-symmetrical, non-stationary case the following applies for the temperature
field 1.9 = tJ{r; t) being sought:
One gets this system by transferring to cylinder coordinates from the general three-dimensional
peripheral count problem in section 3.7.7.1. Except for the additional addends in (6.32) the problem
is identical to the level case if one replaces x = ( and the section [O,s] with the interval [Ri,Ra].
Consequently, one may generally work analogous to the level case and look at tile temperatures at
discrete radiuses (m. If (m is inside a material layer and after subjecting equation (6.32) to
discreteness one will get the S8rlle expressions as in (6.26). On the right side only the additional
term
must be added as addend. For the case, where rm marks a material border, the equation (6.27)
continues to be valid in analogous manner.
2.Design 167
As is the case for a level wall, one replaces Am n by Am n-1 in all equations and finally gets a
tridiagonal equation system again. There is an additional term
If the inner radius Ri is large over against the wall thickness Ra - Ri, then Zm is small over against the
first expression in Lm or Urn' In practice with a large inner radius one will not obtain a difference when
compared to the result for the level wall.
If, however, the inner radius is very small over against the wall thickness, then Zm can endanger the
diagonal dominance and stability of the system if the values (counts) are high for the temperature
conductivity coefficient aj = Aj / (Cj0')' Here the application of FEM will be of assistance even though this
will also require the observance of a corresponding stability requirement.
3~7~6~5 Calculation Example for a Level, Two-Layer Wall

A level, two-layer wall out of refractory bricks and insulation material is taken as an example to
explain this method. Details are provided in Figure 3.7.18. At the start the wall temperature is
constant and equal to the outside temperature of 20 ac. The wall is then heated up on the inside (left)
to 200 ac within 15 minutes. After 15 additional minutes the final temperature of 245 ac is reached.
This process is illustrated graphically in Figure 3~7.19 as heating-up curve.
In the brick layer the A-values (counts) and the values for p and c in the observed temperature
range are considered to be constant. Consequently, for m = 1 to 3 and for all time steps n:
For the insulation layer a changeable A-value according to Figure 2.3.1 is assumed. A stationary
comparative calculation to the 245 ac final temperature shows that the insulation layer heats up to
maximum 220 ac. In this range Aos stays below 0.1 so that for m = 5 and 6:
168 3. Design
3. Design 169
for m = 1 2, 3 in the refractory brick layer:

J
The values (counts) for the next time step can be calculated with the same matrix because in the
insulation layer there is no noticeable change of temperature based on the initial temperature of 20
ac. Only the right side has to be adjusted where the peripheral condition after 6 minutes and the
results from the first step have to be inserted:
Solving the equation system with this right side gives the approximation for the temperature
distribution after 6 minutes and so on. As things progress it will be necessary to recalculate the lower
part of the matrix at each step after adjusting the Aos-values (counts).
Altogether one gets the temperature curve illustrated in Figure 3.7.19. In addition to the heatingup
curve, the temperature developments on the inner surface and at the material border surface are
plotted. The dotted curves belong to the already implemented discreteness. The continuous curves
belong to a computer calculation with a fivefold perfected locus discreteness and a time step range of
k = 0.005 rh]. These curves can practically be viewed as the precise solution. One notices that already
after rough discreteness the temperature distribution is generally reflected correctly. The temperature
fluctuations show a somewhat sudden effect. However, the deviations
170 3. Design
are compensated as time passes. For example, the deviation after 90 minutes is 5 % but only at 0.2
% after 900 minutes. After 900 minutes the stationary condition has practically been reached.
3.7.6.6 Example for Cooling and Heating a Wall
The flue gas temperature in a cyclone duct has a temperature of 850°C in stationary condition and
is cooled down to 300 °C with in 30 minutes. After 5 hours the flue gas is heated back up to 850°C
within 60 minutes. The temperature curve in the first layer of the refractory lining is examined and
the resulting thermal cycling for the other layers. One notices that the second layer - due to the
slowness of heat transfer - is not confronted with intensive thermal cycling. Such examinations are
conducted often in regard to thermal stress and the refractory material to be installed in
consideration of this type of stress.
3.7.7 Multi-Dimensional Problems

3.7.7.1 General Mathematical Description of the Peripheral Value (Count) Problem
In generalizing equation (6.1) one gets for the general three-dimensional case the partial differential
equation:
3. Design 171
in range B at the starting time.

Here temperature 19 = 19(x,.xz, t) is a function of the locus coordinates (x1.xz) from B and time t from the
observed time interval. tJu is a given ambient (surrounding) temperature, possibly dependent on tinle
t and 290 which is the start (initial) temperature dependent on (x,.xz).
For the observed applications, range B is the part of a refractory wall consisting of several materials
having different geometrical designs and different material values (counts) A, p, and c. As already
discussed in section 3.7.6. peripheral conditions must be inserted at the border surfaces instead of
the differential equation. Further peripheral conditions in form of (7.2) result from heat transfer by
convection and radiation if the observed area has intermediate spaces for ventilation or product gas
layers.
In solving the system one will have to depend on numerical methods. The above form of problem
description is the approach to the problem for corresponding discreteness methods where - as
already illustrated in section 3.7.6 for the one-dimensional, non-stationary case - the differential
quotients must be substituted by suitable difference quotients. However! FEM is being applied more
frequently. These methods are based on the solution of the equivalent variation problem connected
to the above peripheral value (count) problem.
3.7.7.2.Setup of a Calculation Model
Thermal calculations in refractory engineering often present multi-dimensional problems, e.g. for
consoles, anchoring equipment, walls with pipes, expansion joints and corner areas. Independent of
the applied calculation method it is important to suitably limit the calculation range. Symmetry
conditions and the known or assumed peripheral conditions from the processes form the base for this
limitation. An example:
Due to symmetry conditions the range to be observed for the calculation can be limited to the
hatched part. If one looks at the lines having the same temperature, the so-called isotherms, these
run vertically to the inside symmetry edges. There the normal line derivation of the temperature must
disappear whereas at the remaining model limitations the peripheral condition must be described by
non-trivial heat transfers (transmissions).
The area is now classified according to installed materials. Detailed classification depends on the
calculation method to be applied - either discreteness method or FEM.
Figures 3.7.22 and 3.7.23 clearly exemplify tile advantages and disadvantages of both methods.
With the discreteness method the curvatures must be replaced with steps. With FEM a greater effort
will be required for the calculative recording of the net: Description of the node coordinates, allocation
of nodes and elements. However, modern programs offer graphically supported net generators so
that FEM has now established itself.
172 3. Design
3.7.7.3 Presentation of Results, Comments on Practice

The solving of multi-dimensional calculation models naturally provides a tremendous amount of
results and data. The number of calculated temperature values (counts) and possibly the high
number of temperature values (counts), which must be carefully observed, increase enormously with
the size of the model and level of discreteness. Consequently, a suitable form fl1USt be found to
present the results in a way that is clearly organized. In earlier days it was necessary to spend hours
to manually evaluate extensive computer printouts. Today the programs automatically print out
graphical illustrations.
Figure 3.7.24 shows the delimitation of the isotherms in color and the spread over the surface in
connection with the calculation of the tell1perature distribution in a suspended roof. The calculation
of the temperature distribution in a suspended roof is a typical 3D example. Depending on the setup,
the problem can also be calculated as a rotation model with some limitations. Generally the
temperature of the cast iron is to be calculated. In regard to the statical strength of the roof this
temperature can be critical depending on the existing roof insulation.
This form of presenting or illustrating the isotherms is likewise suited for more complex three-
dimensional models by observing the connected two-dimensional interfaces for the "critical layers" .
3. Design 173
174 3. Design
The user must possess some level of experience when dealing with multi-dimensional problems in
order to suitably delimit the calculation model and correctly interpret the results. For real 30problems
it is recommended to make 10 or 20 comparative calculations in order to correctly assess the higher
dimensional effect.
This applies specifically for multi-dimensional, non-stationary calculations where the effort required is
far greater than what is required for the stationary calculation. For each time step one calculation is
required that is comparable to the stationary solution. In case of "feedback" due to thermal
conductivity coefficients depending on the temperature possibly more calculations may be called for.
Furthermore, in comparison to the stationary model the discreteness must be perfected at least near
the heat transfer points in order to transmit the change at the heat transfer locations lion time" to the
inner points (locations). On the other hand, the stability requirement (6.19) must also be observed
when applying FEM. In both cases it is usually only possible to work with a very small time step
range. The difference methods discussed in section 3.7.6 are, consequently, still important for the
one-dimensional case despite modern FEM-programs.
3.7.7.4 Example of FEM Calculation, Connection with Stress Calculation

The operators of industrial furnaces and plants always want to keep heating-up times and,
consequently, commissioning of their furnaces/plants as Short as possible. However, ceramic
materials can only be subjected to certain amount of thermal stress. Too sudden heating of the
ceramic materials can effect impermissible high stress in the ceramic materials resulting in
permanent damage.
3.Design 175
Heating-up tests with near to practice conditions are quite expensive. Model calculations with FEM
offer temperature counts and stress counts but give no indication as to the amount of stress
required to cause initial damage in the ceramic materials.
Upon the request of DGFS (Deutsche Gesellschaft Feuerfest- und Schornsteinbau) experimental
tests and accompanying FEM calculations were conducted in order to obtain quantitative
statements from FEM. As part of this project corresponding tests were conducted on a cylindrical
specimen (diameter 0 :::: 0.1 n1fTI, height H :::: 0.1 m) made of refractory castable (LC 50).
Figure 3.7.25 shows the generated FEM net for tile temperature and stress calculation. Due to the
symmetry only 1/4 of the specimen was examined. Corresponding to the statements at the end of
section 3.7.7.3 the FEM net was perfected to the side and specifically to the side of the casing
surface via which the specimen was heated up ..
Figure 3.7.26 illustrates the temperature progression calculated with FEM and Figure 3.7.27 the
temperature distribution after a heating-up time of 5 minutes. In the practical test conducted parallel
the first damage was already noticed at this time.
176 3. Design
In correlation to Figure 3.7.26, Figure 3.7.28 shows the temperature progression determined
experimentally at the measuring spots M1 to MS with the echo impulses (vertical lines) for
damages. Figure 3.7.30 shows the calculated main thermal stress (tensile stress) for this time and
Figure 3.7.29 shows the cracks in the specimen. Practical test and calculation agree in that:
maximum tensile stress (red area in Figure 3.7.30), which is responsible for crack formation, is in
the middle of the specimen where the crack is localized after the specimen has been cut open.
Figure 3.7.31 illustrates the maximum main stress calculated with FEM and the heating-up time.
The point of first damage is also shown. A parallel test, in which the first damage occurred after 7
minutes, gave a corresponding result. When comparing FEM calculation and the actual test with a
specimen, there is overall a critical stress range of 15-16 [MPa] which can then be used as
assessment criteria for additional FEM calculations for this type of material. However, this is only
applicable to the extent one can consider this result to be independent of the size and shape of the
refractory castable parts.
Fig. 3.7.26: Temperature progression calculated with FEM in a specimen

3. Design 177
178 3. Design
3. Design 179
3.8 Static Calculations of Load-Bearing Parts Taking the

Temperature Influence into Consideration
P. Noakowski, U. Posingis
3.8.1 General
In planning and designing refractory linings it is often noticed that the bearing (support) capacity of
proven constructions can often not be proven with traditional calculation methods. Static
verifications generally provide for higher loads than actually occur. Consequently, refractory
engineering is still one of the few construction sectors where extensive static verifications are
seldom made or requested. The experience of the experts is of primary importance in the planning
and design stage of a refractory lining.
This situation is explained by the special importance and indeed "cleverness" of materials in their
behavior as part of a refractory construction. These peculiarities can often not be taken into
consideration by mathematical calculations. Therefore, one must rely on theory and practical
experience.
The most important factors to be considered for a static analysis of a refractory construction part
are:
- The walls consist of several layers which have different functions to fulfill such as refractoriness,
heat insulation, and load-bearing capability.
- Stress consists of load and constriction as a result of temperature. Usually constriction is .
predominant.
- Temperatures are often at 1,500 °C and above.
- Furnaces are heated up quickly resulting in predominantly non-stationary temperature
conditions.
- The individual layers/courses are usually bricked. There are small gaps in the joints which can in
part absorb the thermal expansion.
- In regard to tensile strength at high temperatures the brickwork joints are weak spots. They open
up as soon as the low tensile strength of the mortar is surpassed.
- In order to prevent larger deformations due to the temperature stress, the construction parts
are often designed with a system of expansion joints.
- The materials do not deform linearly once subjected to greater pressure loads.
What are the appearances which, based on these circumstances, determine the behavior of
refractory constructions to an extent that they differ from the behavior of ordinary constructions?
This question is to be answered by taking a closer look at Figure 3.8.1 showing a bricked beam.
The beam is heated uniformly to temperature T and subjected to rigid constriction at the left end
and elastic constriction at the right (spring constant cδ), There are small and undesired joints δFi
between the individual bricks. Between the right end of the beam and the elastic abutment the
desired joint δFa is located.
The objective is to now determine the force of pressure N which occurs as a result of heating. The
determining factor for N is found by equating temperature expansion δT with the following
deformations (strain):
-- undesired joints ΣδFi between the individual bricks,
-- given joints δFa between beam and abutment,
180 3. Design
- elastic compression of the beam δN and

- give of the abutment δA
On this basis it was possible to develop the formula in Figure 3.8.1. The constriction force of
. pressure N will depend on
- constriction cause αT T,
- total width of inner joints ΣδFi
- width of outer joints ΣδFa
- expansion stiffness of beam E . A and
- stiffness of abutment cδ
Now the individual elements of the so-called "cleverness" of materials have been mentioned. The
following must be taken into consideration for the mathematical calculations:
- The inner joints can only be estimated as a percentage share of the actual joints between the
bricks.
- For reasons connected to bearing capability in cold state it is not always possible to provide for
expansion joints.
- The stiffness of the beam will change with increasing stress due to aging and crack formation.
- The stiffness of the abutment cannot always be precisely determined. It will likewise depend on
the degree of stress.
These regularities do not only apply for this example but generally for all refractory constructions.
Based on this, the following will show how, in refractory engineering, the walls out of several layers,
beams, arches, and domes can be statically calculated. The results are always to be viewed as a
function of the assumptions in regard to material values (counts) with all associated inaccuracies.
182 3. Design
4.Design 183
With this procedure it is possible to determine tile temperatures within a wall at any given time for
randomly selected temperature circumstances, that is for changing inner and outer temperatures
Tj and Ta'
Based on the temperature condition existing at a given time, it is possible to determine the
connected tensions as shown in Figure 3.8.2.
- The theoretically free strips would deform according to existing temperatures and corresponding
thermal expansion counts.
- In reality, however, they are "glued" to one another so that a force is exerted on each strip which
holds them together.
- The strip forces are determined by equating the temperature deformation with the total of the free
deformation εO and elastic deformation.
- Since there is no outer normal force present as a result of the assumed bearing, the strip forces
counterbalance each other across the cross-section height.
- The last two considerations lead to the equation for the free expansion εO of the entire wall.
The greatest compressive strain and tensile stresses, δd and δz' which are of most interest to us,
result from the on spot (location) difference of free expansion δ0 and temperature expansion. This
expansion difference induces thermal stress.
2
Tensile stress in bricked chimney lining (waste gas pipe) is limited to 2.0 MN/m according to DIN
1056, 1984 edition. This will prevent excessive crack formation which can cause the lining to leak.
This results in a poor thermal insulation.
For most of the old chimneys this requirement could be fulfilled by controlling the heating-up speed.
If the chimneys are connected to preceding exhaust desulfurization plants, the heating-up procedure
is subjected to limitations. If the exhaust desulfurization plant stops operation, the exhaust
temperatures can climb rapidly. There is subsequent heat retention in the brickwork lining. This
results in substantially greater tensile stress than in most stationary cases with slow heatingup.
Predominantly non-stationary temperature conditions generally effect intensive crack formation.
Several wide separation cracks in the lining will have a negative effect on the service life.
Consequently, either the heating-up speed has to be limited to such a degree that the permissible
tensile stress is not exceeded or the width of the expected cracks is limited, for example by installing
a sheathed reinforcement.
In order to explain these connections, the influence of heating-up speeds on the time progression of
tensile stress is examined for the lining design shown in Figure 3.8.3a. Figures 3.8.3b and 3.8.3c
present the examination results for the assumed lining design. The tensile stress in a disturbance
2
case with extreme temperature increase is 3.0 MN/m . It exceeds the stationary tension of 0.6
2
MN/m , which occurs after approximately 12 hours, by five times that amount. With this amount of
stress, which corresponds to the tensile strength of the brickwork at βz = 3 MN/m , cracks will most
2
certainly develop in the lining.

With decreasing heating-up speed, the "hump" of the tensile stress is less dominant as illustrated by
the time axis in Figure 3.8.3:
2
- curve 1: 180°C after 5 min results in max. δz =3.0 MN/m
2
- curve 2: 180°C after 5h results in max. δz =2.2 MN/m
2
- curve 3: 180°C after 10 h results in max. δz =1 .6 MN/m
As the graphs shows, with a sufficiently slow heating-up speed, the tension curve flattens out and
disappears completely over the time axis. With very low heating-up speeds one may, consequently,
expect small tensile stress which results from the stationary temperature condition.
184 3. Design
4.Design 185
In order to complete the task or solve the problem given here, which is to limit the tensile stress to
δz =2.0 MN/n12} the 11laxilllUI1l heating-up speed should be at 180 K/7 h = 26 Klh as shown in
Figure 3.8.3b. If this is not possible the lining must receive a layer reinforcement which is resistant to
corrosion. Another possibility is to push the lining upwards by placing outside rings in the front.
Compressive strain occurs, for example, in the refractory lining of vessels upon heating-up. It is
necessary to keep a verification record on this. Here the hot refractory layer is endangered.
Intensive compressive strain occurs temporarily on the hot face. This strain is generally limited to
small depths and may effect spalling G. The tensile stress occurring concurrently is usually
absorbed by the steel shell as shown in Figure 3.8.4.
For these reasons, the heating-up speed must be limited in order to protect the inside of the
refractory layer. It can be determined on the basis of an analysis as explained in Figure 3.8.4. One
looks at a refractory lining with the layer design as seen in Figure 3.8.4a. Figure 3.8.4b gives the
examined heating-up speeds and Figure 3.8.4c shows the related time progression of the
compressive strain on the inside of the refractory layer.
Depending on the given heating-up speed there will be maximum counts of compressive strain at
various spots (locations) on the time axis:
2
- curve 1: 1,000 °C after 15 h results in max. δd = 54 MN/m
2
- curve 2: 1,000 °C after 30 h results in max. δd = 47 MN/m
2
- curve 3: 1 ,000 °C after 45 h results in max. δd = 44 MN/m
2
All compressive strain curves move towards the count (value) δd = 37 MN/m which occurs in
stationary temperature condition.
If the maximum counts (values) are connected to a continuous curve, as shown in Figure 3.8.4b, it
is possible to find the related limit value (count) for heating-up at 1 ,000 K/40 h = 25 K/7h for the
assumed permissible strain of 45 MN/m 2. This heating-up speed should never be exceeded during
operation.
3.8.3 Layer (Course) Stress
Refractory linings generally consist of several layers (courses). The individual layers must achieve
the following objectives:
- The hot inside course is to be refractory;
- The middle wall area accomplishes heat insulation;
- the outer steel construction bears the loads.
The wall of a refractory lining must, consequently, be designed in such a way that:
- too high temperatures do not get to the outside and damage the steel construction
_ the individual layers are not damaged by too high compressive strain or tensile stress.
It is necessary to consider both non-stationary temperature stress during rapid heating-up and
stationary during regular operation over a longer period of time.
If the expected non-stationary or stationary temperature curve is given, the connected stress and
tension can be determined according to the procedure shown in Figure 3.8.5.
One must differentiate between two different kinds of stress:
_ Stress/tensions δN and δM coming from the outer constriction which occurs as the result of the
hindrance of the movement and twisting at the ends of construction parts in the form of normal
forces N and bending moments M.
186 3. Design
- Stress/tensions δE from internal constriction (internal stress) which results from the individual
strips not being able to move or shift against each other.
The calculations according to the procedure in Figure 3.8.5 are done as follows:
- The examined wall is subdivided into individual layers and these are subdivided into strips.
- Compatibility conditions are listed for the individual strips in regard to mean expansion and an
equilibrium condition in regard to the strip forces. The mean free expansion EO can be calculated
from this equation system.
- Taking the free expansion into consideration, the compatibility conditions in regard to the cross-
section twist and the equilibrium conditions in regard to the total of the bending
3.Design 187
moments are outlined for the individual layers. The mean free curvature 1<0- can be calculated
from this.
- With the temperature values (counts) and thus determined values EO and 1<0 the internal stress and
tensions are determined taking the properties of the strips into consideration. These tensions and
stress are a result of the hindrance of the free expansion and free curvature.
For this procedure undesired inner joints, temperature dependency, and plasticizing of the material
can be taken into consideration.
The layer design for refractory vessels must be able to accomplish the three tasks mentioned -
refractoriness, heat insulation, and load-bearing capability.
In order to determine the temperature flow (flux) there are a series of numerical calculation
procedures with which it is possible to deal with one-dimensional or two-dimensional temperature
fields having stationary or non-stationary conditions. Data banks with material properties dependent
on temperature are usually of great assistance.
Figure 3.8.6 gives an example of practical work of this kind. Layer stress is to be determined for a
typical wall design out of three layers. The constriction stress builds in closed linings of this type as
described in the following:
- Due to the hindrance of movement of the individual layers there will be internal stress δE;
- the bending moments M result from the hindrance of cross-section twist K0
- the normal forces N are missing since the uniform cross-section expansion εO is not hindered.
3. Design 189
3.8.5 Crowns and Arches

The high temperatures and chemical attack often do not permit the use of unshaped (monolithic)
materials like steel and reinforced concrete. The oldest constructions, such as crowns and arches,
are still of importance in refractory engineering.
Often soft and elastic abutments are used in order to reduce outside constraint. One of the most
important tasks in dimensioning is the selection of the right abutment.
Tunnel kilns and glass furnaces are good examples of typical crown designs. They are long, tunnel-
shaped constructions in which the products to be treated are transported continuously and heated by
burners. The crowns of these furnaces are bricked out of refractory bricks. Heat insulation is placed
on top. The bearing capability of the crown must be guaranteed for all temperature ranges - low,
medium, and high temperatures. This is only possible if the abutments are designed to give. The
crown must be able to twist freely at the abutment. The horizontal side displacement should be
sufficient in cold state and not hindered to a great degree in hot state. In both cases the pressure
resultant (vector) must remain within the cross-section.
Figure 3.8.8 shows a tunnel kiln with a crown 0.305 m thick, a span of 6.66 m and rise of 1.03 m.
The crown is held with connecting rods equipped with disk springs on the ends. The abutments
190 3. Design
can twist freely. Their displacement capability is described by the spring constant of 6 kN/cm.
0
Temperatures in the tunnel kiln range from 0 to 1,000 C
The following criteria distinguish the behavior of the crown:
- displacement δ at abutment
- horizontal thrust H at abutment
- thickness x of the pressure zone in apex
- compressive strain δd at upper and lower side in apex
The connection between the behavior criteria and temperature inside the kiln is examined. It is
assumed that the brickwork joints do not have tensile strength and will thus open upon being
subjected to tensile stress. The cracked cross-sections are capable of bearing loads as long as the
pressure resultant (vector) remains within the cross-section and the compressive strength is
not exceeded.
3. Design 191
The examination results illustrated in Figure 3.S.Bc as function of the temperature permit the
following conclusions:
- In cold state, that is only under the influence of its own weight, the horizontal thrust is 42 kN and
the displacement at the abutment 7 crn. In the apex area the lower joints open so that the
pressure zone height is approximately 3 cm and connected compressive strain approximately 2
MN/m2.
- With rising temperature the horizontal thrust increases and the abutment moves continuously. The
bending monlent of the load, which effects force at the lower crown side, is greatly reduced. At a
0
gas temperature of 330°C the joints close and remain closed until 700 C. At this temperature
the crown behaves best. There are no open joints and the mean compressive strain is only 0.2
MN/m2.
Fig. 3.8.9 a to c: Internal forces and deformations in a laying melting furnace

192 3. Design
With the temperature rising even further, the horizontal thrust increases. The joints at the upper side
of the apex are open. This is described as "growth" of the crown. At a temperature of 1,000 °C inside
the furnace the pressure zone at the lower crown side is 12 cm high and the compressive strain in
2
the range of 0.8 MN/m .
This shows that tile crown behaves quite differently in each temperature range but always
11laintains its bearing capability. According to this procedure it is possible to optimize the
dimensions, stiffness of the abutments, and magnitude and type of stress.
In long, closed steel vessels the bearing capability of the section between the "end lids" is verified.
It is often sufficient to examine the condition of internal forces and deformation state of the vessel
cross-section.
Construction parts of this type are often complicated, closed arches which are hinged. The
dimensions and shape of the arch depend on the utilization requirements on the one hand and on
the deformation sensitivity of the lining on the other hand.
Using the example of a vessel shown in Figure 3.8.9, aspects of this kind are explained. It is oval
and hinged on the side. It can also move in horizontal direction. The vessel consists of a ribbed
steel casing (shell) with two lining layers. It is stressed by its own weight, liquid bath, and low
pressure. The objective is to find the optimum shape of the vessel. The following two general
criteria must be considered:
- Uniformity of liquid bath; this calls for the least possible bottom curvature.
- Tightness of the lining; it is related to the limitations of the deformations and requires a large
bottom curvature.
The result of the examination is given in Figure 3.8.9. An optimization of the shape in regard to
usability and types of deformation result in a bottom radius of R3= 11 .9 m. The lining can absorb the
occurring bending moments and the largest deformation of only 1 .3 mm without damage.
3.8.6 Domes
Standing cylindrical vessels are often closed or subdivided into dome-shaped ceilings. Shell-type
construction parts often have varying thicknesses, inconstancies of cross-section due to local
openings and thicker areas, stress in specific spots, inconstancies in regard to material properties
and elastic abutments. With this number of inconstancies the application of conventional, closed
verification methods is only possible to a limited extent. Consequently, a numerical calculation
procedure was developed for axissymetrical shells with which erratic inconstancies can be taken
into consideration.
The dome illustrated in Figure 3.8.10 covers a space in which temperatures of 1 ,000 °C exist. The
dome is 0.1 mm thick in the middle and 0.2 mm at the side. It has a span of 4.0 m and the rise is
0.53 m. the steel ring at the outer side of the dome is for the exertion of restoring force on the
dome.
Due to the varying wall thickness there are different mean temperatures Mt and temperature
differences ΔT along the span.
Two load cases are examined with an inside temperature Ti of 1,000 QC:
- no load
- load p = 1 00 kN/m2
Tile results of the examination are given in Figure 3.8.10. The most favorable effect of the load is to
be clearly seen in the magnitude of the bending moments. In hot state the bending moments are
reduced by approximately 25 % as a result of the load.
3. Design 193
Fig. 3.8.10 a to d: Internal forces in a crown
Dimensioning of construction parts of this type involves the search for the best wall design, ring for
exertion of restoring force, and load at which the dome is capable of bearing loads in hot and cold
state.
3.8.7 Shaft Furnaces/Kilns

The following damages are often seen in shaft furnaces: . -
-spalling
- wide cracks
- creep appearances in the steel construction
The furnace shown in Figure 3.8.11 is damaged by too rapid heating-up, resulting in spalling of the
brickwork, wide radial cracks in the crowns and creep appearances in the reinforcement rings.
The simplified mechanism (compared to the calculation procedure in section 3.8.3) of layer stresses
out of N and M in Figures 3.8.12 and 3.8.13 refers to a two-layer system out of bricks and steel.
Based on the assumption that the effective distance between the layers remains constant, it is
possible to derive a simple approximation regression for the mean layer stress δN from out of the
normal force N (Figure 3.8.12):
194 3. Design
Fig. 3.8.11: Shaft furnace, design, dimensions and damages

3. Design 195
196 3. Design
3. Design 197
3.9 Expansion Calculations

u. Posingis
Almost all materials expand after being heated. This process is reversible and can be repeated over
and over again once the material has cooled down. In addition to reversible expansion there can be
irreversible G linear change if there are chemical, physical or mineralogical reactions while the
material is subjected to heat.
With shaped products there is already irreversible linear change during firing as part of the
manufacturing process. This change must not be taken into consideration when calculating
expansion in the lined furnace. In contrast to this, the unshaped refractories (monolithics), once
installed in the furnace, are subjected to heat for the first time.
198 3. Design
nd
Fig. 3.9.1: Linear change of a refractory castable after 2 heating
During first heating up to 1,300 °C a specific refractory castable t for example, expands by
approximately 1 %. It shrinks even more during cooling so that at ambient temperature there will be
a shrinkage of 0.2 % when compared to the original dimensions. If the refractory castable is heated
up once again, the expansion is almost the same as the progression of the cooling curve. Here one
can speak of reversible expansion and shrinkage whereas the linear change is partially irreversible
after first heating.
Figure 3.9.1 illustrates the process taking a sintered alumina refractory castable as an example.
The figure shows the absolute linear change on a specimen having a height of 50 mm.
4. Working/Application 201
4. Working/Application
v. Palten, H. POchner, R. Rasch, K. Wagner
4.1 General
The service life of refractory linings and the desired results in regard to thermal aspects will greatly
depend on design, selection of materials, and proper installation.
Work in furnaces with refractory linings must be conducted according to the generally recognized
standards of technology and the regulations for refractory construction work issued by the
employers' liability insurance association.
Each group of materials requires specific techniques for working with the materials and
installation. These are described in more detail in sections 4.3 to 4.5.
4.2 Preparation for Working

4.2.1 General
Careful and expert preparation work is one prerequisite for the procedures at a construction site.
Based on the given cost limits and all safety aspects, it is important to coordinate and consider the
conditions on site, required personnel, construction time schedules, and needed tools and
equipment.
4.2.2 Order Documents
Good preparation works starts with the preparation and collection of all important documents.
These include:
- order documents
- order confirmation
- time schedules
- list of performances
- regulations/requirements of end customer
- location plans (maps)
- work execution drawings
- piece lists
- material supply schedules
202 4. Working/Application
- installation instructions
- instructions for the preparation and use of the refractory materials

- safety data sheets
- special or specific regulations for a foreign construction site
- instructions for drying and heating-up
Any modifications, which arise after the offer has been sent to the customer, must also be
considered.
An inspection at the construction site, if possible with the construction supervisors of the
company which placed the order, is recommended in order to check and clarify conditions on site
before the start of the work. It may even be necessary to invite other parties concerned. The
following points call for special attention:
- Completion or state of preliminary work to be done by the company in charge of the construction
work, for example foundations, steel constructions for the furnace vessels, breakout work
(removal of old refractories).
- Space and storage conditions for the equipment and materials to be sent to the site, space for site
housing and location space for equipment such as mixers, gunning machines, tools for cutting of
bricks, etc.
- Accessibility of the construction site for personnel and materials.
- Hookup loads and locations for hookups for electricity, drinking water, compressed air, and
possibly gas.
- Disposal possibilities for wastewater, packaging materials, and construction site refuse,
- Rescue routes and rescue alarm systems.
- Telephone connections and further communication possibilities, for example telefax and
Internet.
- Special working regulations, for example working hours in the plant of the customer.
- Legal requirements or regulations valid at the site in a foreign country.
- Plant rules or regulations to be observed.
- Weather or winter protection measures.
4.2.3 Order Calculation and Work Record

It is recommended to prepare a work record and work schedule if processing orders with specific
performances and precisely required dates of execution. Such preliminary planning is not possible if
work is done on the basis of payment of hourly work rates or the extent of work cannot be
exactly determined in advance.
The order calculation is the prerequisite for the work record. The order calculation contains all
performances with connected costs and hours that are required to fulfill! the signed contract. The
data on the calculated hours serve to prepare the work record. The complete erection/installation
performance is divided at first into plant parts or construction steps. These construction steps, for
example, can be the furnace bottom in a walking beam furnace, the sidewalls, the suspended roof
and the lifting system. The construction steps are again divided into specific work items, for example
installation of the insulation plates, bricking the brickwork (refractory lining) and installation of the
refractory castables. Performances, Which cannot be allocated to the specific work steps, are
grouped together in the section listing general construction work items. These include construction
management, setup and cleaning of the construction site, material transportation etc. The work
items are indicated in 81110unts and normal/required hours. Table 4.1 serves as an example and
illustrates the work record for a walking bearl1 furnace.
Table 4.1: Work record

4.2.4 Work Schedule and Work Schedule for Personnel

The work record is assessed in the work schedule. The logistics at the construction site and the
requirements of the party having placed the order must be taken into consideration. For the illustration
of the work with refractory materials usually a work schedule as shown in Figure 4.1 is sufficient. The
required personnel depends on the work and space possibilities in the plant and the dates/schedule
agreed with the party having placed the order. Work progress will depend on efficient disposition,
amount and qualification of personnel. Figure 4.1 gives an example of a work schedule with personnel
planning.
4.2.5 Equipment on Construction Site
Construction sites must be equipped with suited construction equipment, scaffolds, tools, construction
site housing, warehouses to stock tools and premium-grade materials which in some cases are
sensitive to weather conditions. In addition to the regular equipment used at construction sites,
special equipment will be required for construction work with refractory materials. For example, the
following special equipment is used frequently for the installation of refractories:
- lighting systems for low voltage
- electric hoists with especially large cable reels for high constructions
- floor conveyor systems powered electrically, by gas or diesel motor
- equipment for gunning unshaped refractory materials (monolithics)
- mobile working platforms
- pumps for the installation of refractory castables
- welding equipment
- ramming equipment, ramming spades
- saws for cutting dry and wet bricks
- bricklaying equipment, for example OAT kiln rig, vacuum equipment
- isolating transformers
- paddle mixers for preparing mortars and mixes
For the use of such equipment it has proven best to record all informative data on special data
sheets. Data is provided concerning dimensions, hookup information for electric energy supply,
consumption of materials, performance, important wear parts, etc. Figure 4.2 gives an example of
such a data sheet featuring a saw for cutting bricks.
4.2.6 Schedule for Preparing the Construction Site
The extent of planning the preparation and setup of the construction site depends on the size of the
construction site, amount of installation work to be done and conditions on site. When planning
erection/installation work at construction sites planning must always focus on storage of materials,
transportation of materials, housing at the construction site, scaffolds and the location of equipment
on site. In addition, the specific safety regulations must always be observed.
For the storage of materials it is important that the refractory materials are arranged in a specific
order so that they are immediately accessible in the order they are needed for installation.
Furthermore, they must possibly b.8 protected against weather conditions. If, for example. refractory
materials are to be installed in winter, it will be required to provide intermediate heated storage
facilities. With larger construction sites and if a huge variety of materials must be put in storage, it is
recomll1ended to prepare a storage plan. It will also be necessary to prepare a delivery
plan/schedule for the incoming materials if there is not sufficient storage capacity.
Fig. 4.1: Work schedule with personnel planning.

Planning of transportation of materials must consider the necessity to have equipment that can
transport materials in vertical and horizontal direction. This is important if materials have to be lifted to
greater heights. Furthermore, for planning the transportation it must be remembered that the materials
must not only be transported to and inside the plant but packaging materials or leftover materials for
example, must be transported back out for proper disposal.
The location for construction site housing is to be chosen keeping a close distance to the
construction site in mind. Workers should not be endangered by plant traffic or other plant operations.
Supply and disposal equipment and systems must be made available.
Scaffolds, work platforms and mobile work platforms must be designed and operated according to
the known accident prevention regulations and applicable standards.
The location of equipment, for example for saws, mortar mixing equipment, gunning machines, is
to be as close as possible to the installation site. If dust is generated when working with such
equipment and machinery, it must be ensured that persons are not bothered or harmed by the dust. If
necessary, dust suction equipment or casing around the equipment will have to be used.
Auxiliary material such as maids, forms, supporting columns etc. must be made available well in
advance.
4.2.7 Start of Work on Construction Site
Work preparation is completed once the construction site is opened and the actual work on site
begins. At this time the construction site manager assumes his responsibilities on site.
The work on the construction site starts with the safety instructions being explained to the personnel
at the construction site. Refer to chapter 8. All materials having already been supplied or arriving
must be checked in regard to completeness and outer appearance (no damages). Furthermore, the
indicated shelf life must be checked to see if it does not expire by the time the material is scheduled
for installation. For large construction sites with a great number of materials it is best to have a stock
and storage administration working with the support of computers.
Before the start of actual construction work the construction site manager must
- be convinced and ensure that all preliminary performances by the involved companies have been
done properly, specifically the condition of the walls, for example dirt, corrosion, surface
protection or coating, dents, cracks, weld seams.
- check the measurements, relative elevation of foundations, vessels, console and anchor distances
on site.
- check the setup and safety of scaffolds erected by third parties.
- receive written confirmation from the construction management of the party placing the order
that a "go ahead" is given for the start of the refractory installation work.
4.3 Shaped Dense and Heat-Insulating Materials
v. Palten, H. PClchner, R. Rasct\ H.-W. Scholz, K. Wagner
4.3.1 General
In earlier days the refractory linings of industrial furnaces and plants were exclusively made out of
brickwork. In recent decades unshaped refractories (monolithics) and ceramic fibers are used
more frequently in addition to the shaped products. For production plants it is very important that
the furnaces/plants can be operated continuously over a longer period of time without interruptions
for repairs. in order to accomplish this more and more premium grade refractories are being
installed. Highly qualified specialists are needed to install these refractory materials. The
profession of these specialists is designated as "firebox construction worker".
4.3.2 Tools
The tools of the "firebox construction worker" are quite similar to those used by the regular
bricklayer. In order to satisfy the high quality requirements connected to a refractory lining the
following tools are utilized:
Rubber or plastic hammers of different sizes to align the laid bricks and to close the vertical
and bed joints. The bricks will not be damaged even when hit hard if working properly with
these hammers.
Hand saws with replaceable saw blades and band saws to work on heat-insulating bricks and
plates including most insulating refractory bricks.
Trowels to apply and spread mortar in various ways and dimensions.
Measuring instruments, e.g. meter stick, level, straightedges, plumb, hose scale, tape
measure, leveling instruments and construction laser.
Rigging chisels and hammers which are also referred to as "Swedish hammers" to adjust to
given shapes, e.g. finishing work on grooves.
Saws for cutting bricks and grinding machinery which are generally equipped with diamond
tools. This will enable precise finishing work on bricks. The standard hammer used by
bricklayers to work on bricks is seldom used in refractory engineering today.
4.3.3 Basic Guidelines for Brickwork in Refractory Engineering
Certain basic rules exist for the bricklaying of refractory bricks. They generally apply for all designs
and construction parts. These rules can be summarized in the "ten commandments" of the "firebox
construction worker".
1. Refractory bricks must be laid horizontally unless the design of the furnace or plant requires
inclined positions or inclinations as is the case for crowns or inclined parts.
2. The construction dimensions in the design drawings must always be observed by taking the ..
indicated tolerances into consideration. The first layer (course) must be installed with extreme
care, aligned and checked before giving the "go ahead" for further bricklaying work.
3. All joints must be filled with the prescribed joint material. Thicknesses of the joints must be
observed taking the indicated tolerances into consideration.
4. All joints must be completely filled over the entire surface with the joint material. This is only
possible if the brick is "rubbed" intensely when being laid. It is not permissible to apply the
mortar with a "collar" because there is the danger of hollow spaces forming in the joints.
5. If, due to size tolerances of the bricks, the prescribed joint thickness cannot be accomplished,
the person responsible for the refractory design will have to decide if it is possible to deviate
from the given joint thickness. Other measures include sorting or sorting out of brick shapes,
finishing the bricks or changing the shapes in exceptional cases.
6. The brickwork must be kept clean, specifically the expansion joints.
7. Already laid bricks can only be aligned in the direction of the bed or vertical joint.
8. Readjustment is not possible if the mortar has started to harden to a greater degree. Bricks not
placed correctly must be removed, cleaned, and installed again with fresh mortar.
9. Bricks with signs of spalling, cracks or slight inclusions may only be installed if these damages
are insignificant or permissible. This also applies for the rear side of the brickwork and for the
brickwork behind. The criteria for the acceptance or rejection are indicated in the specifications
or must be agreed upon mutually by customer, manufacturer and supplier before the start of
lining work at the construction site.
10. Brickwork out of refractory materials must be designed in such a way that no hollow space
forms. Dust and fly ash can penetrate hollow spaces. This results in uncontrolled buildup of
pressures which may destroy the brickwork. Damages can also occur by roaming gases .
Fig. 4.3: Application of mortar
Fig. 4.4: Adjusting bricks

4.3.4 Working and Application Suggestions for Brickwork in Refractory Engineering

The following know-how must be taken into consideration in refractory engineering before actually
starting erection/installation of brickwork.
- Measure, check and compare with the installation drawings before start of work; for example
piece amount (number), number of layers between consoles, expansion joints, anchor
distribution.
- The first layers must be installed and aligned very precisely to avoid unnecessary cutting work
and to obtain uniform joint thickness. In specific cases it may even be required to install a few
layers dry in advance.
- If the brickwork consists of multiple layers it is best to work section by section; for example from
suppot1 to support or from expansion joint to expansion joint and to install one layer after the
other. This is especially recol11mended if the individual brick layers consists of different
refractory grades and must be installed with different mortars.
- If in brickwork consisting of several layers the individual layers are separated by sliding joints, it is
very important to ensure that everything is kept very clean. Preliminary damage can occur quite
easily if the relative movement is impaired by dirt or mortar bridges (pieces).
- If the steel walls of the furnace casing are not level, then the brickwork must be adjusted to the
shape of the steel walls if the deformations only consist of slight waves that are not too deep.
The bed joints must be maintained in absolute horizontal position. The bricks will then protrude
in the form of steps. If, however, the operation conditions of the furnace call for an absolutely
level brickwork surface, the deformations of the furnace casing must be filled with unshaped
refractories (monolithics).
- If the bricks are cut, the given joint thickness must also be considered at the cut edge. For the key
(fitting) bricks in crowns and rotary kilns there always is a minimum thickness requirement of 40
mm which must be observed.
4.4 Unshaped (Monolithic) Refractory Materials
K. Bobbert, H.-J. Grass, V. Palten, H. Schnitzer
4.4.1 Supply and Storage

The storage of unshaped (monolithic) refractory materials is not only of special importance for the
entire construction/installation procedure but also has a major influence on the properties of the
refractory lining. Chapter 2.9 "Packaging, Transport and Storage of Refractory Materials" focuses on
proper handling of refractory materials after they have been manufactured until arriving at the
construction site. Here focus is solely on the time span from arrival on site to installation of the
unshaped refractories and, consequently, only on a few specifics which can result due to the
conditions prevailing at the local construction site.
Unshaped refractories (monolithics) are usually supplied in 25 kg sacks on pallets. The pallets are
usually wrapped with shrink film (plastic covering). Before the arrival of the refractories at the
construction site it is necessary to ensure proper storage possibilities because it is rarely the case
that covered, dry or air-conditioned storage facilities are available close to the construction site. If
sufficient storage facilities are not found very close to the construction site, it is recommended to
reserve a small storage area nearby for the refractory 11laterials needed day by day. The storage
area at construction sites should .
- ideally have an ambient (surrounding) temperature between 15 and 25°c,
- provide protection against moisture weather conditions, e.g. rain, continuous sunshine and
- be orderly arranged ensuring the possibility to check and find needed materials quickly.
Influence of Temperature
High temperatures reduce the setting (hardening) time. In extreme cases the high temperature will
not allow for sufficient time to have the materials mixed, transported to the installation site and
compacted as desired. Low temperatures increase the setting (hardening) time and in extreme
cases many low-cement castables will not set at all.
Influence of Moisture
Moisture has a decisive influence on the shelf life of unshaped refractories (monolithics). Since it is
practically not possible to manufacture and package these materials absolutely dry it must be
correctly assumed that a certain degree of "residual moisture" is packed into the product at the
manufacturing company. This is the basis of the shelf life of a specific product because these
products age due to the influence of moisture. Any moisture, which in addition penetrates the
product, shortens its shelf life and impairs the properties of the monolithic product. The worst case
will occur if the material already sets (hardens) in its packaging. Consequently, it is very important to
ensure that the packaging is not damaged until the materials are applied and installed once having
arrived at the construction site.
Unshaped refractory materials (monolithics) from damaged sacks must be marked "not to be used"
and disposed of properly. Pay attention to the information provided by the manufacturer in regard to
the shelf life.
Control
The supply and storage of the materials must take the installation schedule into consideration and it
must always be possible to continuously check incoming materials, materials in stock, and outgoing
materials.
4.4.2 Placing in Forms (Maids) and Division

4.4.2.1 General
Unshaped refractory materials (monolithics) get their final shape by being placed in a specific
form/maid and/or by being placed between division pieces (dividers) in the construction which
already has a specific shape (design). The form/maid mainly consists of the form/mold skin and the
suspension part.
The form/maid skin is the part of the form (maid) which has direct contact with the unshaped
refractory materials. Consequently, it must
- be impervious to water,
- not give (keep its size/dimensions),
- distribute the load it must bear uniformly to the suspension part,
- lift off easily from the unshaped refractory material once it has hardened and
- be level.
Today one often uses form/mold boards out of glued plywood which is impervious to water. In
addition to plywood and planed boards out of whitewood or pinewood, metal and plastic are also
used - specifically if the forms/maids are to be used repeatedly. If the forms/molds are to be used
over and over again, the combination of a frame out of steel or aluminum and an easy to remove
form/mold skin out of sheet-metal or plastic is chosen. The service life of the frame is much longer
than that of the form/mold skin.
The suspension part must be able to safely absorb without any warpage the forces coming from
the form/mold skin - consisting of its own weight, hydrostatical castable pressure G and the
vibrations from the equipment and tools used for compaction - and transfer these forces to stable
construction parts.·
5.Working/Application 213
The forces can be transferred to the outside via form/maid supports and props (stays) or by
threaded rods with sleeves which are guided through the construction part. If suspension parts are
used with threaded rods it must first be checked with the responsible refractory engineer if this is
permissible ..
Division pieces (dividers) for dividing the sections with working or expansion joints and openings for
manholes, peepholes, burners, measuring equipment often Interrupt" the construction part to be
lined with refractories. These division pieces (dividers) are usually made out of planed boards or
planks. For complicated openings Styropor is often used. Other materials, such as wood, sheet-
metal or plastic, may also be utilized depending on the size, geometry (design), number of
penetrations and forces acting on the form/maid.
4.4.2.2 Insulating Refractory and Refractory Castables
Insulating refractory and refractory castables are installed section by section. The size and shape of
the sections as well as the design of the working and expansion joints are indicated in the
Fig. 4.5: Wall form/maid for refractory castable with form/maid supports
Fig. 4.6: Wall form/maid for refractory castable with threaded rods
specific construction drawings. The sections of the layer on the hot side are usually between 500
and 1 ,000 mm - both vertically and horizontally. The division pieces (dividers) must be sufficient
for the given wall thickness. They are usually designed as an offset joint - the so-called Z joint (also
refer to chapter 3.5.3) - in order to prevent direct heat transfer from the hot side to the layer behind.
The section borders must be arranged exactly in the middle of two anchors rows.
All parts of the form/maid, which come in contact with the refractory castable , are treated
beforehand with form/maid oil or wax. This ensures easy removal of the maids without damage to
the castables which have not completely hardened. Figures 4.7 to 4.12 give details on the work
sequence for walls, roofs and bottoms as well as joint design.
4.4.2.3 Gunning and Shotcret Mixes.

Gunning and shotcrete mixes can usually be installed without forms/maids. However, the
construction parts to be lined are divided into sections and these sections are separated from one
another with division pieces (dividers). In regard to the division pieces (dividers) refer once again to
chapters 4.4.2.1 and 4.4.2.2 above.
Fig. 4.7: Placement of castable in vertical or inclined
walls 4.4.2.4 Plastic and Ramming Mixes
The wall form/maid for plastic and ramming mixes is different than that required for insulating and
dense refractory castables. The wall form/maid for plastic and ramming mixes must be much more
stable due to the higher stress as a result of the compaction work with compressed air hammers.
The form/maid skin consists mainly of solid, planed planks or folded sheet-metal which are installed
corresponding to the progress of the ramming work. Division pieces (dividers) are not used. The
joints are cut immediately after the ramming work. The roof form/maid for plastic mixes will require
an additional top form/maid due to ramming work in horizontal direction. This top form/maid must be
secured against upward movement.
4.4.3 Working with and Application of Unshaped (Monolithic) Materials

4.4.3.1 Mixing, Casting and Compaction
Dense refractory castables are prepared and mixed in paddle mixers. Insulating refractory castables
with a bulk density < 1.2 g/cr113 are mixed in gravity mixers due to their raw material base (e.g.
vermiculite, perlite or lightweight fireclay). The so-called light aggregates would be crushed in a
paddle mixer and the required insulating effect, consequently, lost.
Insulating refractory and refractory castables can segregate during transport. Consequently, they
must first be mixed (premixed) for at least 1 minute in dry state. A two component material I1lust
also first be mixed 1 minute in dry state. During each mixing procedure it is necessary to always mix
the entire content of the sacks. If only part of a sack content is to be used it is nevertheless
necessary to premix the entire sack content and then take and apply the required amount. Only mix
that amount of material that can be applied within the indicated tin18 for application.
Insulating refractory and refractory castables are generally mixed with water and only in special
cases with a different mixing liquid. Since contaminations in the water can speed up or retard the
setting process it is very important to only use water having drinking quality (refer to section 2.8.7).
The required liquid' amount depends on the specific castable grade and is indicated in the
Fig. 4.13: Paddle mixer
instructions for preparation and use issued by the manufacturer. Usually an upper and lower value
(count) are indicated. One always starts with the lower water amount. The upper value may not be
exceeded because upon surpassing this value the physical properties and, consequently, the
service life of the refractory lining will be impaired. In most cases, if the right consistency has been
attained, it will be possible to form a ball with the fist which begins to flow slowly upon slight juggling
(ball-in-hand G test, Figure 4.14). If the ball crumbles the mix is too dry. If it flows immediately it is
too wet. This rule is only valid for refractory castables which are vibrated!
Table 4.2 indicates which mixing equipment must be used for the specific refractory castables.
Furthermore, in most cases the minimum mixing time required is listed. The mixing times must be
sufficiently long in order to ensure complete mixing. Too long mixing must also be avoided because
some castables heat up so quickly that there is the danger of premature setting.
Self-flowing (self-Ieveling) castables must be mixed in high-performance paddle mixers. Insulating
refractory and dense refractory castables are installed section by section. The size and shape of the
sections as well as the design of the working joints are indicated in the specific construction
drawings. Each section must be rapidly filled with castable and without interruption. Compaction is
done by poking and/or vibrating. COll1paction with inside our outside vibrators must start
immediately after the refractory castable has been placed. Inside vibrators ensure optimum
compaction by quick immersion and very slow pulling out of the vibrator. The air can only escape
from the castable this way. Holes will remain in the castable if the vibrator is pulled out too quickly. If
the vibrator remains in the castable too long there is the possibility of the vortex effect or the castable
will separate. The instructions for preparation and use indicate the required compaction times.
Vibrators operate with compressed air or electrically. Figures 4.15 and 4.16 show standard
vibrators.
If applying the pouring (casting)

procedure, the castable mixture is
ventilated (deaerated) during or
immediately after placement by poking
or hitting/knocking the form/mold.
Self-Ieveling mixes may not be
vibrated. They ventilate (deaerate)
themselves as a result of their flow
behavior.
4.4.3.2 Pumps
It is very important to ensure efficient

organization of the transport of
refractory castables from mixer to
installation site when installing these
castables. This is a major concern if
greater amounts of castab!es have to
be installed in areas that are not easily
accessible. In recent years new
processes were developed to install
refractory castables with pumps.
During this process the castable is
mixed and conveyed at the same time.
One differentiates between dry and wet
process.
For the dry process so-called rotor
gunning machines are used. These
machines have a concrete/castable
holder at the end of the conveying
hose. Similar to the gunning process,
the refractory material is conveyed
pneumatically in dry state to the
concrete/castable holder. In the holder,
water is added for the first time via a
water ring. This method is. slowever. a
disadvantage because the refractory
castab!e does not leave the
concrete/castable holder in a
homogenous state due to not being
mixed in a paddle mixer. The castable
leaves the holder in a separated state.
For tile wet process the supplied
refractory castable in dry state is filled
into autoclave machines with
integrated vertical paddle mixer and
mixed with the required amount of
water. After mixing, the refractory
material is transported to the
installation site according to the "slug
Table 4.2: Recommendations for mixers, mixing times and application l11ethods depending of tile type of
refractory castable
conveyance principle. If it makes sense to use an autoclave machine depends on the material type,
material amount! conveying stretch, conveying height and how accessible the installation site is.
4.4.3.3 Gunning, Hot Gunning

For the gunning process there are two different machine systems. Firstly, gunning machines with
rotor system (Figure 4.18) and, secondly, the two chamber system (Figure 4.19).
Fig. 4.15: Vibrator for inside use

The gunning mix is sent by way of a funnel with sieve cover into the gunning machine. For both
processes the mix is conveyed with compressed air to the nozzle piece. At the nozzle piece, water is
injected by a sprinkler part that can be regulated. The amount of water can be regulated by a
hand valve.
The gunned material is mainly compacted by
the impact energy of the coarse grain. The
resulting rebound cannot be used again. In
some cases it may be best to pre-moisten the
dry material before filling it into the gunning
machine.
The following must be considered when
applying the gunning process:
- The gunned mix is to hit the surface vertically.
The gunning nozzle is to be guided by
circular movement of the hands.
- A general rule is to maintain a distance of 50
to 80 cm from the surface being coated with
gunning mix.
- Always work from bottom to top on vertical
walls because otherwise rebound material
wil1 be embedded.
- The water must be added in such a way that
there are no dry spots.
- The required air pressure will depend on the
length of the conveying hose and type of
gunning mix being applied.
Fig. 4.19: Gunning machine with two chamber system
- The required finishing work must be done immediately after gunning work and before setting
starts. The surfaces are to remain in rough state and must not be smoothened.
The gunning process also enables repair work on refractory linings while they are in service. This is
called warm or hot gunning. The gunning lances can have a length of up to 5 meters. For this
process the work/installation instructions described in this chapter apply likewise.
Basic mixes are used for electric arc furnaces, converters and steel transport ladles. High-alumina
mixes are used in blast furnaces and submarine ladles. The binders must be suited so that the mix
- has good adhesion, even to a certain degree on slag,
- is highly reactive and well mixed before hitting the wall,
- contains the least amount of flux agents possible,
- requires the least amount of water possible and
- can degas as good as possible.
4.4.3.4 Shotcreting
The shotcreting method, which has been applied for a long time in underground and tunnel
construction, was able to enter refractory engineering once the companies making machinery
developed and offered smaller machinery to work with.
LC and ULC castables, which can be pumped, are used for shotcreting. They are installed without
forms/molds but with division pieces (dividers). Many castables are developed specifically for the
shotcreting process and almost obtain the strength values (counts) of a standard castable. In
addition, they can be installed very quickly.
The following machinery is required for application/installation: -
paddle mixer
- double piston pump
- accelerator pump
Fig. 4.20: Schematic illustration of shotcrete method

legend: 1 = refractory castable, 2 = water, 3 = mixer, 4 = double piston pumps, 5 = accelerator, 6 =
compressed air, 7 = nozzle
- compressed air with supply line
- mixing and gunning nozzle (Figure 4.21) --

The refractory castable is mixed in a paddle mixer with the required amount of water. The fully
developed castable leaves the mixer and flows into the double piston pump which pumps the
material with high pressure to the installation site. At the discharge/gunning nozzle the castable is
sprayed by the compressed air and, consequently, shot directly to its final location. At the same
time the accelerator (setting accelerator) is activated on the gunning nozzle. It will effect immediate
gelling and stiffening of the refractory castable. This ensures· that the castable will have sufficient
stability and adhesiveness in order to stick to the installation site. There will hardly be any rebound
material. Consequently, the refractory castable can be applied on vertical surfaces and above head.
Due to the quick hardening of the material any finishing work on the surface must be done
immediately after the shotcreting process has been completed.
For technical reasons there is a minimum thickness requirement of 80 mm. The machines used for
shotcreting work require long set-up times and intensive maintenance work. Consequently, the
theoretical installation performance of the specific machine can not simply be equated with the work
performance during a work shift.
4.4.3.5 Ramming
Plastic and ramming mixes are generally supplied ready-ta-use so that mixing is not required.
However, their plasticity should be checked before working with the mixes. in some cases it is
possible to prepare material, which has become too granular or dry, for reuse by adding a slight
amount of water.
Plastic and ramming mixes
are generally installed with
pneumatic (compressed air)
hammers behind stable and
fixated forms/molds. Only for a
few special plastic mixes and
in a very few cases is it
possible to do without
forms/molds.
On walls ramming work is
always to be done in the
direction of the setup. On
crowns ramming work is
always in the direction of the
skewbacks. Refer to Figure
4.22. Each layer should be
rammed over at least three
times but no more than four
times. In order to prevent
lamination, the surface of the
layer is to remain uneven and
rough.
For friable ramming mixes it is
important that the pouring
height is not more than 50
mm. Continuous refilling.
adjusted to material amounts
required as work progresses,
will help prevent lamination.
No hollow spaces may form
during ramming work.
construction parts. which are
parts in themselves, are to be
rammed without interruption.
If interruption of work cannot be avoided, the surface of the last rammed layer can be covered with
plastic foil or wet cloth. If the interruption lasts longer, it is necessary to remove the last layer all the
way to the point where the mix is still in a plastic state.
Ceramic anchor bricks must be arranged in such a way that there is a gap of 5 to 10 mm between
their front edge and the forms/molds. The anchor bricks may not be hammered into the mix. The
anchor profile must be created with special models out of wood or steel. One may also use a
specifically marked anchor brick which, however, may not be used again as anchor brick.
Already rammed linings, which have not yet been exposed to heat, must be protected against frost
and moisture. Suspended roofs, crowns, and other cantilever construction parts must be supported
until commissioning.
4.4.4 Removal of Forms (Molds)
Depending on wall thickness, ambient temperature, and type of material, it is usually possible to
remove forms/molds after 6 to 12 hours when working with insulating refractory and refractory
castables. Cantilever construction parts, such as suspended roofs, lintels, and crowns, require twice
this time before removing forms/molds. If cantilever construction parts must bear loads, it must be
checked if they have sufficient strength to carry loads without supports.
It is generally possible to remove forms/molds immediately after having installed the plastic and
ramming mixes. There are, however, some exceptions to this. Detailed information is provided in
the specific instructions for preparation and use. If cantilever construction parts must bear loads, the
forms/molds must remain in place as long as the load exists.
4.4.5 Subsequent Treatment/Finishing

Generally, refractory castables must be protected against drying out from the start of setting to final
hardening by covering them with moist .cloth or plastic foils or by sprinkling with water for up to 48
hours. This does not apply for most Iow-cement castables. Under certain conditions steam holes
must be poked.
For rammed walls the surface must stay rough and may not be smoothened. If ramming work has
been done behind forms/molds, the surface must be roughened once the forms/molds have been
removed.
In order to let the steam G escape that generates during heating-up, it is necessary to poke or drill
round holes with a diameter of 3 to 4 mm in distances of approximately 150 mm across the entire
wall. Refer to Figure 4.23. In vertical walls these holes must be poked inclined in upward direction.
Fig. 4.23: Poking o~ steam tl0les

Fig. 4.24: Joints formed by use of a special tool (hitting)
Expansion joints, working joints and shrinkage space are to be executed as shown in the
construction drawings. The shrinkage space shall be cut out by hand with a special tool for cutting
joints (refer to Figure 4.24) or with a compressed air hammer and be 1 to 2 mm thick. They must not
be deeper than 1/3 of the wall thickness or 2/3 of the roof thickness.
4.4.6 Summer and Winter Conditions

The application/installation times indicated in the instructions for preparation and use refer to mixing
liquid, dry material, and ambient temperatures in the range of 15 to 25°C. Temperatures above or
below this range can affect the indicated application/installation times considerably.
With ambient temperatures above 30 °C and in tropical areas one can expect the castables to set
quicker. In an extreme situation it may happen that the setting time is less than needed for mixing,
transport, compaction, and application/installation of the castables. Consequently, before beginning
work, the pot life must be determined by way of a setting/hardening test. The following aspects must
be considered when working in high ambient temperatures and in tropical regions:
- Cool and dry storage of plastic and ramming mixes as well as the dry material of refractory
castables.
- Cooling of mixing water with ice, keeping it underground or by sprinkling the supply mains.
- Protect area of installation against sunshine.
- Work possibly at night when it is cooler. ~
- Just installed mixes must be kept moist. An exception to this is valid for some grades.
Subsequent handling and procedures are described in the specific instructions for preparation and
use.
- More steam holes poked in just installed sections out of plastic or ramming mixes. The surface is
covered with plastic foils or wet cloth. It must, however, be prevented that 'condensate builds or
water from other sources gets underneath the cover.
If the material being mixed has a temperature below 15°C the refractory castables will set and
harden slower. Several low-cement castables will not barden at all. At extreme temperatures below
15°C and in winter conditions the following aspects must be considered:
- The dry material of cement-bonded refractory castables must be preheated to at least 5 °C before
working and dry material of low-cement castables preheated to a minimum of 15°C.
- Weather protection measures and use of heaters must ensure that the temperature at the site
of installation does not drop below 15 °C.
- The mixing liquid is not heated above 40°C.
- Frozen plastic or ramming mixes are thawed to approximately 15 °C without loss of mix quality.
4.5 Ceramic Fiber Materials and High Temperature Glass Fibers

(AES)
D. Cicetti, H. POchner, G. Stegh, H. immer
4.5.1 General
Working with ceramic fiber materials and high temperature glass fibers (AES fibers) requires the
employment of expert personnel with experience in work procedures. They must be able to work
with the special tools which are occasionally required.
The metallic anchoring elements are positioned with stud welding equipment. The construction
plans showing the arrangement of the anchoring elements and the instructions for positioning the
modules must be precisely observed. If this is not the case, faulty installation will effect open joints
or leakages leading to impermissible overheating of tile furnace casing (sl1ell).
4.5.2 Wallpapering, Veneering G

Wallpapering or veneering is the covering and gluing of ceramic fiber modules on the hot side of
the refractory lining'. This technique can be applied for new constructions as well as for furnaces
already in operation. In tile latter case the brickwork must first be checked to see if it can serve as
gluing surface.
Adhesive (glue) on brickwork with low strength is critical, for example on insulating refractory bricks
of ASTM groups < 28 and various insulating refractory castables. With these materials the
wallpapering/veneering materials to be installed must often be anchored in addition.
The surface must be free of dust, coatings, loose particles. Cleaning is best accomplished by
applying liquids or brushing. Glazed surfaces must be prepared by blasting or chiseling off the
glaze. Greater unevenness must be rectified before the start of work. The fiber elements cannot be
glued in place until the equalization layer has completely dried and hardened.
The type of adhesive used and adhesion will depend on:
- condition and make of the surface,
- shape of module and type of fiber,
- temperature of the construction parts to be worked onl
- ambient temperature at the construction site and,
- expected operation temperature.·
The adhesive (glue) must have the correct consistency for installation before being placed with a
trowel or spatula on the refractory wall or module surface. Depending on the type of module, the
. modules are aligned in rows, positioned precisely and pushed down tight by hand or with a board.
The modules are offset or each module turned by 90 o.
4.5.3 Layer Design
If ceramic fiber materials are installed in layers, it will first be necessary to apply the anchoring plan
to the steel-sheet casing (shell). The anchoring elements must be fixated at right angles on the
casing (shell). If this is not the case, great difficulties will arise during installation work. If holding
studs are used with nubs, it is important that the nubs point in one direction.
Mats, blankets, plates and felts are installed with installation clips so that they do not sag on roofs
and sit tight on walls. Ceramic fibers on walls should be installed in a horizontal direction in order to
prevent them from sagging under their own weight. Vacuum-shaped fiber products can be installed
in horizontal or vertical direction.
The ceramic caps or heat-resistant metal end clips are not installed until the final layer has been
positioned. If using ceramic caps, in order to simplify installation work the fiber blankets/mats can be
cut out in the area of tile holding studs (cut to shaft length of the ceramic cap) or a cut is made in the
blanket/mat having the shape of an x. Before positioning the uppermost fiber rolls, the holding studs
are to be extended intermittently with auxiliary studs.
After installation of the fiber material, all holding devices and end clips must be checked to see if
they fit tightly. If the holding studs are welded correctly, a visual check is easily possible. If mounted
properly, the clips are arranged in the same direction. The same applies for the direction of the
markings on the caps.
The vertical joints of the individual layers should be staggered. At the impact spots of the rolls, the
blankets/mats are compressed or overlapped.
4.5.4 Fiber Modules G
The most commonly used module is the so-called strip module. It is fixated mechanically or glued.
In order to safely secure the adhesive embedment, a stretch metal suited for the existing
temperatures is attached to the steel casing (shell) with wire nails or by spot welding. Once
positioned, the modules may no longer be pulled out of the embedment.
Flexible ceramic fiber modules are generally fixated directly on the steel casing (shell). The
anchoring elements are welded or screwed to the steel casing according to a given installation plan.
They are either integrated in the modules or are fixated according to the comb-anchor system. The
modules are positioned in such a way that the individual layers point in the same direction. During
installation the modules must be installed in compressed state depending on the given setup and
fixation elements.
Furnaces lined with fiber materials must be inspected before commissioning as part of preventive
maintenance procedures and to keep the shrinkage joints closed. One design possibility to prevent
shrinkage joints is to insert compensation strips out of premium-grade aluminum oxide fibers
between the module rows.
4.5.5 Coatings
Coatings can protect the surface of construction parts made out of ceramic fibers. The instructions
for preparation and use provided by the manufacturers contain more detailed information.
4.6 Welding of Anchors
O. Reuter
4.6.1 General
Anchors are the link between the supporting construction out of steel and the refractory lining.
Since anchors are welded in their final position the weld joint is of special importance. Before the
start of work it will be necessary to coordinate welding work with the welding supervisors because
of all the factors to be considered. These factors include various peripheral conditions such as size
and measurements of the construction parts, materials out of which the connecting parts are made,
welding method, welding position/location, technical instructions, work instructions, construction
regulations etc. The standard methods applied are manual arc welding, arc stud welding, metal
active gas welding (MAG), metal inert gas welding and tungsten inert gas welding (WIG).
Welding work is usually not done by the construction companies in charge of installing the
refractory materials. Most often the welding work is the responsibility of a subcontractor specialized
in the welding sector. There is only one exception to this general rule: the welding of anchors by
the arc stud welding method.
Among the above-mentioned welding methods, arc stud welding is of special importance. The stud
welded in position is not simply a link between construction part and lining. Higher requirements
are set forth for the strength and thermal resistance of the stud.
4.6.2 Arc Stud Welding

4.6.2.1 General Principle
With the arc stud welding method the metallic parts having the shape of a stud are welded to metal
surfaces. This method can be classified according to DIN 1910-2 arc pressure welding. The
method can be executed with hand welding equipment, partially or fully mechanized or automated
equipment.
With the arc stud welding method the surface of the stud head and tIle surface of the (refractory)
material exactly opposite are melted slightly and then joined. Arc stud welding is mainly suited for
round and in some case squared cross-sections and many steel grades. Numerous stud types
used are standardized according to DIN EN ISO 13918:1998. The advantages of this method are
equipment easy to work with, low energy requirement with hardly any distortion, high welding
performance ensuring good efficiency. The different methods in this group differ in regard to
ignition, weld pool protection duration of welding time and energy source.
In refractory engineering only drawn arc stud welding and stud welding with tip ignition are
important.
With drawn arc stud welding with ceramic ring or protective gas the arc is ignited shortly after
switching on the electric current by the pilot current with 30 to 50 ampere effecting the stud to jUI11p
up from the material. Once the stud has no contact to the material the main current is switched on.
The arc burns between 100 and approximately 31000 ms and weld currents between 300 and 3,000
ampere. At the end of the welding time both parts are united with little force « 1 00 N). A ceramic ring
serves as weld pool protection for concentrating the arc and forming of the melt to a bead (also in
forced positions). With the ceramic ring studs having a diameter of 3 to 25 mm can be welded.
Protective gas can be used instead of ceramic rings in case of tub position and with stud diameters
up t012 mm and is special cases up to 16 mm.
A line-powered rectifier serves as source of current which has a subsequent contactor or is
equipped with semiconductors for current regulation and switching as is the case with modern
units.
With stud welding with tip ignition the

ignition is effected by a cylindrical tip at
the head surface of the stud. A capacitor
battery serves as source of current which
supplies current up to approximately
10,000 ampere once the ignition tip
touches the material. This leads to an
explosion-like melting and partial
evaporation of the ignition tip. During the
movement of the stud (joining together
movement) the arc encompasses the
entire head surface of the stud and is
extinguished once the stud has plunged
into the melt. Depending on whether the
stud has contact with the material or is
located a short distance above the
material, once the welding process is
started one differentiates between
- contact method and
- gap method.
A short welding time of 1 to 3 ms is
advantageous because of slighter burn on
the material. The method is preferably
applied for sheet-metal above 0.5 mm
thickness whereby only minimal or no rear
side markings occur.
The advantages of arc stud welding: -
controlled heat supply,
- access to material required only on
one side,
- repeat precision,
- time savings and
- standardized method.
In the following focus is solely on the
drawn arc stud welding method with
ceramic ring because it is the most
important method in refractory
engineering.
Figure 4.25 gives a survey of the
materials, diameters and work steps of
both welding methods.
4.6.2.2 Shape of Studs ~
Stud welding is suited for round, oval, and

squared cross-sections of metallic
anchors. The holding equipment - stud
holder and ceramic ring holder - 011 the
welding gun must be adapted to the
shape of the anchor.
4.6.2.3 Welding Positions
Generally all welding positions/locations are possible. The maximum size of a stud is, however,
limited in various positions, for example
- up to 25 mm diameter on horizontal surfaces,
- up to 16 mm diameter on vertical surfaces and
- up to 14 mm diameter in over the head position.
4.6.2.4 Work Piece Thickness
The stud is usually welded to plane or mostly plane material surfaces. The material thickness
should be at least 1/4 of the stud diameter. If welding studs on pipes, the outer diameter of the pipe
should be at least four times as large as the stud diameter.
4.6.2.5 Equipment
The selection of welding equipment greatly depends on the application purpose. For stationary
operation one selects equipment which is easy to handle and ensures a short welding cycle. For
erection/installation purposes, more emphasis must be placed on low weight and robustness.
4.6.2.6 Types of Stud Weld Joints
One differentiates between two types of stud weld joints:

- Stud weld joints subjected to mechanical stress only, for example support anchors. The details
are described in DIN EN ISO 14555:1998. Information is given on application range, materials,
proof of quality, requirements to be considered by the company doing the welding work, welding
work supervisors, welders, acceptance, inspection of the joints.
- Stud weld joints mainly subjected to thermal stress, for example boiler linings. Classifications are
given in FDBR standard 19 covering drawn arc stud welding, execution, quality assurance in a
similar outline as above. (FDBR= Fachverband Dampfkessel-, Behalter-, und Rohrleitungsbau
e.V. / Association of Steam Boiler, Pressure Vessel and Piping Manufacturers).
4.6.2.7 Application of Stud Weld Joints Preparation:

For perfect welding quality the studs must be dry and not have any oil, grease etc. on them or be
contaminated in another way. The ceramic rings may only be used in dry state. The surface of the
material should be dry at the weld spot, be free of rust, scale, oil, grease, and paints.
Contamination and coatings, including primers, enhance pore formation in the weld. Since for
ignition a metallic contact must be made between stud and material it is necessary to eliminate
metallic layers out of zinc or cadmium form the weld spot. Thick scale or rust layers must be
ground off. Oil and grease are usually removed with a dry rag. In some cases one will need
solvents in addition. The effectiveness of cleaning is to be checked by conducting a few welding
operations as test.
If the temperature of the material is rather low, then for the weld zones it is recommended to warm
the material somewhat and ensure sufficient drying. It may be necessary to provide protective gear
to have protection against weather conditions - specifically strong winds and rain. During welding
work and cooling of the weld seam the welded parts and the welding gun may not be subjected to
any shaking or vibrations.
Positioning: The preferred positioning method depends on the specific application case and the
required preciseness of tile position the stud is to be welded.
The easiest and most Common method for positioning is marking, making slight indentations at the
weld spot or working with a form (template). The tip of the stud is then positioned in the n1arked
area or in the hole of the ten1plate. If the indentations are too intense there can be ignition
problems. It is, consequently, recommended to flatten the tip of a standard indentation tool
somewhat. The stud is then positioned with its tip in the marked area. This method will enable
tolerances of ± 1.5 mm. If a larger number of studs are welded to a construction part it is
advantageous to center the ceramic ring on the hole of the template. This will enable a preciseness
of ± 0.8 nll11.
Spacers underneath the template will ensure sufficient degassing through the ducts of the ceramic
ring.
Sin1ple (stop) dogs can be used if a large number of studs must be welded with the same distance.
The (stop) dog is then put on the previously welded studs.
In simple application cases the vertical position of the gun is accomplished with a 3-point support
having additional feet between welding gun and material. They are also of assistance if welding
studs with varying heights. For other applications it may be necessary to have extensions for the
welding gun, stud holder and for holding the ceramic ring. In such cases it is recommended to check
with the manufacturer of the welding guns.
During stud welding with a ceramic ring, a bead will arise around the welded stud. This bead can
even be shaped by the recess in the ceramic ring. The bead must be considered in all design and
construction work. If a sheet-metal is screwed with a welded threaded bolt (stud), then the drill hole
in the sheet-metal must either be larger than the bead or a washer with the height of the bead must
provided. The lower strength of the welded stud must be considered if the stud type RD (previously
MR) is reduced in diameter at the weld spot and the bead kept small with a ceramic ring on the
outer diameter of the stud.
Grounding and Blister Effect:

One speaks of a magnetic blister effect if the arc is distracted by magnetic fields and, depending on
the strength of these fields, there is intensified melting on one side with the possibility of the weld
bead not being closed. In order to prevent this there must be equal ground distribution and the
current fed symmetrically to the weld spot with two carefully fixated ground terminals. The contact
areas must be clean and polished in a metallic sense. Blister effects enhance pore formation in the
weld bead because more air is swirled into the arc.
The magnetic blister effect frequently occurs when doing welding work on support flanges; for
ground compensation the flange is widened with attached sheet-metal. The various effects of current
and ground distribution on the arc are illustrated schematically in Figure 4.26.
There is also a thermal blister effect in addition to the magnetic blister effect. If the ceramic rings are
not positioned centrically to the stud or if the wrong ceramic ring diameters are chosen, there will be
a one-sided gas stream in the arc due to the formation of metal steam. The arc will be guided in this
direction and the melt bath will also increase on one side. If the bead is not closed on one side it is
necessary to check the space without a bead to see if there are drip noses. Drip noses are generally
not permissible. Defective studs can be removed and welded again or repaired with other suited arc
welding methods.
Pores occur as a result of gaseous reactions of the atmosphere with the melt and by hydrogen
compounds on the surfaces. The metal steam formation of the arc will protect the melt bath if the
intensity of the current is sufficient. The number of pores will, however, increase if the intensity of the
current is insufficient. The same applies if there is contamination of the stud and/or material or if
moist ceramic rings are used. With protective gas (controlled atmosphere) it is possible to achieve
weld beads with a low amount of pores with a wide range for the intensity of current. Good
Fig. 4.26: Blister effect of drawn arc welding
gas conduction and sufficient gas amount are important. The manufacturers of welding equipment
offer the needed devices and special equipment.
Welding cable: A correspondingly large cable cross-section is recommended due to the high
intensity of the current during the welding process and connected decrease in voltage in the welding
2
cables. The cable cross-section is 50 mm for studs having diameters up to 16 mm and cable
2
lengths of 2~ m. A cable cross-section of 95 mn1 is recommended for larger stud diameters or very
long cables in order to keep the decrease in voltage to a 11linimunl.
Connected load: The short but high intensity of the current requires a sufficient connected load. If
this is not considered, there will be an intensive decrease in primary voltage during the welding
process resulting in low intensity of the weld current followed by weld defects or shutdown of the
power supply. The connected load should be 100 kVA for welding studs having a diameter up to 16
mm with a three-phase generator. Most current sources are equipped with stabilized power
regulation which keeps the set welding current intensity stable within certain limits even with primary
voltage fluctuations.
Occupational safety: When welding the studs into position the safety measures listed in the
accident prevention regulations governing "welding, cutting and related work" must be carefully
observed. Further information is given in chapter 8.
4.6.2.8 Quality Assurance

The quality requirements for stud welding joints are established in DIN EN ISO 14555:1998 and in
FDBR 19. Depending on the static load on the stud welding joint the requirements differ greatly.
Stud welding work in a controlled area and for certifications according to DIN EN 729 may only be
conducted after welding instructions have been issued and acknowledged. This
acknowledgement is possible by a welding process test, a test before the start of construction work,
and on the basis of experience. The welding workers must also fulfill certain requirements, for
example proof of having passed the operator test according to DIN EN 1418. During the supervision
of the work one differentiates between standard work inspection, simplified inspection and
continuous inspection. The results of the inspections must be recorded in a work progress journal.
Depending on the application area, the following non-destructive and destructive methods can be
employed for testing and inspecting stud welding joints. The methods are described in more detail in
DIN EN ISO 14555 and DVS 0904.
Non-destructive tests/inspections:
- Visual inspection of the weld bead, refer to Figure 4.27.
- Check of the welding work data: measuring of current intensity and welding time, in specific
cases measuring of stroke and immersion depth.
- Check of melt-down length: studs with the same initial length should - after welding - have the
same length ± 1 mm due to uniform melting.
- Tensile test with a limited load. The stud welded in place can be stressed up to given torque by
using discs or pipe with a torque wrench.
- Bending test with a limited load: The stud welded in place can be stressed over a device with a
torque wrench at a limited bending load (stress) in the elastic area. Refer to Figure 4.28. In a
composite structure a deformation having a limited bending angle is permissible. Welded studs
may not be bent back.
Destructive tests/inspections:
The maximum load (stress) or deformation serves as an assessment criteria in addition to rupture
position and rupture picture. The following tests/inspections are suited and applied:
Fig. 4.27: Typical welding pictures and explanations

- Tensile test.
- Notch-bend test, Figure 4.29.
- Impact bending test, Figure 4.30.
- Micrograph examination.
- Hardness test.
- Radiographic test.
The following standards and technical
rules/regulations apply:
DIN EN ISO 14555:1998-12:
Arc stud welding joints of metallic materials
DIN EN ISO 13918:1998-12:
Studs and ceramic rings for arc stud welding
DIN EN 1418:1998-01:
Welding workers/experts
Instruction sheet DVS 0901 :1998-12:
Stud welding methods for metals - survey
Instruction sheet DVS 0902:2000-12:
Drawn arch stud welding
Capacitor discharge - stud welding with tip ignition
Practical recoll1Tl1endations - arc stud welding
Calibration of source of current - stud welding equipment
5. Application Examples 235
5. Application Examples
R. BrOder} H. ~<north, E. Schnlitt, H. Kerllnitz
5.1 Bottoms
5.1.1 General
The bottoms in furnaces and other plants lined with refractories may have different functions. Often
they must only limit the furnace vessel at the bottom. In addition to preventing heat loss, the
bottom must protect the steel casing and support construction (suspension) against high
temperatures. In operation state the static load of the bottom only consists of its own weight and
during operation interruptions or repairs it consists of the load connected to installation scaffolds or
kiln rigs. Other bottoms have to absorb additional loads consisting of solid or liquid charge material
and possibly also ensure a sealing against infiltration. The bottoms are frequently stressed during
service by thermal shock and pressure. Examples for the first mentioned applications are
reformers and flue gas ducts. Examples for the other applications are glass tanks, blast furnaces,
pusher-type furnaces, and melting furnaces for nonferrous metals. Depending on the specific
function of the bottom, its surface is absolutely level and horizontal or inclined or of a curved
shape. The bottom surface can have the same contour as the bottom of the casing or deviate from
it. The joint thickness is generally between 2 and 4 mm depending on the refractory material and
function of the bottom. If the charge material is liquid the joints should be as narrow as possible.
If the installation procedure permits, the furnace bottoms - at least the uppermost layer - should be
installed last in order to prevent damages. If, for design and static reasons, the bottom is put in
first, for example curved bottoms in melting furnaces, it must be protected against damage,
contamination, and specifically penetration of foreign matter in the expansion joints. If any
unevenness in the casing bottom must be compensated, it is recommended to only use cold-
setting mortars. This will ensure that a stable coating forms as quickly as possible. All bricks must
sit securely and be properly mortared in order to prevent loosening and damages as a result of
edge pressures. It is important that the bottom steel sheets of furnace casings or ducts are not
bent by loads during installation work because this can cause cracks or unevenness in the
refractory lining.
Steel bottoms on a castable foundation must not have any hollow space underneath. Before the
start of lining work the steel bottom must be checked by knocking it systematically with a heavy
hammer. If there is a hollow sound then one must suspect a hollow spot underneath the steel
sheet. This has to be examined carefully by a control (inspection) opening. If there are hollow
spots then non-shrinking pouring mix must be filled in and compacted with compressed air. A
sufficient number of deaeration holes must be drilled or fired so that the compressed air can
escape. The holes must subsequently be shut tight again.
5.1.2 Large-Shaped Bottom Bricks in Hearth Furnaces

Bottom bricks in hearth furnaces, for example rolling mill furnaces, must be installed absolutely
level. The large-shaped, fusion-cast bricks of th~ top layer are often not positioned in a mortar bed
236 5. Application Examples
Fig. 5.1.1: Level bottom with wall conpection
Fig. 5.1.2: Arched bottonl with wall connection, design not suited for liquid charging
but first aligned and then a mix rammed around the bricks. If the bricks are laid in mortar then It must
have a consistency which permits slight corrections when placing the bricks. After hardening, a safe
and solid position of the bricks must be ensured. Setting cars with a specific design are suited for
transporting heavy bottom bricks inside the furnace vessel and for final positioning.
5.1.3 Bottoms out of Graphite and Carbon Bricks

Bottoms in blast furnaces usually consist of large-shaped graphite or carbon bricks. The graphite
bricks, having dimensions of 300 x 300 x 600 mm for example, and carbon bricks (blocks) with
dimensions of, for example, 600 x 600 x 3,000 mm are premanufactured precisely according to the
given size in the 111anufacturing plants. Most often there is a test assembly at the manufacturing
plant.
Subsequent installation in the furnace G must be executed precisely according to the positions and
locations indicated in the drawings. The bricks are transported with large lifting equipment enabling
safe and gentle handling. The bricks are mounted on the lifting equipment with y-anchors, special
lifting pliers or vacuum suction (lifting) devices. Furthermore, the bricks should be transported with
their packaging to the installation location to prevent damage to the edges of the bricks.
For ensuring better thermal conductivity the vertical joints of graphite and carbon bricks may only be
between 0.3 and 0.8 mm thick. A prerequisite is an absolutely level sub-bottom. It usually consists
of a smoothing (equalization) layer out of refractory castable which is installed with great care and
precisely controlled leveling equipment to ensure precise leveling and no elevations. The
measurement between upper edge of this castable layer and middle axis of the blast tuyere level
must be achieved with a tolerance of ± 1 mm. The permissible tolerance for the entire bottom
surface is ± 2 mm.
The installation of the bottom bricks starts in the middle of the furnace and is continued strand by
strand until completion of the entire bottom layer. The middle of the lower furnace is determined by
at least two blast tuyere axes. Before start of installation, the radius tolerance of the lower furnace
casing must be determined with the assistance of a trammel. It must then be decided if the
tolerance can be achieved by pushing the specific layer or if the bricks have to be chiseled in
certain areas in order to secure a sufficiently thick ramming over the entire rear area. After laying
the first strand of bricks, it must be safeguarded against movement with the help of wooden beams,
wooden wedges, and stays.
The vertical joints remain dry or a mastic is applied which is prescribed by the manufacturer. The
bricks must be pressed tight against one another. Each completed bottom strand must be
safeguarded against movement. The joint thickness is checked with joint gauges after placement of
each brick. If necessary, brick surfaces will have to be finished (worked on).
After completion of the bottom layer the space between side bricks and furnace casing is cleaned of
residue with compressed air and rammed or cast in several layers with a carbon mix. Perfect
ramming work behind each layer is very important for the containment and support of the bottom
and ring layers. This also prevents "floating" of entire bottom layers during operation.
Fig. 5.1.3: Arrangement plan for the first layer of carbon blocks in a blast furnace
Fig. 5.1.4: Blast furnace bottoln with hearth and bosh

5. Application Exanlples 239
Fig. 5.1.5: The first strand of bottonl layer 1 is positioned and wedged after all measurements have been
checked
Fig. 5.1.6: Positioning of the next bottom block

5.1.4 Large-Shaped Bottom Bricks in Glass Furnaces
The bottoms of glass-melting tanks are generally lined with large-shaped, fused-cast slabs. They
must remain tight during the entire tank campaign ensuring that no glass can escape through the
bottom. In order to accomplish this, large-shaped, fused-cast bottom slabs are laid on a layer out of
refractory castable or on a chemically-setting ramming mix. This monolithic protective layer is
between 35 and 75 mm thick and always installed without working joints. On this the bottom slabs
are placed in a special mix. Once the slabs are positioned it is not possible to move them again. If
this should, nevertheless, be required the entire slab must be removed and all the mix, too. Next new
mix is applied again and the slab placed in its correct position.
Due to the high weight of individual pieces of the fused-cast slabs, which can range from 80 to 150
kg depending on slab thickness, vacuum suction (lifting) devices are used for placement. The
manufacturer conducts a trial assembly and marks the bottom slabs with numbers. This is important
to ensure fulfillment of given requirements in regard to tightness, service life, and dimensional
accuracy. Next a laying (installation) plan for the bottom is prepared which contains this numeration
and pre-assembly measurements. This plan must be carefully observed during final assembly. The
joints between the slabs must be closed tight and the expansion joints arranged precisely according
to the laying (installation) plan. In order to prevent penetration of foreign matter the expansion joints
are closed with installation foam or covered with paper. In no case may the expansion joints may be
filled with ceramic fiber material. This is the only proper way to enable the expansion joints to close
completely when the tank is heated up. The operator will indicate what method of sealing he prefers
for the expansion joints.
Precise execution of bottom installation in glass-melting tanks is extremely important for melting
performance and energy consumption. During installation work the measurements indicated in the
drawings must be precisely observed and the bricks installed absolutely level. In order to
accomplish this, the bottom beams for the glass tank must be precisely leveled before starting
bottom brick installation work. Once the monolithic protective layer has been applied, its horizontal
position is checked with a minimum 5 m long board and a water level. For float glass melting
furnaces with huge melting surfaces of 400 m 2 and larger, the brick layer below the monolithic
protective layer must be installed with gauges to achieve a height difference below 0.7 mm. Checks
are done with optical-electronic precision instruments.
The blocking bricks in bottoms of float glass tanks are aligned on support steel sheets at four
support spots and then leveled into final position one by one.
Fig. 5.1.7: Positioning of bottom blocks with a vacuum suction (lifting) device
Fig. 5.1.8: Bottom of a glass tank

5.1.5 Bottoms in Bogie Hearth and Rotary Hearth Furnaces
The plateau bottoms of bogie hearth and rotary hearth furnaces have high requirements in regard to
crushing strength, density, thermal shock resistance and heat-insulating properties. This is the case
because the ware being fired is usually only supported at a few locations. Any particles or pieces
coming off the ware being fired and also scale must not penetrate the working and expansion joints.
Good heat insulation is important for efficient operation since the furnaces are heated up and cooled
down quite frequently as part of normal operations.
When designing the refractory lining and selecting the appropriate refractories one must consider the
negative effects of continuous vibrations during operation and when the bogies (strongly built small
carts) enter and leave the annealing furnace.
5.2 Walls
5.2.1 General
In chapter 3 tile design guidelines and regulations are explained in detail. Chapter 4 focuses on the
execution/installation guidelines and regulations for refractory linings. The contents in chapters 3
and 4 also apply for walls. This chapter gives a few additional recommendations and explanations.
Walls are the construction parts which are built most often in refractory engineering. They can be
straight or curved (bomb-shaped). A wall usually consists of several courses. In exceptional cases it
can consist of a single layer only. On the hot side facing the furnace chamber the wall is built out of
shaped dense, shaped heat-insulating, unshaped (monolithic) materials or ceramic fiber materials.
The decision on what material is to be installed greatly depends on the type of stress and further
factors, for example availability and overall efficiency of refractory materials. The decision is made
by the project manager and customer after careful evaluation of all criteria and material properties.
For the rear layers - that is to say on the cold side - various materials can be installed. The.
materials must generally have good insulation properties. These materials, which often cannot be
installed on the hot side due to poor refractoriness and mechanical strength, are described in
sections 2.3 to 2.5.
In refractory engineering most walls are connected by anchors or consoles to the steel shell (casing)
of the furnace vessel. There are also self-supporting walls, for example regenerator and chamber
walls in coke ovens and glass furnaces or the walls of anode baking furnaces.
5.2.2 Walls Connected with the Furnace Shell (Casing)
5.2.2.1 Walls out of Shaped Refractory Materials Connected with the Furnace Shell (Casing)
Figure 5.2.1 shows the corner design of a bricked wall lined with standard brick shapes on the hot
side. These bricks are made of dense materials. During installation work, one starts with the layer
next to the furnace shell (casing). In this case it is a layer of heat-insulating bricks. The second layer
out of insulating refractory bricks is installed as bond wider than the wall at the furnace base (heel).
This layer serves as foundation for the inner, hot side layer out of dense refractory bricks. There are
also other designs, for example the front layer can go all the way down to the bottom steel sheet.
Expansion joints must also exist in the base (heel) area.
Slight unevenness in the steel construction must be compensated. If there are larger deviations the
required measures must be coordinated with the refractory engineer (designer).
The individual layers should extend as high as possible in order to only have to transport the same
material grade and connected mortar to the installation site and to avoid changing all the time.
5. Application Exall1ples 245
Fig. 5.2.3: Bricked wall of a combustion chamber
Installation sections can be scaffold heights or supports, for example. The determined layer
measurements and given bonds must be observed. High walls are also divided in sections in the
upper areas. The upper sections of bricked walls are supported on consoles. Figure 5.2.2 is an
example for support on cast-steel consoles. Often additional anchoring is installed for better
stabilization below and above the supports.
5.2.2.2 Walls out of Unshaped (Monolithic) Refractory Materials Connected with the
Furnace Shell (Casing) .
Figures 5.2.4 to 5.2.7 are illustrations of wall linings out of unsh9ped (monolithic) materials. In all
layers the lining can be out of unshaped (monolithic) materials but also mixed with shaped
refractories.
5.2.2.3 Walls out of Ceramic Fiber Materials Connected with the Furnace Shell (Casing)
Figures 5.2.8 to 5.2.13 show wall linings out of ceramic fiber materials. The ceramic fiber materials
are mats, boards, plates, modules or vacuum-shaped parts which are attached to the furnace shell
(casing) by gluing, with metallic anchors or with combined metallic/ceramic holding devices.
5.2.3 Self-Supporting Walls
Section 5.2.1 already mentioned self-supporting walls in coke ovens and anode baking furnaces.
Further examples include the sliding benches in pusher-type furnaces which - in contrast to the
Fig. 5.2.4: Wall out of unshaped (monolithic) and shaped refractory materials
above-mentioned examples - are mainly out of unshaped (monolithic) materials. Sometin1es they
are stabilized by a water-cooled or steam-cooled support construction.
A good description and example of the design of self-supporting walls are the heating walls in a coke
oven battery (Figure 5.2.14). The walls start at the furnace base {l1eel) and rise layer by layer to the
height of the cover on the coke chambers. In large coke oven plants the heating walls, which limit
the coke chambers sideways, can be 20 ft. long and over 8 ft. high. The walls consist of "stretcher
bricks" and "header heads" which are connected with on8 another by the "headers" (header bricks).
Headers and header heads also form the separation walls for the heating flues in which the
combustion process takes place. Here premium grade silica bricks are installed and the wall heads
are made of a special grade having superb thern1al shock resistance. The walls must be bricked
with tremendous precision so that at the end of the coking period the steel die of the pressure
machine can be pushed through the entire chamber without hitting anything on the side. First the
axes at the beginning and end of the heating walls are measured carefully. Erection starts with
bricking a few layers of the wall heads on the coke and machine side. The stretcher bricks and
header heads are bricked precisely along the string and the sight surfaces must be aligned precisely
in vertical position. All joints must be of equal thickness - generally between 3 and 4 1l1m thick - and
filled completely with mortar. The heating walls are of slightly conical design and are somewhat
thinner on the coke side to ensure better sliding of the coke cake.
5. Application Exanlples 247
Fig. 5.2.5: Wall out of unshaped (monolithic) refractory materials
Fig. 5.2.6: Wall out of plastic mix and shaped insulation materials
Fig. 5.2.9: Blankets (mats) with a layer design

3)
Fig. 5.2.12: Hot gas generator in a solar power plant, lined with ceramic fibers
Fig. 5.2.13: Strip annealing unit with fiber blankets and stretclled metal protection covering
Fig. 5.2.14: Installation of bricks for the heating walls in a coke oven battery
Fig. 5.2.15: View of the regenerator and heating walls of a bricked coke oven battery
Comment: This view of the regenerator and heating walls of a bricked coke oven battery is no
longer possible today due to the latest bricking/installation methods.
The anchor supports are now positioned before the start of the refractory lining work and the walls
are bricked against the supports.
Fig. 5.2.16: Installation of bricks for the chamber walls in an anode baking furnace
5.3 Arches and Crowns

5.3.1 General
Arches and crowns are the top and cantilever end of openings, furnace chambers, gas ducts and
other plants. One differentiates between arches and crowns whose axes run parallel to tile opening
intrados (interior curve) or walls and crowns over round and oval furnace chambers.
The most simple shape of these cantilever construction parts is the serllicircular crown with
horizontal skewbacks. Further designs are derived from this simple shape such as the raised
segmental arch roof (crown) with a rise> 1 : 8 of the span, flat segmental arch roof (crown) with a
rise < 1 : 8 of the span, and flat (arch) roof.
Dome arches are at the top end of cylindrical furnaces, cyclones and hot blast stoves. There are
round and flat domes. Intermediate bottoms in cylindrical multi-tier oven are an example of flat
domes (Figures 5.3.21 and 5.3.22).
Arches and crowns generate tremendous forces due to their own weight. In addition to the static
load, refractory engineering must consider the thermal stress as a result of the expansion of the
refractory materials. These forces are absorbed by the skewbacks and transferred to the walls or
furnace casing.
Figure 5.3.1 shows a bricked segmental arch roof (crown). The most important terminology
covering all types of arches and crowns is indicated in this figure.
5.3.2 Design and Working Suggestions
Sizing of arches and crowns requires that the designer has good knowledge of force distribution
which can vary greatly depending on the type of arch.
Round arch roofs and circular arch roofs (crowns) can pass on large pressure loads and the forces
are practically transferred vertically. Since they have skewbacks in horizontal position they can only
be stressed with loads if there is a rear lining behind with laying toothing arrangement.
In raised segmental arch roofs (crowns) with a rise> 1 : 8 of the span, the forces act in vertical and
horizontal direction.
In flat segmental arch roofs (crowns) with a rise < 1 : 8 of the span and in flat (arch) roofs the forces
mainly act in horizontal direction. With a ratio of rise to span of 1 : 8 one obtains the best stability.
This applies specifically for silica crowns subjected to intensive temperature fluctuations. Crowns out
of fireclay bricks have a rise of at least 1 : 10 with smaller span and with larger span even 1 : 8 to 1 :
5. In order to prevent sagging of the crown a brick grade with sufficient refractoriness under load G
and good creep under compression G must be selected when making a decision concerning the rise
and crown thickness.
Arches and crowns must be securely contained between the skewbacks. Figures 5.3.7 to 5.3.11
show various skewback designs.
During first heating and heating-up the crowns of furnaces expand more on the combustion chamber
side than on the "cold" side. With skewbacks that do not give the vertex rises higher and the joints at
the bottom open up. Consequently, for wide arches, for example the crowns on glass tanks, one
often prefers elastic skewbacks which during first heating and heating-up give in to the pressure to
the calculated extent. During cooling down these skewbacks maintain the crown tension with springs
at the skewbacks.
For crowns with small span the joints and possibly the rear lining behind the skewbacks can absorb
the crown tension. With closed steel shells (casings) the upward expansion of the crown may not be
hindered.
Fig. 5.3.2: Force distribution in a round arch roof (crown)

Fig. 5.3.3: Rear lining with laying toothing
Fig. 5.3.4: Force distribution in a raised segmental arch
Fig. 5.3.5: Force distribution in a flat segmental arch roof (crown)

Fig. 5.3.6: Force distribution in a flat roof (cown)
Fig. 5.3.7: Skewback out of bricks FW2 and FW1
Fig. 5.3.8: Skewback out of cut NF2 bricks

Fig. 5.3.9: Skewback with mobile skewback plate
Fig. 5.3.10: Skewback with support console

Fig. 5.3.11: Skewback with chuck device for tie rods
The data given in Table 5.3.1 for crown rise and thickness have provided good results in practice. A
static calculation of the thickness of the supporting crown is required. This must be done for the
circular ring crown and domes.
Domes are usually constructed out of standardized arch bricks and skewbacks or with special
shaped bricks which enable efficient installation without forms/molds. The required amount of bricks
and shapes are listed in tables or can be determined graphically. Refer to chapter 3, Design.
The bricklayers work with alignment strings when bricking straight walls. When erecting the crowns,
the layer and rise measurements are very important and are marked on the forms/molds or bricking
center. The laths or boards inside the forms/molds, which are in direct contact with the refractories,
are aligned according to the given rise measurements. During the laying of the bricks the layers
must not arch too high or too low. In order to prevent this the axis of the bricks must
Fig. 5.3.12: Bricked arches over the neck of a glass tank
always point to the arch center. (Figures 5.3.14 to 5.3.16). If layers arch too high or too low, which
happens quite easily if working with two different taper measurements, there will be stairs and this
must be prevented. The easiest control is to ensure that the complete surface of the brick sits on the
form/mold. If there is a gap between brick and form/mold at the "above hand" side then the brick has
a too high arch and if the gap is at the "stomach" side then the brick has a too low arch.
The joints must have precisely the same measurements to ensure perfect brickwork. This is
particularly important when closing the arches and crowns. Key bricks must not be forced into their
final position by hitting them hard. They must be bricked with the same joint thickness of the
remaining layers. If key bricks have to be finished, then sever-al layers have to be finished.
If bricks are laid dry, then it is recommended to let approximately every tenth brick stand out about 3
cm. When the ring is closed they are knocked into their final position so that tension builds in the ring.
Fig. 5.3.13: Section of a roof (crown)
Fig. 5.3.14: Roof (crown) brickwork, end arch brick in a header bond
Fig. 5.3.15: Roof (crown) brickwork, side arch brick in a stretcher bond
Fig. 5.3.16: Roof (crown) brickwork, key brick in a header bond

Fig. 5.3.17: Closing of the roof (crown) brick work

Fig. 5.3.18: Dome arch (crown) with shaped tuckstone bricks, bricked without forms (molds)
Fig. 5.3.19: Dome above the combustion chanlber of a hot blast stove
Fig. 5.3.20: Dome arch with central opening
5.3.3 Installation of a Flat (Arch) Roof Taking a Multi-Tier Oven as Example
The steel construction and agitator shaft must be completed first before installing refractories in a
multi-tier oven. The dimensions of the steel vessel must be checked before start of lining work. It
must be equally round, all support rings must be installed in the right place and supported
horizontally. The axes and heights of the individual tiers are measured and their locations precisely
determined. The height of the agitator arms installed later on must be in total agreement.
The skewbacks are installed with the assistance of hose scale, ten1plate and compass. The edges
of the skewbacks must be in a precise horizontal position at the given height. They must be bricked
precisely with the given inner diameter.
In order to compensate slight deformations in the steel shell (casing) or weld seams, etc. the
shewbacks are not placed directly next to the steel shell (casing). Once the skewback ring is
completed, the space in-between is filled with refractory castable.
Next the crown form/mold is installed. The crown rise is indicated in the drawing. To prevent the first
tier from sagging after removing the forms/molds it is recommended to increase the forms/molds by
1 cm per meter radius in addition to the rise of the crown. The materials in the forms/molds having
direct contact with the refractories consist of planed wooden planks which have been cut into a
wedge shape to suit tile radius. Wood for individual segments and general support and vertical stays
(props) is also employed to distribute the load on the crown below. After the preliminary installation
work 11as ended, the form/mold is brought to the required height with wooden wedges (shims) at
the skewbacks and at the agitator.
5. Application EX8111ples 267
Fig. 5.3.21: Half-section through flat (arc!l) roof

Once the form/mold is aligned, the shaped bricks - starting at the skewback - are bricked ring by ring.
Each flat (arch) roof design has a fitting ring which is supplied with excess size. This fitting ring is
located in the inner third. As soon as the flat (arch) roof is completed all the way to the fitting ring, the
inmost ring is started. The bricks of the fitting ring must be cut and fitted precisely. Then the following
rings and inmost ring are bricked.
The bricks must be laid with full joints having a maximum thickness of 2 mm. If the key brick for a ring
is cut to size it must possess more than half of its original thickness and be at least 80 cm thick. It
may be necessary to cut two bricks. Mortars and mastics must harden in cold state. For quicker
setting it is possible to add a hardener to the refractory mortars and mastics.
After completion of the first crown, the shell (casing) brickwork is installed to the next skewback. The
entire procedure is repeated. For each multi-tier oven at least two complete sets of forms/molds must
be available so that each crown form/mold can support itself on a crown with forms/molds (which are
not yet removed) as lining work continues.
5.3.4 Bricking Center and Bricking Scaffolding
In a special sense, when bricking arches or crowns usually it will not be possible to work without
forms/molds. The arches and crowns are not self-supporting until the specific layers or ring layers
have been closed. For precise construction of arches and crowns the correct setup of forms/molds is
a very important requirement.
The forms/molds for arches are designated as bricking centers and for crowns as bricking
scaffolding. The dimensions of both must be checked before the start of work. One must, however,
not only rely on the dimensions indicated in the drawings. Due to the given dimensions of the
furnace shell (casing the location of the skewbacks may deviate somewhat from the theoretical
dimensions. The actual or precise dimensions are then recorded on a bottom used for marking only.
For making forms/molds it can be of help to draw and plot forms (templates) applying a 1: 1 scale on
tear-resistant paper in the design office.
Forms/molds with the shape of an arch are built out of boards, chip boards, planks or lightweight
steel profiles depending on the span that has to be considered. If the span is quite wide, then the
forms/molds must be aligned slightly higher so that they do not sag when subjected to full load.
Usually these forms sit on squared timber at the ends which must pass on the load safely via stays
(props). For ·Long and wide crowns, for example on glass tanks, it is often very efficient to combine
several bricking centers into a movable scaffold. The bricking centers are supported by spindle jacks
which can be lowered to remove the forms/molds and as next step - because they sit on small
wheels that can handle heavy loads - can be moved on to another location. The individual
forms/molds must be strong and stiff enough so that they do not give in and fold. If, due to limited
transportation possibilities, the bricking centers are pre-made as individual parts at the construction
site, the connecting parts must fit precisely and be properly designed and installed to handle and
distribute the resulting forces. Boards or laths are used on the inside of the form/mold in direct
contact with the installed refractories. The distance between the forms/molds depends on tile load
but is usually between 80 and 120 cm.
5.4 Suspended Roofs
5.4.1 General
Suspended roofs out of shaped dense, heat-insulating, unshaped (monolithic) materials, and
Cer81l1ic fibers have provided good service results for several applications in industrial furnace
engineering. They are to cover furnace chambers as cantilever' and may neither limit the clear
space nor transfer horizontal loads to the furnace construction. In contrast to the cantilever crowns,
the thickness of the suspended roof can be as small] as possible without having to consider the
static aspects of the total construction. For this reason suspended roofs can cover large furnace
chambers. The static dimensioning of the supporting steel construction is decisive. The designer
must consider the following criteria during design work:
- Warpage of the roof beams must be limited to 1/750 of the span in order prevent cracks, leaks,
and spalling of the refractory materials.
- The temperature in the supporting steel construction must be limited so that the mechanical
properties of the steel construction do not deteriorate.
- The tension in the steel must be limited to ensure that the ability to support the entire construction
is always maintained.
- The expansion of the refractory materials must be taken into consideration by ensuring a sufficient
size of the expansion joints.
5.4.2 Suspended Roofs out of Shaped and Dense Materials
Suspended roofs out of shaped bricks consist either of rider bricks with intermediate bricks or only of
rider bricks. Rider bricks in suspended roofs are fixated with metallic anchors to roof beams or cast
rails. The roof beams or rails are in turn suspended on the main roof beams. Due to the thermal
expansion of the roof bricks the roof beams or rails must be arranged in such a way that they do not
impair the expansion movement of the roof.
The joints are generally 3 to 4 mm thick. They may not be thicker than 6 mm or thinner than 2 mm so
that - in addition to the actual expansion joints - they can absorb some of the thermal expansion.
Special focus must be on:
- preventing sealing materials from falling out of the expansion joints by ensuring an appropriate
design,
- the expansion joints of the supporting suspended roof construction and the expansion joints of the
heat-insulating layer must have an offset arrangement to prevent gas from coming through,
- the metallic suspension parts must stay mobile so that the roof bricks can expand without
hindrance.
Arched roofs can be made out of arched bricks in standard shapes EO or HD depending on the
thickness of the roof.
Fig. 5.4.5: Suspended roof with arch and expansion joint

5.4.3 Suspended Roofs out of Insulating Refractory Bricks
Suspended roofs out of insulating refractory bricks are suspended with metallic, heat-resistant
suspension parts to the suspension construction. These suspension elements (parts) are available in
many designs. The two following descriptions of constructions (designs) focus on roofs having a
thickness of only one brick layer. The third design is a suspended roof having a thickness of 1/2 brick.
V-shaped suspension steel sheet parts with suspension pins arranged in a right angle on both sides
are used for the first construction (design) for roofs having a thickness of one brick layer. Each
suspension part can carry 4 standard bricks and is fixated with suspension rails to the steel
construction.
The second possibility is to drill a hole in the upper part of the bricks and thread the bricks on heat-
resistant steel rods which are attached to the steel construction. In this case, blocks are pre made;
each consisting of 6 NF 2 bricks mortared together before the steel rods are pushed through the
drilled holes. The steel rods must always extend all the way into the brick behind the specific
suspension clip.
Fig. 5.4.7: Installation block consisting of 6 bricks NF 2 for 1-brick thick suspended roof out of
insulating refractory bricks
In regard to the suspended roof out of NF 1 and NF 2 standard shapes and a thickness of 1/2 brick,
the bricks are suspended with suspension clips in the center of the brick. Two bricks joined with
mortar are held by the pins on the clip. The suspension clips are threaded on round bar steel or pipes
and the pre-made double bricks joined with mortar. Five double bricks form a row with two
suspension irons. The brick rows are also joined together with mortar.
The difference between these three designs only concerns the pre-made installation blocks which
are subsequently installed. The expansion joints are to be considered as indicated in the drawings.
Since it is not possible to walk on suspended roofs, the heat-insulating layers on the supporting roof
out of insulating refractory bricks are laid subsequently with the assistance of special scaffold
covering.
Suspended roofs out of shaped insulating refractory bricks are built the same way as when working
with shaped, dense refractory materials. The bulk densities of the installed insulating refractory
bricks should be in the range equal or above 1.2 g/cm3.
Suspended roofs out of insulating refractory bricks are preferably installed in plants operated by the
petrochemical industry.
5.4.4 Suspended Roofs out of Unshaped (Monolithic) Materials

The design of suspended roofs out of unshaped (monolithic) materials is discussed in chapter 3.5
and erection/installation in chapter 4.4.
5.4.5 Suspended Roofs out of Ceramic Fibers

The design of suspended roofs out of ceramic fibers is discussed in chapter 3.6 and erection/
installation in chapter 4.5.
Fig. 5.4.10: Suspended roof out of plastic mix with roof burners
Fig. 5.4.12: Roof out of fiber materials, layer design, blanket (mat) anchoring with cuplocks
and ceramic suspension disc
5.5 Piping
5.5.1 General
Pipes serves to transport gas or solid, usually powdery materials. The pipes are lined with one or
more layers of refractory and heat-insulating materials if temperatures are above 400 °C. The type
of lining does not only depend on thermal factors. The mechanical and chemical stress caused by
the material transported in the pipes must also be considered, for example abrasion. Piping is
seldom without any curves or bends but usually curved, vertical, horizontal or inclined. Chapter 3
focuses on the selection of heat-insulating and refractory materials as well as design aspects.
Examples for piping with diameters up to 600 mm are gas pipes for reformers and meal pipes for
the pre heaters of cement plants. Examples for piping with diameters up to 2,000 mm are
recirculating shafts (gas off-take) in lignite power plants and hot blast mains connected to blast
furnaces.
5.5.2 Design' and Working Suggestions
The refractory lining in piping must be installed in such a way that its stability under load is
ensured at all times and there are no currents behind the lining. Bevels, key bricks and expansion
joint bricks must be dimensioned, measured and finished precisely. Refractory castables must be
completely compacted in areas that cannot be accessed easily. Mortar residue and other kinds of
dirt may not be located in the expansion joints.
If the lining consists of several layers, it is recommended that each layer - at least for limited
construction sections - be installed separately in order to avoid any confusion in regard to the
lining material and mortar. Piping standing vertically and often piping inclined up to 60 0 can be
lined without forms/molds. However, with inclined piping it will sometimes be required to use
forms/molds for support of the arched sections on top until the specific ring is closed. This will
depend on the brick weight and applied mortar.
For piping that is aligned horizontally or inclined piping having an angle of less than 60 ° the
arched section on the top can only be bricked with a form/mould or with the assistance of stays
(props). First the bottom arched section is bricked as far as possible without a form/mold and,
subsequently, the top remaining section installed on bricking centers which are pulled along as
work continues.
If it is possible to stand in piping with large diameters, the sections are bricked from expansion
joint to expansion joint with a horizontal tooth bond. Piping enabling work only in a bent over or
laying down position is bricked ring by ring. The vertical joints of the individual rings are offset by
1/2 brick thickness to one another. The top circular section is bricked on a so-called "sliding
center" after the bottom circular section has been installed as high as possible. Once the ring is
closed, the wooden wedges (shims) are loosened and the bricking center plus sliding wood
moved forward to the next ring layer.
If piping is lined while sitting on the ground, tile following must be considered in addition: -
Fitting pieces of pipe strands must be installed as a test before the start of lining work.
- The lengths and weights of pipe chutes must be discussed and coordinated between piping
designer and refractory engineer to prevent undesired deformation of the lined pipes.
------
Fig. 5.5.1: Pipeline with sliding center form (mold)

4)
Fig. 5.5.4: Hot blast circulating duct with nozzle part of the duct leading to the hot blast stove
Fig. 5.5.5: Hot blast stretch duct with expansion joints
Fig. 5.5.6: Pipeline with lining out of refractory castable

5.6 Pipe Walls
5.6.1 General
Individual pipe walls or membrane pipe walls in boilers and refuse incinerators must be protected
against corrosion caused by slag G and flue gas. To accomplish this so-called studded pipe mixes.
refractory castables or plastic mixes are installed as protective layers. These layers are connected
to the walls with boiler studs. slit studs, corrugated or flat steel anchors. In melting chamber boilers a
large number of boiler studs welded to the wall ensure better heat conduction of the combustion
chamber temperatures into the piping and the relatively thin refractory lining is cooled at the same
time.
Since the boiler studs are often already welded in position at the plant of the boiler t11anufacturer it
is important that the boiler engineer and refractory engineer agree on the material to be used for
these studs. Dimensions and amount of studs depend on the pipe diameter, pipe division and
calculation of the entire heat economy inside the boiler. Most often boiler studs with a diameter of 10
mm are used. The length varies between 10 and 30 mm. During arc stud welding the stud length will
decrease by approximately 2 mm. The refractory engineer specifies the material grade for all other
anchor types.
Pipe wall linings with pipe-shaped plates are held in place with flat or round bar steel anchors.
Depending on the anchor type, they are fixated by arc stud welding or electrode welding. A further
variant are linings out of bricks having the shape of the pipe. No holding devices are needed.
A lining out of studded pipe mixes deviates from what was discussed in chapters 3 and 4 concerning
unshaped (monolithic) materials. Consequently, this type of lining is discussed below.
5.6.2 Application and Working with Patching Material

Before applying the mix, the pipe walls must be cleaned of any grease. Rust and protective coatings
must be removed by blasting. The surface must, however, not be completely polished in
Fig. 5.6.1: Pipe wall with patching mixes for boiler pipes, anchoring with studs without SiC caps
Fig. 5.6.2: Pipe wall with patching mixes for boiler pipes, anchoring with studs and SiC caps
a metallic sense. The temperature of the mix, pipes at the construction site, and at the surrounding
0
area should not exceed 30 C. The temperature of the mix may not fall below 5 QC. If temperatures
are low it will be necessary to warm· up the mix before it is applied.
If the studs are protected by SiC caps or small SiC tubes then a small ball made of special mastic
has to be placed in the hollow space of the cap. The cap must be positioned tightly on the stud with
a slight twisting motion. It is not necessary to remove mastic that is squeezed out of the cap.
The hollow space of the small tube is also filled with mastic. When placing it on the stud the upper
end of the small tube must be held shut with the thumb to prevent the mastic from being squeezed
out. When the small tube fits well it can be let go. Any leftover mastic must be smoothened so that it
is flush with the surface.
Patching materials are usually positioned manually. They are prepared in a paddle 111ixer with
water and/or binder. The right consistency is determined by the ball-in-hand test G. The mix is first
formed by hand into a clump and pushed between the studs with a sliding motion using the palm of
the hand. It is important not to have any hollow spaces.
Special studded pipe mixes and special machinery with continuous operation are used if gunning
these mixes. Air and water supply must be regulated to ensure a plastic Inix on the pipe wall which
will enable best possible compaction and low rebound loss. At the same time the mix must have
sufficient stiffness that it does not sag after having been gunned. The gunning nozzle is held at a
right angle and approximately 70 cm away from the application spot. The mix is contoured or not
contoured depending on the pipe diameter and pipe division. The mix is scraped off up to the apex
studs and smoothened (Figures 5.6.1 and 5.6.2).
The completed pipe wall lining can receive a protective coating. It consists of a fine-grained mastic
and is applied with a brush or sprayed on. It serves as protection during heating-up because the
surface is sealed.
Figures 5.6.3 to 5.6.8 show further details of pipe wall linings.
Fig. 5.6.3: Pipe wall with lining out of refractory castable

5.6.3 Repairs
A basic repair of the lining of studded pipe surfaces will be required once the studs no longer fulfill
their function.
After removing the old mix by blasting', the studs can be lengthened (expanded) by welding on
hollow foot studs.
Blasting will remove the residue of the previous lining, debris, and contaminants, for example slag or
rust. A boiler manufacturer or special company can then abrade the corroded leftover studs and
weld the hollow foot studs in place. If the studs have corroded to an unacceptable degree they are
abraded down to the pipe and replaced.
Patch repairs are done if the surface of the old studded pipe mix shows wear and the stud heads are
only slightly rounded off. The damaged spot is blasted until the stud heads protrude about 5 mm.
Then the adhesive is applied with a brush. Only apply adhesive to that amount of surface that can
be treated with the new mix within an hour. The adhesive serves to stick old and newly applied mix
together. Since it is caustic it is a requirement to wear protective gloves and goggles.
Fig. 5.6.6: Pipe wall, lining out of brick shapes specifically for installation around pipes
Fig. 5.6.7: Pipe wall, lining out of mortared pipe shaped plates, anchoring with special suspension system
Fig. 5.6.8: Pipe wall, lining with screwed pipe shaped plates
Fig. 5.6.10: Patch repair job
Fig. 5.6.9: Pipe wall with studs, lining needs repair
5.7 Hexmesh (Hexrost) Linings

5.7.1 General
Linings out of refractory castables with thin walls can be protected better against intensive abrasion
with metal screens (mesh). These are also referred to as "Hexmesh" (Hexrost). They also serve to
clamp down wear-resistant linings consisting of thin walls.
Linings with one layer are used as wear protection if there are no special requirements in regard to
heat insulation. The Hexmesh is made according to drawing in the manufacturer's plant and
supplied to the construction site as pieces ready to be installed. These parts are, however, not to be
welded directly on the steel sheet wall. Spacers are to be welded to the steel casing which ensure
that there is at least 10 mm distance between steel casing and Hexmesh. This guarantees that the
Hexmesh pieces are fixated at atleast 14 spots per m 2. The individual pieces are welded to one
another according to the information in the drawings and instructions for installation.
Linings with two layers and Hexmesh are used if limited temperatures on the steel casing must be
observed and this is to be accomplished with heat insulation. At first only the support bolts with a
diameter of 10 to 12 mm are welded to the holding spots and the insulation layer is installed. The
head plates are screwed on the bolts in such a way that the wall thickness to the front edge of the
Hexmesh is as shown in the drawing. Then the Hexmesh is installed, tacked and welded to the head
plates. The individual pieces are welded to one another as is the case for linings having only one
layer.
The refractory castable can be positioned once the Hexmesh pieces have been completely installed.
This work will be hindered by the Hexmesh pieces. Consequently, it is important to prevent the
occurrence of shrinkage cavities.
5.7.2 Application Examples
Fig. 5.7.1: Top view and section through a hexmesh design, fixation with bolts and head plate
Fig. 5.7.2: Hexmesh design for roofs, fixation with bolts and 2 head plates
Fig. 5.7.3: Hexmesh design for a lining out of 2 layers

Fig. 5.7.4: Parallel and end connections of hexmesh grids
Fig. 5.7.5: Installation sequence of a cylindrical hexmesh lining Installation sequence:
1. Positioning of the precisely cut position x in the sequence 1,2,3 and subsequent welding.
2. Positioning of position y (made with excess length) according to sketch and subsequent
welding up to about half.
3. Cut position y to fit perfectly, place in correct position and weld the remaining half.
5.8 Rotary Kilns
5.8.1 General
Rotary kilns are lined mainly with standard shapes specifically for rotary kilns. The refractory
designer or engineer selects the refractory material grades according to the process in the kiln.
The selected shape depends on the kiln diameter and conditions prevailing in the specific kiln
zone.
There are two brickwork types. These are the ring brickwork and the bond brickwork. With larger
diameters, relatively low temperatures, and pasty slag the ring brickwork is advantageous. For
higher temperatures and smaller diameters the bond brickwork is recommended. A ring brickwork
is easier to repair because damaged bricks can be easily replaced. In addition, joints, which are
viewed as a weak spot, are protected by a slag coating. At higher temperatures one must deal with
a very aggressive, thin-liquid slag which attacks the joints heavily. Since the joints are in a
staggered arrangement in the bond brickwork they wear less than in a ring brickwork.
Rotary kilns are operated mainly by the cement and lime industry. In addition, they are operated
for refuse incineration. The following statements focus on the lining of rotary kilns operating in the
cement industry. They do, however, also apply in general.
Rotary kilns in the cement industry are usually lined with a single layer (course) of wedge bricks in
a ring brickwork. The brick shapes and dimensions depend on the kiln diameter. The German
Cement Works Association (VDZ) has standardized the bricks with a constant middle thickness of
71.5 mm whereas ISO standards are based on a constant middle thickness of 103 mm. The bricks
are between 160 and 250 mm in height depending on the kiln diameter.
It is possible to install insulating refractory bricks or heat-insulating bricks as a rear lining.
However, this is not very common due to the better slag coating and longer service life.
There are different methods for lining a rotary kiln. These are:
- simple support,
- jack method,
- gluing method or
- use of kiln rigs.
Each of the following methods solves in its own way the problem of protecting the bricked parts
from collapsing until the arch has been closed. The kiln diameter and local conditions will influence
the decision as to selecting the best lining method.
For diameters above 3,000 mm a kiln rig is desired if the installation length is at least 3.5 m and
best is 1 0 m. If a kiln rig is not available or the installation lengths are very short, the gluing method
is recommended for diameters above 4,000 mm. The jack method is also used for kiln diameters
up to 4,000 mm.
5.8.2 Work Preparation

The following applies for rotary kilns in addition to the c6mments in chapter 4:
_ Lining work on a new kiln may not start until the kiln engineering company or the kiln operator has
given the "go ahead". This also applies if the kiln must not be rotated during lining work.
_ Before the start of lining work it must be checked if there are dents or uneven spots. These are
often found after dismantling and cleaning work during general or partial repairs. Possibly the
kiln designer or operator must take action to ensure that there are no more dents or uneven
spots.
_ Before start of lining work the kiln shell must be free of old brick, debris, scale, mortar, sand,
grease, and oil.
For the jack method and the gluing method it must be ensured that the drive motors and brakes for
kiln rotation are in good condition and strong enough for use during the period of lining work. The
work sections should be no longer than 4 to 6 m for the jack or gluing method.
5.8.3 Breaking Out the Refractory Lining
Breakout work is generally not done by refractory engineering or construction companies.

Consequently, this work is not discussed here. Upon first inspection of rotary kilns, which have
already been in operation, it will be necessary to break out loose coating before starting lining work.
It will be necessary to use a protective scaffold which protects personnel against any falling coating.
5.8.4 General Lining Work Guidelines
The brick layers (courses) must be positioned precisely parallel to the kiln axis. Consequently, the
first brick row must be aligned with the assistance of a string or an absolutely straight and carefully
attached piece of timber. The first brickwork ring can be aligned along a weld seam that runs all the
way around the shell. The bricks must be hammered down tight to the steel shell. The bed joints
should be thin.
Slight unevenness at the inside of the brickwork is of no concern. However, it is not permissible that
"steps" arise (Figure 5.8.2). Steps in the brickwork can effect notch stress in the bricks resulting in
spalling. In addition, it can be expected that the lining will loosen somewhat and set later on if the
bricks have been installed dry or with steel shims. In order to avoid "steps", the bed joints radial to
the middle of the kiln are aligned by correcting the mixing ratio of the wedge bricks.
The individual brick rings must be able to slip without hindrance. There may not be a "teeth effect",
that is the penetration of bricks of the one ring into the next ring. The length tolerances must be
compensated by the vertical joints or calibration. For a ring brickwork, expansion cardboards must
be inserted along the side of several bricks.
Key (closer) bricks in a brick ring must be fitted and hammered down tightly. The bricks may not
lose more than 25 % of their thickness. If necessary, several key (closer) bricks will have to be
installed.
Concerning the weld seams and rivet impacts, the bricks may not be installed in a tilted position
because axial forces during kiln operation will cause such high edge pressures that the bricks
exfoliate and break off. The weld seams must either be reduced to a maximum 2 mm, indentations
made in the bricks or mortar must be placed underneath.
Dents in the shell are not favorable for the brickwork because the principle of radial alignment of the
bed joints is affected negatively. It is possible to place bricks over shallow dents. However, the
Fig. 5.8.1: Determination of alignment axis (centerline)

Fig. 5.8.2: Radial alignment of the bed joints
bricks must be aligned radially and axially. Dents above 20 mm in depth must be filled with
refractory castable.
Dolomite bricks are laid dry. If shims are used as inserts for bed joints) all bricks must be hammered
down firmly into place. In order to determine how thick the key (closer) bricks must be
it will be necessary to first install six to eight courses without shims.
5.8.4.1 Simple Support/Propping

The suspended brickwork is supported by props, timbers or special stays. The kiln must not be
rotated during lining work. This method is hardly in use today and only for diameters up to
approximately 2,000 mm.
Fig. 5.8.3: Arrangement of vertical joints in the ring
Fig. 5.8.4: Closer (key) bricks in a brick ring

Fig. 5.8.5: Equalization of deep dents
Fig. 5.8.6: Bricklaying over shallow dents
5.8.4.2 Jack Method
The brickwork is supported with timber and steel pipe/aluminum jacks or three-link supports. As lining
work progresses the kiln is rotated so that the bricks can always be installed in the bottom area. The
jack method should only be applied for kiln diameters up to approximately 4,000 mm. For larger
diameters the jacks will be hard to handle and the danger of putting dents in the shell
increases.
After having completed preparation work on the kiln shell, an alignment timber (beam) is positioned
and fixated over the entire length of the work section. Next the bottom half of the kiln is lined up to the
middle axis. Now the first jack is installed horizontally and secured tightly (Figure 5.8.7).
Because of the danger of slippage, the kiln may not be rotated by more than 90 o. After each rotation
the kiln must be additionally secured by' wooden wedges between bearing rollers and kiln shell. This
will prevent unintentional reverse action. The breaks can be excessively burdened upon being
subjected to load from one side only. In order to prevent deformation of the kiln shell, the jacks must
not be tightened excessively.
After a 1/4 rotation the lining work continues and more jacks are positioned one by one. Generally
two jacks are installed but sometimes even three with larger kiln diameters. With pipe jacks the
distance between the jacks in longitudinal direction of the kiln should not exceed 80 cm and 120 cm
with three-link supports. Repeated inspections are required to assure that the jacks sit tightly and in
the correct position during bricklaying work.
Fig. 5.8.7: Progress of bricklaying work and installation of jacks

As soon as the rings are closed in the specific work section, tile jacks can be removed. Since for
closing the rings the kiln is rotated in such a way that the end of a brick ring is located sideways at
approximately 45 Q to the left or right of the vertical axis, it will be possible to concurrently start
bricklaying work in the next work section.
5.8.4.3 Gluing Method

With the construction of the first large rotary kilns having a diameter of more than 4,000 mm the
gluing method was developed with multi-component adhesives (glues) being used as lining support.
This method 11as proven to also provide good results at locations subjected to extreme climate
conditions. A prerequisite is, however, that the kiln can be rotated during lining work. Additional
props (stays) to secure the brickwork are not required. The success of this method depends on tile
right adhesive (glue) and correct application. The manufacturers usually offer n1ulti-component
adhesives (glues) for ten1peratures between 5 and 25 QC. Special grades are offered for a tropical
climate with temperatures in the range of 25 to 50 QC and for freezing conditions with temperatures
of 5 to -25 QC. Depending on the ambient temperature, the pot life G and hardening tinle of the
adhesive can vary.
As for the jack method, lining work by the gluing method also starts with the positioning of the
alignment timber (beam). Next the first glue strip of approximately 600 mm width is worked on. In
order to make sure that the right amount of adhesive (glue) is applied, it is best to mark the area on
the steel shell which is to receive the entire adhesive content of one bucket or can. The adhesive is
mixed - taking the required components - right next to the working site and applied rapidly with a
toothed trowel on the marked space. The bricks to be laid in the designated glue area are installed
next within the pot life of the adhesive.
Mortar can have a negative effect on the adhesive. Consequently, in cement rotary kilns the bricks
being positioned in the glue sections are usually not mortared. The distances between the bricks
must be maintained by inserts in the joints. In rotary kilns used for refuse incineration or in kilns with
liquid slags, it is standard procedure to also use mortar in the glue sections. It must then be ensured
that no mortar comes in contact with the adhesive. As can be seen in Figure 5.8.8; one strip of
glued brickwork is followed by one strip of mortared brickwork. The distance between the glued
sections grows as lining work progresses. Depending on the diameter, it can be up to onefourth of
the circumference. The work procedures gluing and mortar application can immedi 9tely start as
soon as either one of these procedures has been completed.
Fig. 5.8.8: Schematic illustration of work procedure for the gluing method
5.8.4.4 Kiln Rig
Kiln rigs are mobile work platforms with center segments that are moved pneumatically. The lining
apparatus - now known as tile "OAT kiln rig" - can be set to suit different kiln diameters due to the
segmented design of the center.
- type P 30/38 for inside brickwork diameter from 3,000 to 3,800 mm
- type P 40/54 for inside brickwork diameter from 4,000 to 5,400 mm -
A significant advantage of these rigs is that bricklaying is possible without having to rotate the
rotary kiln. However, only a ring bond can be bricked.
There is no danger of loosening or shifting/slippage of the brickwork when rotating the kiln.
Consequently, there is less danger of an accident. A further advantage is the continuous flow of
refractory materials to the installation site. The kiln must not be emptied when it is rotated and it is
possible to unload entire pallets of refractories on the work platform.
Before positioning the rig, the lower bottom half must be bricked on both sides up to slightly above
the kiln axis over a length of at least 3.4 meters. It is best to work in the direction of the kiln feed
end. This will help prevent a loosening or slippage of the brickwork. Technical details of the kiln rig
and lining work are shown in Figures 5.8.9 and 5.8.10.
5.9 Application and Working with Dry Mixes in Foundry Furnaces

w. Cloren, R. Wesser
5.9.1 General
Dry mixes are deaerated and compacted behind permanent forms/molds or "melt down!!
forms/molds with vibration ramming equipment or special outside vibrators. These mixes are
almost exclusively applied in various foundries in melting, casting or holding furnaces. The mixes
are only installed in the furnace vessel and not in the roof.
The mix can not be poured from high heights in order to avoid segregation of the mix. This is
especially important for relatively thin furnace walls because a concentration of coarse and fine
shares during later production operation at these locations can effect premature wear and even
furnace breakout. In contrast to castables or moist ramming mixes, the dry mixes are taken out of
their packaging and poured immediately behind the forms/molds. Often it is no longer possible to
observe them.
The work area must be absolutely clean. Pieces of old paper or pallets and even cigarette butts
have effected furnace breakout. When applying the dry mixes, specifically quartzite dry mixes,
measures to protect against dust must be taken before start of lining work. ~
5.9.2 Materials, Selection and Supply

Dry mixes are defined as ready-ta-use mixed batches with different types of bond and a maximum
moisture content of 0.3 %. A regulated grain structure enables compaction in dry state by vibration
ramming. The required compaction can also be accomplished with special outside vibration
equipment. The hardening of the refractory lining is assisted with sintering agents. With increasing
temperature the ceramic bond and required sintering is achieved.
One differentiates between
- acid dry mixes based on quartzite for application in the iron, steel and non-ferrous metal foundry,
- neutral dry mixes based on AI203 for application in iron and steel foundries as well as in the
light metal and non-ferrous metal foundry and
- magnesite dry mixes based on MgO for application in the iron and steel foundry.
5.9.3 Placing Dry Mixes in Forms (Molds) and Removal of Forms (Molds)
The forms/molds used for dry mixes are mainly made of stable steel sheet which cannot be removed
until sintering is completed at 350 to 400°C and subsequent cooling down. However, a prerequisite
is that the dry mix contains an early sintering agent. For dry mixes without an early sintering agent it
will be necessary to use forms/metals out of the metal that is to be produced (molten). After heating
up, the forms/molds can "self-destruct" and melt together with the sintering charge.
5.9.4 Dry Mixes in Crucible Induction Furnace
5.9.4.1 General
The dry mixes are usually supplied in 25 kg paper bags/sacks or in "no return" containers with a
capacity between 500 and 1,600 kg per container. Usually the quartzite dry mixes are supplied
ready-to-use with the requested sintering agent and sintering agent content. In special cases, for
example if long stock periods are expected, the required sintering agent boric acid (H3B03) or boric
acid anhydride (B3O2) will be mixed in with the quartzite dry mixes on site depending on the
operation temperature. This is to be done in a tumbling or paddle mixer. The mixing time should be
about 5 minutes for each mixing procedure.
There will be an endothermic G chemical reaction during heating up if boric acid is used as sintering
agent.
This reaction takes place between 80 and 240 QC. Boric acid contains approximately 43 % water of
crystallization. It must be able to escape without generating steam tensions. Consequently, the
heating up speed should not exceed 100 K/h up to 300 QC. Boric acid anhydride does not contain
water of crystallization. Consequently, the heating up speed can be up to 150 K/h.
High-alumina or magnesite dry mixes are supplied by the manufacturers ready-to-use for the
various applications.
5.9.4.2 Preparing the Crucible Induction Furnace

Before installation of the electric insulation the refractory lining below and above the coil must be
checked to see if coil and refractory lining sit at the same level. Unevenness at the rear lining or at
the coil must be compensated with a so-called coil equalizing mix.
The insulation must be installed without joints according to the instructions provided by the furnace
engineering or construction company. If several layers of insulating plates are needed then the
vertical joints must have an offset or overlapping arrangement.
The dry joint between the coil with coil equalizing mix and the conic permanent lining must be
absolutely level. The same applies for the dry joint between permanent lining or insulation and
working lining. This is required to ensure perfect enlargement and shrinkage during heating up and
cooling down of the melting furnace. Furthermore, this will prevent the refractory crucible from
hanging.
The rear lining must be conic if the melting furnace has a device to push out the refractory crucible.
The rear lining is usually out of a self- Leveling refractory castable which is poured behind a
form/mold. After setting and removal of the form/mold the rear lining must be dried.
5.9.4.3 Drying of the Rear Lining

The form/mold used for pouring is removed once the coil equalizing mix and permanent lining have
hardened. The form (template) for the wear lining is positioned loosely together with a bottom
opening. It is lifted somewhat, for example with a refractory brick, so that a chimney draft is
generated during drying. The inside area of the form/mold is heated up to 350 to 400°C with a gas
burner or electrically with the induction coil so that the heat will spread evenly to the permanent lining
and optimum drying is ensured. The temperature is held for approximately 24 hours.
The "melt down", ramming or sintering forms/molds consist of steel sheet. For light or non-ferrous
metals the form/mold is out of the alloy to be produced (molten). Permanent forms/molds, which
Fig. 5.9.2: Coil condition
are usually pulled out after preliminary sintering to about 400°C, consist of steel sheet. All
forms/molds should have 3 mm large steam holes at a distance of 300 mm to ensure that air can
escape during compaction and moisture during heating up.
5.9.4.4 Compaction
3
The purpose of compaction is to ventilate the mix and harden it. A density of 2,000 to 2,200 kg/m is
desired and thus a ceramic body is formed which - after sintering - can resist the liquid metal.
The furnace body, form/mold and tools must be spotlessly clean.
5.9.4.4.1 Compaction with Hand Rammers
For manual ramming work, usually so-called spade ramming tools are used. The dry mix must be
placed in such a way that it can not segregate. The pouring height should, consequently, not exceed
500 mm. With greater heights it is recommended to use a funnel or casting/pouring pipe.
Fig. 5.9.3: Crucible induction furnace, refractories in the wall
Fig. 5.9.4: Crucible push-out device

Fig. 5.9.5: Arrangement of forms (molds) for drying of permanent lining
Fig. 5.9.6: Spade ramming tool

Fig. 5.9.7: Round ramming
tool Lining of Bottom
For the first layer to be rammed as part of the bottom about 150 mm dry mix is placed and
compacted with spade ramming tools. The following layers are positioned with a thickness of 60 to
80 mm and subsequently compacted. The entire bottom thickness is rammed 20 to 30 mm too high.
After compaction of the last layer with a spade ramming tool has been completed the entire surface
is compacted again with a round ramming tool. Material is scraped off and the bottom is leveled to
the precise size.
Lining of Wall
Ramming or sintering forms/molds must be positioned with extreme care. They must be aligned
precisely and fixated in such a way that they will not move when the sidewalls are compacted. The
already rammed bottom layer must be scratched on top before tile dry mix is filled in. Approximately
60 to 80 mm dry mix are filled in and ventilated with the spade ramming tool. This procedure is
repeated layer by layer until the upper crucible edge is reached. Finally the compaction work is
completed with the round ramming tool.
5.9.4.4.2 Compaction with Hand-Guided Vibrating Rammers
The pouring height may also not exceed 60 to 80 mm when working with hand-guided vibrating
ramming tools. The vibrating ramming tool with its ramming tool foot must be held vertically from
spot to spot and is at first placed without pressure on the dry mix. After this preliminary compaction
work, it is possible to apply additional pressure until the ramming tool foot no longer penetrates the
ramming mix. The comments in section 5.9.4.4.1 above apply in addition.
Fig. 5.9.8: Vibrating ramming tool
Fig. 5.9.9: Ramming tool feet

Fig. 5.9.10: Electric bottom vibrating machine
Fig. 5.9.11: Pneumatic bottom vibrating machine
5.9.4.4.3 Compaction with Electric and Pneumatic (Compressed-Air) Vibrators Lining

of Bottom
Dry mix is filled up to the required thickness and leveled. The bottom vibrating machine, which is
operated electrically or with air (refer to Figures 5.9.10 and 5.9.11), is lifted by a crane and
positioned in the suspension device. Vibration time is between 8 to 10 minutes depending on
furnace size and bottom thickness. To achieve sufficient compaction in larger furnaces and with a
bottom thickness above 350 mm it will be necessary to position two layers and vibrate then each
individually. During compaction air escapes out of the dry mix through small holes in the vibrating
plate. After removing the bottom vibrating machine, approximately 20 mm of the compacted dry mix
is scraped off (this removes the coarse share) and the bottom leveled to the precise size. If the dry
mix is placed in form of several layers then each layer has to be vibrated separately and scraped
off. The uppermost layer has to be leveled in addition. Next the form/mold is positioned, aligned and
fixated as described in 'section 5.9.4.4.1 above.
Lining of Wall .
Once the ramming form/mold has been positioned, aligned and fixated, the furnace bottom
must be scratched in the vicinity of the wall to ensure good connection to the refra ctory
materials in the wall. The furnace wall is filled with individual layers of dry mix to the upper
edge of the furnace. Each layer is 30 to 40 cm thick and must be compacted with a hand
ramming tool in order to ensure better final compaction. The pneumatic wail vibrating machine
with strut device shown in Figure 5.9.12, the electric wall vibrating machine illustrated in Figure
5.9.13 or the pneumatic self rotating wall vibrating machine to be seen in Figure 5.9.14 can all
be used for lining furnaces up to a content of approximately 5 tons iron. The vibrating machine
with strut device is positioned and secured with the help of wooden segments in the furnace
form/mold. Vibration time is between 8 to 10 minutes depending on furnace size. During the
vibration procedure dry mix is filled in.
For compaction work in large furnaces only electric and pneumatic self-rotating wall vibrating
machines should be used.
Fig. 5.9.14: Pneumatic self-rotating wall vibrating machine
Dry mix is filled layer by layer into the furnace wall. The electric or pneumatic wall vibrating
machines are lifted with a crane into the furnace form/mold and lowered to about 20 cm
above the bottom. Depending on the furnace size, vibration work starts in the lower position
and lasts for 4 to 6 minutes. Depending on the type of machine, the vibration machines rotate
on their own inside the form/mold. After 2 to 3 minutes of vibration work the equipment is
pulled 150 mm upwards. The upper 200 to 300 mm may require compaction by hand. Dry mix
is filled in during all vibration procedures. The total height of the wall lining must end
approximately 30 mm below the upper edge of the furnace to ensure that the dry mix can
grow during heating up and sintering.
Fig. 5.9.15: Lining of casting spout

Lining of Casting Spout

The casting spout is usually lined with a premium-grade castable or plastic ramming mix. The dry
joint between castable and dry mix must be as illustrated in Figure 5.9.15.
5.9.5 Lining with Permanent Molds (Forms)

One differentiates between "melt-down" forms/molds, reusable forms/molds, and removable
permanent l11olds. Form/mold costs are a big factor when determining the cost for the refractory
lining of a crucible induction furnace. Taking the service life of a refractory lining into consideration
it I1lay be much l110re economical to work with permanent forms/molds instead of a melt-down
mold. '
Single-part, reusable steel forr11s/molds are slightly conic and are coated with a separating agent
before being installed. Tile forms/molds are installed, aligned and fixated as described in section
5.9.4.4 above. The procedure described in that section for lining and compaction work also applies
here.
After lining work is completed the furnace and steel sheet form/mold is heated with a gas burner or
by inductive heating to approximately 450°C with 100 K/h. This temperature is maintained for about
1 hour and cooled down to below 200°C with compressed air within 20 to 30 minutes. The
form/mold will come off the refractory wall and can be carefully pulled off with centrically arranged
lifting equipment.
Removable permanent forms/molds are coated with a separating agent and wrapped with a support
foil before being positioned in the furnace vessel. Another possibility is to coat the outside space of
the form/mold with a quick-setting refractory mix. After drying, the form/mold can be installed and
lining work may start as discussed in section 5.9.4.4 above.
The compacted but not yet hardened ramming mix is now held by the support foil or refractory mix.
Consequently, the form/mold can now be removed.
Fig. 5.9.17: Crucible furnace, bottom repair

1 wear lining, 2 electrical insulation, 3 coil equalization (Leveling) mix/grout, 4 rear lining, 5
castable ring, 6 repair mix/grout
5.9.6 Repair of Crucible Induction Furnaces
If a furnace is operated on a discontinuous basis, it will have to be repaired far more frequently than
if it were operating on a continuous basis. For repair work the furnace is emptied and cooled down
with the lid (roof) closed and water-cooling switched on. After repair the furnace can be heated up
0
with 200 to 300 C/h.
Repair of Bottom
The furnace bottom can be repaired by applying dry mix in the hot furnace to the spots needing
repair. The mix is spread and slightly compacted with a round ramming tool. The layer thickness of
the spot to be repaired should be at least 50 mm thick in order to prevent spalling later on. The dry
mix sinters immediately on the hot bottom thus enabling immediate continuation of production.
Larger repairs are conducted when the furnace has cooled down. After compaction - but before
heating up - the dry mix is covered with a steel plate. The steel plate is held down with a start-up
piece of the material to be produced or a smaller piece of steel scrap material.
Repair of Wall
Erosions in the lower part of the furnace - so-called elephant feet - can be repaired by filling in dry
mix behind a form/mold. The dry mix must be compacted. The diameter of the form/mold must be
smaller than that of the initial form/mold and should have at least the height of the spot to be
repaired. Slag must be cleaned out of the area that is to be repaired. Next the form/mold is
positioned. The intermediate space is filled with mix and compacted with a spade ramming tool. A
patch mix or plastic ~ mix can be applied on top.
Depending on the extent of the repair, the subsequent heating-up process should last at least 3
hours longer than the time required for heating up the furnace without repair. The complete furnace
wall can be repaired the same way. The form/mold must be aligned and fixated. Electric or
pneumatic vibrators are used for compaction work. Refer to section 5.9.4.4.3.
Repair of Furnace Edge
The upper furnace edge is heavily stressed due to frequent and intensive thermal shock in addition
to mechanical stress during charging. This is particularly the case at the beginning of the furnace
campaign because of still insufficient sintering.
Damaged refractory materials at the furnace edge are broken out all the way to above the bath level.
A form/mold is installed and abrasion-resistant LCC-castable with good thermal shock resistance is
poured in. In order to prevent penetration of liquid metal in a possible gap between castable and dry
mix and thus prevent damage to the coil, the poured in castable may not have
Fig. 5.9.20: Crucible furnace, side repair

any bond to the rear lining. The castable must be able to grow and shrink without restriction. The
separation spot between quartzite fl1ix and castable being poured on should be carefully observed
during the entire furnace campaign and, if necessary, repaired with a patch mix.
5.9.7 Dry Mixes in Channel Induction, Holding, Melting and Casting Furnaces
After installation of the bricked or gunned rear and safety lining, the castables or dry mixes are
installed as wear lining in the furnace vessel. In the lid (roof) only castables are installed.
After installation of the rear lining and specific form/mold for ramming work the dry mix is filled in
and compacted with a vibrating ramming tool as described in section 5.9.4. Dry mixes generally
have a chemical, ceramic or chemical/ceramic bond. An organic binder is mixed in with the dry
mixes to serve as an early sintering agent. This ensures that the form/mold can be removed after a
preliminary sintering at approximately 350°C. If the dry mix does not contain an early sintering
agent, it will be necessary to use a "melt down" form/mold.
5.9.8 Repairs of Channel Induction, Holding, Melting and Casting

Furnaces Repair of Inlet and Outlet
Repairs are often required in the inlet and outlet area. They are generally done in hot state with
partially filled furnace vessels. At first the level of the metal bath in the furnace must be lowered to a
level below the spot requiring repair work. The metal bath level in the inlet and outlet area below the
repair spot is covered with ceramic fiber material so that no breakout materials can fall into the
metal melt. Any leftover refractory material is broken out and slag residue at the repair spot
removed. "Melt down" forms/molds are made) positioned and fixated. Next it will be possible to
install new refractory material.
Fig. 5.9.22: Pressure casting (pouring) furnace

1 wear lining, 2 rear lining, 3 insulation material, 4 ceramic fibers, 5 outlet, 6 wear lining, 7 insulation
material, 8 ceramic fibers
Repair of Furnace Vessel
For larger repairs, for example erosions in the furnace vessel, it will be necessary to dismantle the
inductor and cool down the furnace.
Fig. 5.9.23: Inductor

Fig. 5.9.24: Inductor
Replacement of Inductor
The furnace consists of the high and low voltage unit, furnace tank, inlet and outlet, furnace lid (roof)
with openings for the slag removal door, burners, the delta piece mounted to the furnace vessel (can
be removed with a flange), and the inductor which is in charge of heating the melt.
Similar to a transformer, the inductor consists of a primary coil and a secondary line. The secondary
line consists of a channel or duct with molten metal. The openings in the refractory lining of the
inductor, which are formed by the form/mold used for the channel or duct, are short-circuited by the
melt in the furnace throat. The generated heat is given off by the inductor into the furnace vessel.
The state of the refractory lining of the inductor can be controlled by measuring the electric data,
cooling water and shell temperatures, and insulation resistance. Evaluation of the measured data
may lead to the conclusion that the inductor has to be replaced.
For this the furnace vessel is emptied, the heating-up burner mounted to maintain the furnace
chamber temperature, and the inductor dismantled. The furnace throat is cleaned and the flange
surface of furnace worked on in such a manner to ensure a plane-parallel surface to which the new
inductor can be mounted.
After the electric sintering of the inductor, the metal is filled into the furnace vessel and the channel
induction furnace is ready for production again. '.
5.9.9 Further Linings out of Dry Mixes

All other melting, holding and casting furnaces, inductors and other vessels, such as transport ladles,
which are lined with dry mixes, are compacted as described in sections 5.9.4.4.1 and 5.9.4.4.2 with
vibrating ramming tools operated by hand.
5.10 Drying, Heating, Heating-Up and Cooling-Down of Dry Mixes
w. Cloren, R. Wesser
Since dry mixes do not have a moisture content above 0.3 %, it is possible to heat up the furnace
immediately. With increasing temperature the dry mix hardens with the assistance of the specific
sintering agent. Once melt is filled in, the required sintering of the dry mix is achieved.
5.10.1 Dry Mixes Based on Quartzite, So-Called Acid Dry Mixes

During heating-up of quartzite dry mixes the quartz transformation and connected volume change
must be taken into consideration. If heating-up or cooling-down is too quick, there will be
tremendous stress in the refractory lining due to quartz transformations. The fine hairline cracks,
which can occur during cooling-down, can not be closed again during too quick heating-up. Liquid
metal can penetrate the refractory lining and effect bowl-shaped spalling. Penetrating metal may
flow all the way to the coil and destroy it.
The refractory lining in the crucible induction furnace must be able to expand and shrink without
being damaged. Since expansion is in the range of 1 to 2 % it is possible to make significant
conclusions, for example the requirement to prevent shrinkage cracks if installing quartzite
ramming mixes. After the quartzite modification the shrinkage/expansion behavior is almost in a
straight line from approximately 600°C to 1,700°C. This means that in the temperature range 600 to
1,700 °C no shrinkage or expansion cracks will occur.
Depending on the specific application and operation temperature, the manufacturer usually adds
the required amount of sintering agent - boric acid (H3B03) or boric acid anhydride (B3O2) - to the
quartzite dry mixes.
Heating and sintering is usually inductive or with gas burner in a newly lined furnace.
5.10.1.1 Inductive Heating-Up Taking a Cast Iron Melting Furnace as Example

Heating up to a temperature between 1 ,000 and 1,100 °C is conducted with limited electric power
and a gradient of 100 to 150 K/h if thermocouples are installed, a start-block of material to be
produced (molten) is put in the furnace or the furnace is filled with clean small pieces of scrap or
cycle material. The temperature in the range of 1,000 to 1,100°C is held for 1 hour.
Next more power can be applied slowly to reach 1,500°C in approximately 1.5 hours. During this
phase the charge starts to melt and scrap or cycle material will have to be added. In order to
ensure sufficient strength of the dry mix all the way up to the upper furnace edge it will be
necessary to fill the furnace completely and the outlet (discharge) spout shut off.
After removing the slag the melt is heated with limited electric power to about 50°C above the later
operation temperature and held at this temperature for an hour in order to let the refractory lining
sinter. Then the melting furnace is ready to start production.
In order to have a sufficient sintering layer in the quartzite mix before first cooling-down it will be
necessary to either let three further melt charges pass through the furnace after the first sintering
charge or keep the furnace at least three hours at sintering temperature with liquid charge still filled
in the furnace.
5.10.1.2 Heating-Up with the Gas Burner

After the thermocouples have been installed the temperature is increased to 1,100 °C with 100 to
150 K/h. The melt must be poured into the furnace in order to sinter the dry mix. The refractory
lining of the furnace bottom is protected beforehand with small pieces of thin scrap. Sufficient
strength of the dry mix to the upper. edge of the furnace is only achievable if the furnace is
completely filled. For this the outlet (discharge) spout has to be shut off.
4.Application Examples 321
After removing the slag the melt is heated with limited electric power to about 50 QC above the later
In order to have a sufficient sintering layer in the quartzite mix before first cooling-down, it will be
necessary to either let three further melt charges pass through the furnace after the first sintering
charge or hold the furnace at least three hours at sintering temperature with liquid charge still filled
in the furnace.
5.10.1.3 Cooling-Down and Heating-Up as Part of the Production Process

With a duplex process G the empty furnace with closed lid (roof) is cooled by switching on the water-
cooling. Depending on the furnace size, heating-up again is done either with a start-up block
inductively or with a gas burner in 3 to 4 hours until reaching 1 ,000 QC. If heating-up inductively the
start-up block is then removed and in both cases metal filled in. Inductive heating continues for
another 1 to 2 hours until reaching the required operation temperature.
If the furnace is not operated continuously, the furnace is filled with cold charge material at the end
of the shift and cooled with closed lid (roof) and the water-cooling switched on. When the furnace
goes back into operation (cold start) the entire metal charge and refractory lining is brought by
inductive heating and limited electric power to approximately 1 ,000 cC within 3 to 5 hours
depending on the size of the furnace. Then more electric power is applied to reach the operation
temperature within 1 to 2 hours.
5.10.2 Dry Mixes on an AI203 or MgO Base

5.10.2.1 Heating-Up of a Crucible Induction Furnace
Generally dry mixes without an early sintering agent are installed in crucible induction furnaces.
Heating is inductive or with gas burner to the specific sintering temperature with approximately 1 00
to 120 K/h.
0
After removing the slag the melt is heated with limited electric power to about 50 C above the later
5.10.2.2 Heating-Up Channel induction, Holding and Casting Furnaces

Usually dry mixes with early sintering agents are applied. If dry mixes without early sintering agents
are used, the forms (templates) are often lost ("melt down" type).
In addition to dry mixes, other refractory materials are installed in the furnaces described in this
section, for example castables are applied in the furnace lid (roof). Consequently, the heating-up
speed is dependent on the most sensitive refractory material.
First the lid (roof) is subjected to preliminary drying. The furnace with lid (roof) is heated with a gas
0
burner to 400 to 450 C with 30 to 60 K/h. This temperature is held for about 1 hour. The next step is
0
to cool the refractory material down to approximately 100 C, remove the form/mold, continue heating
0
back up to about 1,200 C with 30 to 60 K/h. This temperature is held for about 24 hours. Now the
inductor can be mounted, heated inductively or with burners and the melt filled in. The melt is heated
inductively to the sintering temperature of the refractory material and this temperature kept constant
for approximately 24 hours. Then the furnace is ready to start production.
In special cases the inductor is heated together with the furnace. The instructions and
recommendations given by the furnace engineering company and the supplier of the installed
refractories must be observed.
6. Drying, Heating, Heating-Up and Cooling-Down 323
6 Drying, Heating, Heating-Up and Cooling-Down

R. Bruder, J. Meinig
6.1 General
Newly installed and repaired refractory linings in furnaces must be dried thermally if they contain
moisture.
The term "drying" is not quite correct in this connection. In contrast to the drying of shaped
materials in the refractory manufacturing plants, there is usually residual moisture on the "cold" side
of the temperature gradient G when dealing with installed linings. For this reason the term "dry"
here means the same as "ready for commissioning" in a certain sense.
The service life and operational safety of the refractories installed in furnaces and plants will greatly
depend on proper drying, heating-up and heating of the materials.
Drying is the process that drives the moisture out of the lining according to defined conditions.
Heating is the process that increases the temperature of the lining to the required level for first
operation (commissioning) of the furnace/plant according to defined conditions.
Heating-Up is the process that increases the temperature of the lining to the required level for
renewed operation (after having cooled down before) of the furnace/plant according to defined
conditions.
Cooling-Down is the process that lowers the temperature of the lining to the required level
according to defined conditions.
6.2 Processes During Drying
6.2.1 Preliminary Comments

In' refractory and heat-insulating construction materials water can be present in various forms,
namely as:
- free water, e.g. in large pores,
- physically-bonded water, e.g. in capillaries,
- chemically-bonded water as result of hydration G and/or
- physically/chemically-bonded water in the form of hydrate sleeves.
The process of thermal drying must generally be divided in two steps:
- Passing of water into the steam phase by volatilization or evaporation.
- Removal (pass off) of steam by steam diffusion or steam flow.
324 6. Drying, Heating, Heating-Up and Cooling-Down
In the following it is intended to give a precise description of the drying processes in a short general
and understandable form. The scientific fundamentals of drying technology are to be found in the
standard book by O. KRISCHER and W. KAST.
The sometimes complicated phenomena of drying processes can be divided into various processes.
The individual processes will first be analyzed individually and independent of one another. It will
then be attempted to link the processes and view them as a whole.
6.2.2 Capillary Network Processes

Unshaped (monolithic) refractory materials are to be viewed as capillary porous bodies.
Consequently, the capillary network processes are most important for drying processes. Dry
capillary porous bodies have the ability (property) to suck up liquids like a sponge. The finer the
capillary diameter is (Figure 6.1), the better the liquid is sucked up. This regularity is explained in
that the attractive power/force of the capillary wall is greater than the Van-der-Waals forces G with
which the liquid molecules attract each other. The border surface (interfacial) tension effects a
concave meniscus G on the impinged wall. The resulting pull force effects the suction force of the
capillaries.
As part of the reverse procedures - dehumidification - the capillary forces likewise effect transport of
liquid. In a capillary porous body, the pores and hollow spaces of different size are connected with
one another. If water volatilizes out of a capillary pore, which is connected to a hollow space filled
with water, it will suck precisely this amount of water from out of the hollow space once again. Due
to the suction of the capillary, this process continues only as long as the evaporated water out of
the inside of the body can be replenished. As time continues, the speed of dehumidification will
decrease. The liquid level flows slowly to the inside of the body. The transport paths of the steam to
the body surface grow so that resistance to steam diffusion and steam flow increases.
6.2.3 Steam Pressure G

The steam pressure on a liquid, which is in equilibrium with its own steam, is only dependent on
temperature and chemical composition. This is called saturated steam pressure (refer to Table
6.1). if the liquid level is missing, the gas state is designated as overheated or unsaturated steam.
The steam pressure on heat-insulating materials having a high degree of moisture is practically the
same as the saturated steam pressure. Concerning low-cement (LC) refractory castables with
substantially lower moisture contents, for example, the steam pressure is lower. Here the steam
pressure also depends on the capillary forces in addition to the temperature. This means that
dehumidification takes much longer at the same temperature.
Steam pressures build over the capillary meniscuses during the drying procedure in the
temperature gradient. These steam pressures can be equal to the saturated steam pressure if the
capillaries are large. However, the steam pressures are generally lower.
Table 6.1: Saturated steam pressure of pure water dependent on temperature

In order for the steam to" flow from the meniscus to the body surface, there must be a pressure
drop against the temperature gradient. Tile greatest amount of pressure must exist directly above
the meniscus. If the flow is hindered or if the capillary counter pressure is less than the steam
pressure, the capillary can be pushed free in the opposite direction. This becomes easier due to
declining water viscosity with increasing temperature. This process can be seen with almost any
drying procedure. There is a dripping wet zone on the "cold" side which is only partially due to
steam condensation.
6.2.4 Volatilization, Evaporation, Condensation

Transition from the liquid to gas phase can be by volatilization or evaporation. Volatilization is
passing off to the gas phase below the boiling point. Evaporation is passing off above the boiling
point.
Volatilization is a relatively slow process and independent of outside pressure at any given
temperature. The volatilized water is passed off by diffusion G. For evaporation the boiling point
must be reached at which steam bubbles form inside the liquid. The boiling point is dependent on
the outer pressure and capillary forces in addition to the temperature. The evaporated water is
passed off by a current. If heat is continuously supplied to a liquid its temperature will only rise to
the boiling point. Once arriving at the boiling point, the temperature will remain constant since the
supplied heat is consumed for steam buildup. This amount of heat is designated as the specific
0
evaporation heat and has a value of 2,257 kJ/kg at 1 bar and 100 C.
The heat amount consumed during evaporation, which is stored latently in the steam, must be
released again during condensation. Condensation is also dependent on outer pressure and
capillary forces in addition to the temperature. For example, there is condensation even if the
saturated steam pressure is exceeded. During volatilization the same heat amount is required for
evaporation. In refractory linings the heat amount is taken out of the capillary porous body or from
the liquid itself. Consequently, there is a cooling effect.
6.2.5 Thermal Stress

Various types of stress can occur during drying, heating-up and cooling-down of refractory linings: -
Internal stress (tensions) occur by the non-linear temperature distribution heating-up and
cooling-down and disappear to a great extent in stationary state on plane walls. In contrast to this,
in curved walls the residual stress stays due to the non-linear temperature gradient in stationary
state. Figure 6.1 shows the internal stress in the material which occurs during
Fig. 6.1: Stress distribution on a section heated on one side

heating-up. During the cooling phase, it is the other way - pressure turns into pull and pull into
pressure. Since the permissible tensile stress for refractories is always below that of the
permissible compressive strain, there is the danger of crack formation primarily during the
cooling phase.
- Stress in the wall arises as a result of insufficient expansion possibilities or by mutual influence of
various construction parts during heating-up. If they are not diminished by viscoelastic
deformations or relaxation G the stress (tension) or crowding forces generally remain present in
stationary state.
Both types of stress can overlap one another.
If the overlapping tensile stress exceeds the bending tensile strength of the refractory materials,
one can expect the following types of cracks:
Visible individual cracks often occur at rapid heating-up and cooling-down speeds.
Invisible cracks occur when the heating-up and cooling-down speeds are not exceeded, as well
as when they are only slightly exceeded. Here it is obvious that frequent heating-up and cooling-
down effects an "aging" of the refractory lining.
Multiple cracks only occur on specific material types. The first crack of slight depth in the
material is followed by further cracks to the cold side after repeated heating-up and cooling-down.
Fatigue occurs at extremely rapid heating-up and cooling-down speeds. Several cracks overlap
and completely destroy the refractory materials to a certain depth.
Stress (tension) by steam pressure can occur during the drying process and effect peel-
shaped spalling in addition to cracks. This happens if the steam pressures are overlapped with
thermomechanical stress. In order to diminish the steat11 pressures, it is required to enlarge the
gas permeability of the material matrix. For plastic mixes this is possible by poking steam holes.
For refractory castables by adding organic fibers that form networks.
6.2.6 Dry Shrinkage

Refractory mixes shrink more or less during drying. This is due mainly to the shrinkage of the bond
phase. In this connection the dry shrinkage in refractory castables is of minor significance.
Consequently, it is not necessary to undertake further deliberations. For the plastic mixes, however,
it is not possible to prepare a good drying curve without any knowledge of the shrinkage processes.
At the start of drying at lower temperatures, the plastic mixes are very sensitive without preliminary
bonding in air. In addition to the already mentioned danger of the pores getting clogged! longer
holding times can generate cracks and the joints may enlarge greatly. The dry shrinkage starts a1
the surface and the capillaries contract there, too. This contraction favors the water transport to the
surface. If, with a still very wet core, the transport of water discontinues, it is possible that there will
be steam stress (tension) and spalling. The resulting tensile and shearing stress will bring about
heavy drying damages, Consequently, it is important that drying is controlled in such a way that
capillary water- transport to tile surface is accomplished with an optimum and steady speed,
6.3 Dry Heating Media

The heating media listed and described in Table 6.2 can be used for drying.
Table 6.2: Heating media for drying
6.4 Principles of Drying

6.4.1 Requirements
Some requirements must be fulfilled to ensure successful drying. These requirements are
independent of the used heating medium.
Tile furnace/plant must be tight. In order to obtain excess pressure, all openings must be closed that
are not needed for the discharge of the hot gases. In order to regulate this excess pressure,
depending on the air amount blown in, a control valve should be installed at the hot gas discharge
location. It must be considered that with the same cold air amount and increasing temperatures the
air amount at least doubles at tile standard drying temperatures up to 500°C. This alone
demonstrates how important and useful a control valve can be.
6.4.2 Preparations
Drying is prepared for as follows:
- the supply lines are set up or installed.
- fans are set up,
- burners are set up or installed in front of tile defined openings,
- the thermocouples are installed at the specified locations,
- functioning of fans and thermocouples is tested with a "cold operation test",
- the tightness of pipelines and supply lines for oil, gas, and compressed air is tested and
- the seals of the vessel are subjected to a visual inspection.
6.5 Execution
Once the preparation work has been completed or the end customer has given his "go ahead", the
execution of drying can start according to the drying curves provided by the supplier of the
refractories or by the refractory engineering company. The following guidelines apply to establish a
rough estimate of the drying period:
Depending on the refractory materials, there can be major differences in regard to the temperature
gradients. Consequently, only recommendations are given here and the minimum requirements
mentioned.
Up to 100°C it is not required to regulate the temperature. Heat transmission is relatively low and
the steam pressure can not exceed 1 bar. Table 663 gives standard values and data for
temperature regulation above 100°C and possible waiting periods between the end of lining wok
and start of the drying procedure.
The indicated temperatures should never refer to the surface of the lining but always to the hot gas
or hot air. This ensures a certain degree of safety because the temperature in the material is
always changing.
Refractory linings usually consist of various refractories. If a lining is commissioned that has
several types of refractories one selects the temperature curve for the material with the lowest
permissible heating-up curve.
If there should be disturbances during drying, heating or heating-up, it is necessary to continue to
increase the temperature starting at the temperature level that existed at the end of the disturbance
period. Cooling-down must be done with extreme care because dangerous tensile stress can
occur. It is not permitted to use water or ducted (forced) air.
The temperatures are preferably measured with NiCrNi-thermocouples. Higher temperatures
should be measured with Pt RhPt-thermocouples with shell. This ensures the following
advantages:
- they are easy to handle and operate,
- the temperatures are precisely recorded and
- due to their small size the refractory lining is hardly influenced.
In order to avoid any influence by the walls while measuring the temperature, the thermocouples
must project 80 to 100 mm into the furnace chamber. They may not be in contact with the
refractory lining. The temperatures of specified reference measuring locations are decisive for
temperature regulation.
6.6 Principles of Heating, Heating-Up and Cooling-Down
6.6.1 Heating
Heating is usually done immediately after drying is completed. The curve for heating is usually given
in form of a special instruction connected to the specific order. The maximum heating speed may
not exceed the indicated maximum gradient in any area of the furnace.
If there are disturbances during heating the same applies as for drying. It is necessary to continue to
increase the temperature starting at the temperature level that existed at the end of the disturbance
period. If a specific temperature has been held for the specific period of time required, then it is not
necessary to repeat this step. However, if the temperature has not been held for the entire time
period required, then this step must be repeated. A record of the temperatures in the furnace or
plant parts must be kept during the heating procedure.
6.6.2 Cooling-Down and Heating-Up
The heating-up speed will be indicted in special instructions connected to the specific order.
However, the actual heating-up and cooling-down speeds can be adapted to the operational
requirements and requirements of the furnace/plant. The maximum temperature levels indicated in
the special instructions for drying, heating and heating-up must not be exceeded.
6.7 Special Considerations When Drying Different Furnaces/

Plants
For the drying procedure it is common practice that the required hot gas volume is calculated and
the locations of the thermocouples are determined beforehand. With furnaces or plants having a
complicated design (geometry) it is recommended to carefully check the temperatures in the "dead"
areas. These areas are often only accessible by installing additional burners or by installing special
parts that redirect the flow of the hot gases.
In the following some examples are given to describe which peripheral conditions must be observed
during drying. The temperatures must always be recorded with automatic temperature recorders or
with a computer.
6.7.1 Cement Plants with Pre-heater Towers
Cement plants with pre heater towers usually consist of the plant parts: pre heater tower, kiln inlet,
rotary tube, kiln hood and cooler. If the entire plant is to be dried it is difficult to generate sufficient hot
air in the area of the cooler and rotary tube in order to prevent laminar flow with low gas speed.
Consequently, it is common to install burners in the area of the cooler and kiln hood. The further
distribution of the gases can be regulated quite well with the assistance of flaps inside the mains
(pipes) and at the upper end of the pre heater tower. This also ensures drying of the connecting
mains inside the pre heater tower. Often additional burners are recommended for the kiln inlet and in
some cyclones.
6.7.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed

The difficulty in circulating fluidized bed plants with one or several cyclones is to generate a sufficient
amount of heat (from the combustion chamber) in the direction cyclones without damaging the mains
in the walls. Often the furnace engineering company will request to fill the
5.Drying, Heating, Heating-Up and Cooling-Down 331
mains with heated water. However, permanent refilling complicates and extends the drying process
and may even make a drying process for the roof of the combustion chamber impossible.
The drying of the ash return mains is another difficulty. What measures can be taken will strongly
depend on the size and length of the mains. For ash and fluidized bed coolers the maximum
permissible temperatures of the bank of mains must be taken into consideration.
For circulating fluidized bed plants a greater number of burners and thermocouples will always be
required in order to accomplish complete drying of the plant.
6.7.3 Thermal Refuse Incinerators

The refractory lining in walls with mains (pipes) in refuse incinerators is usually quite thin. The walls
need a huge amount of hot air. This is due to the combustion chamber and the following areas such
as the ash funnels and the walls without mains (pipes) that have a large surface but no refractory
lining. The burners can be installed in the area of the refuse feed (inlet) and rear wall. The
manholes and doors in those areas are usually sufficient. The thermocouples for regulating the
temperature are installed in the area of the combustion chamber.
6.7.4 Aluminum Melting Furnaces

The often very small aluminum melting furnaces are dried with smaller burners. It must be possible
to regulate these burners at a very low level. The suitable fan must also be selected. The
combination of both these components must guarantee a low or high temperature despite the low
air volume.
Difficulties often arise when determining the position of inlet openings. On the one hand, the
openings must not be too small. On the other hand, the possibility must exist to direct the hot gases
in such a way that the lining is not impinged directly. It, consequently, may be necessary to protect
some areas with heat-insulating materials.
7. Quality Management 333
7. Quality Management
H. Lotcke, H.-D. Potsch, H. Schnitzer, J. SctlOtz, A. ZOlch
7.1 General
The term "Quality Management" (QM) describes the organizational measures to fulfill business
objectives and flawless execution of deliveries/supplies and services according to contract. The
series of standards DIN EN ISO 9000 (and following) provide recommendations for a quality
management system. This series of standards was introduced in May 1987 and has developed into
the worldwide standard within a few years. The standard was revised in following years. The 20
OM-elements in the original standards were combined into 4 procedures. These are listed in Table
7.1. Standard DIN EN ISO 9001:2000 is no longer element-oriented but procedure-oriented.
The procedures are described in a OM-Manual with explanation of follow-up methods and work
instructions. These procedures must be described and implemented by each company taking the
specifics of the business into consideration.
Each individual project is controlled by project-specific quality management. This involves:
- canvassing,
- calculation,
- work preparation,
- procurement and
- execution of construction.
Furthermore, it must be ensured that the fulfillment of contract stipulations is continuously checked.
Inspection plans must be prepared, materials tested and installation work checked. More details are
given in section 7.2. Figure 7.1 shows how project-specific quality management
fits into the complete system.
7.2 Project-Specific Quality Management
Project-specific quality management is the actual implementation of the requirements listed in the
QM-Manual. It covers the entire project period beginning with the handling of the inquiry to the
delivery or to completion of the services and ends with the termination of the warranty period. All
procedures during this period are reviewed and included in quality management.
334 7. Quality Management
Table 7.1: Equivalences of DIN EN ISO 9001:2000 and DIN EN ISO 9001 :1994
Depending on the content and range of a specific project, the activities of quality management are
listed in Table 7.2.
Including the tests/inspection and acceptance procedures these activities were part of the internal
company and project-specific quality assurance. The new aspect is the requirement to record these
activities in a suitable manner and thus provide documentation that is understandable and reliable.
Many companies have prepared forms for the extensive documentation of activities and to a great
extent not only established but also accomplished standardization of procedures within the
company. For example, this includes
- documentation files to prove flow of information,
- drawing files with recording of revision updates,
- lists of delivery slips to prove inspection of incoming materials/supplies,
- construction site reports to have proof. of on-site activities and
- inspection plans and connected inspection records according to sections 7.3 to 7.5.
For larger projects it is recommended to first prepare a survey of all activities to be done and
measures to ensure the quality standards. All internal and external procedures are to be listed. The
Fig. 7.1: Structure and documentation levels of quality management

type of documentation and responsible persons must be specified. This survey describes the
Quality Plan (QP) for the project. The Quality Plan shown here is to serve as an example and
orientation assistance.
7.3 Inspection Plans

7.3.1 General
A test/inspection plan serves to assist planning and documentation of the test/inspection

procedures. Furthermore, the test/inspection instructions, dates and locations must be specified.
The test/inspection forms for making reports must be prepared beforehand in order to later on
control the implementation of the individual procedures and measures in addition to recording the
results on these forms.
A test/inspection plan contains general information about the order, construction part or material.
Furthermore, the following data should be indicated in the plan:
- serial number for the test/inspection
- designation of the test/inspection
- designation of the test/inspection guidelines or regulations, possibly document number within
the order documentation
- document numbers of the connected test/inspection reports with a column for revision
- type of test/inspection and participation of various parties such as subcontractors, supplier of
materials, end customer
- date of test/inspection
- columns/sections for involved parties to provide their signature
Figures 7.2, 7.3 and 7.4 illustrate examples. The illustrated form is international standard by now.
For the specific test/inspection an abbreviation consisting of a single digit (letter) is used. The
meanings are explained in Table 7 .. 4. The abbreviations are based on the English language. It
must be pointed out that it is quite common today to prepare and issue the test/inspection/sampling
plans in English.
The test/inspection plan should also contain information on how to proceed if defects are noticed.
The general procedure should already be established in the QM Manual or in the instructions that
Table 7.4: Abbreviations for test types or items used in inspection plans
apply for the individual procedures. The information in the test/inspection plan must be more
detailed. The test/inspection records must have columns in which noticed defects can be described
in detail. Furthermore, a so-called non-conformity report must be written in order to initiate
immediate measures as well as corrective and preventive measures.
7.3.2 Inspection Plan Procurement of Materials

In this section focus is on the procurement of materials. It is presumed that this is part of the
performance of the refractory engineering company. The refractories are, consequently, selected by
the refractory engineering company on the basis of the technical data and requirements and
purchased from the refractory material manufacturers. In such a case the test/inspection plan for
procurement of materials includes the following points:
- selection of refractory materials as part of material engineering
- determination and specification of the tests/inspections
- selection of the supplier and procurement procedure
- tests/inspections on materials by the manufacturer and test/inspection certificates
- check of packaging and shipping/forwarding documents
- possibly acceptance at manufacturer by the refractory engineering company or by an
independent lab
The arrival of the materials, handling of the materials at the construction site, installation, further
tests/inspections are part of the test/inspection plan "installation of refractory materials" (refer to
section 7.3.3). It must also be considered that the application of test/inspection procedures by the
manufacturers and the prepared test/inspection plans for the materials must be viewed separately.
Section 7.4 will focus on this.
Table 7.6: Terms and abbreviations
Depending on the amount of refractories, one will prepare and implement a standard
test/inspection plan for most of the materials to be ordered. A very specific test/inspection plan
will often be prepared for those refractories requiring a special quality level. This plan will
include the items described in section 7.3.1. In the piece list or a special list it is important to
mark the refractory materials that are to be subjected to a special (individual) test/inspec tion
plan. This list can also contain information about what material tests/inspections can be
requested from the manufacturer. For refractory products mainly the tests/inspections
connected to properties are of top priority. Refer to Table 7.5.
Table 7.7 is based on standard DIN EN 10 204 and lists the various types of test/inspection
certificates. For the refractories requiring a special quality level the manufacturer should be
requested to provide an acceptance certificate according to 3.1 or at least a test report
according to 2.2 in regard to the important and decisive properties. An agreement with the
supplier must be
concluded concerning the range and extent of procedures to be applied as described in section
7.4. and what tolerances are to be complied with ..
Furthermore, the refractory engineering company should reserve the right to conduct material
acceptance procedures at the manufacturing plant and to release the accepted materials for
shipment.
In special cases, particularly if dealing with new materials or a new supplier, it may be useful to
have the materials tested/inspected by an independent lab.
The inspection plan must indicate type and extent of test/inspections conducted by the
manufacturer, nominal data (counts), tolerances, acceptance and further inspections.
Figure 7.2 shows an inspection plan for the procurement of the brick shapes: standard shape
NF2, standard end arch (wedge) bricks 2H10 and 2H16 as well as special shaped bricks of
grade A30t. The inspection plan first refers to the properties of A30t. However, only the
dimensional accuracy of each shape must be inspected. Furthermore, an independent lab
must take samples and test the cold crushing strength of the shaped bricks. This is required to
ensure that the specific nominal data (counts) in regard to the cold crushing strength are
achieved because these bricks are not pressed by machines like the standard brick shapes.
7.3.3 Inspection Plan Installation of Refractory Materials
It must first be realized and considered that the test/inspection connected to the installation of
refractory materials is very complex due to the variety of industrial furnaces, plants, and
construction parts. A great amount of experience is required to set up effective and feasible
inspection plans. The standard does not give precise requirements. The following form (Figure
7.3) lists the contents of a inspection plan and provides a framework which is to be filled out
with the details described in section 7.5.
A test/inspection plan can be outlined as follows depending on the extent of the performance:
Inspections before start of the installation work, "preliminary
inspections" - check of the technical documentation
- measurements and appearance/condition of the supporting steel construction
- test/inspection of incoming refractories, material storage and transportation at the construction
site
- availability and readiness of equipment/machinery and scaffolds
- qualifications of the workers/personnel
Inspections during the installation work, "installation inspections"
- observance of engineering requirements: dimensions, fixation of the fulfils/molds, layer
thickness, important measurements, expansion joints, condition and appearance of the
castable surfaces
- observance of the instructions for preparation and use, specifically when working with
unshaped refractory materials (monolithic), field tests for gunning work
- sampling connected to the unshaped refractory materials (monolithic)
- measures to be able to trace back, proof of installation
Inspections after the installation work, Hfinal and intermediate inspections"
- self-check if having observed the engineering requirements to the extent this can still be
inspected
- evaluation of results for sampling procedure
- acceptance by the customer
Fig. 7.3: Inspection plan for construction component to be installed as part of installation of refractory materials
For each part of the construction it is recommended to prepare a test/inspection with the points
mentioned above. Figure 7.3. serves as an example. For certain points it will be necessary to
prepare test/inspection reports in order to give the construction site manager precise information and
requirements regarding the item to be inspected and the extent of inspection. Section 7.5 gives more
details and examples· of inspection reports. The number and extent of tests/inspections will largely
depend on the amount of experience the construction site manager and workers/personnel have
gained in the past.
The entire inspection plan for the installation of refractory materials is based on a list of all
construction parts. For each construction part there is a inspection plan with connected inspection
reports. The arising hierarchical structure is shown in Figure 7.17 at the end of chapter 7.
7.3.4 Inspection Plan Welding
The welding topic will only be dealt with to the extent this is relevant for a refractory engineering
company. Focus is solely on the welding of anchoring parts or items for the refractory lining such as
- consoles,
- corrugated anchors and
- hexmesh.
Reference is made to section 4.6 in which arc stud welding is discussed.
If welding of the anchoring is not part of the performance to be done by the refractory engineering
company then the check measures can be limited to a visual inspection similar to the inspections
before start of installation work described in section 7.3.3.
Mainly the type of anchors and dimensions are checked in order to ensure proper installation of the
refractory materials as shown in the drawings. If nothing else has been agreed on, there are no
systematic strength inspections or other inspections which specifically focus on the welding work.
The refractory engineering company assumes that such inspections have been done and will,
consequently, not prepare their own inspection plan for welding.
If, however, welding of the anchoring is part of the performance to be done by the refractory
engineering company then this company is responsible for inspection. This responsibility may not
be transferred to a subcontractor even if this subcontractor performs the welding work as a
specialist in the welding sector. Cooperation with the subcontractor will be required and the
measures listed in section 4.6.2.8 must be implemented and be included in a test/inspection plan.
One must differentiate between
- check of the prerequisites,
- supervision of installation work and
- final test/inspection.
The first requirement is to prepare welding instructions (also referred to as welding procedure
specification) and connected tests/inspections (refer to the items listed under 1 and 2 in the Figure
7.4 inspection plan).
The supervision of installation refers to tests/inspections during welding work ("work inspection").
For example, the first welded parts installed during any welding work procedure should be
subjected to a visual and strength inspection before the welding specialist continues working the
same way under the same conditions. Furthermore, cycles must be specified for the intermediate
inspections. The specification and implementation of these inspections will generally be entrusted
to the subcontractor doing the welding work. The subcontractor will be requested to provide
essentials/requirements for the inspection plan.
Fig. 7.4: Inspection plan for the welding of corrugated anchors

The final test/inspection must be done by the refractory engineering company. Depending on the
progress of the installation work, the inspection concentrates on the welded parts in a specific part of
the construction or the welded parts installed over a specific time period. Usually a 100 % inspection
is not possible because of the expense and time that would be required. In order to obtain
information and a reliable assessment of the completed welding work, one should rely on the
statistical methods described in section 7.4.3. The test/inspection plan for the final inspection will
include
- the listing/specification of the lots according to construction component/part or time periods and
separated according to the various parts/items to be welded, toughness of the test/inspection,
100 %, AQL, reduced, normal, tightened (intensified).
- details of the test/inspection, for example the bending test for corrugated anchors and visual
inspection of the weld seam and
- measures if detecting defects, for example intensified AQL.
Concerning a suitable test/inspection record refer to Figure 7.15 in section 7.5. Figure 7.14 is an
example where the final inspection of the anchors is integrated in the test/inspection plan for the
installation of refractory materials.
7.4 Inspection of Materials
7.4.1 General
An inspection of materials is more specifically the acceptance inspection of the finished product.
For this a quality inspection is conducted which is based on taking samples for a finite population -
the lot. The quality inspection is to determine if and to what extent the products fulfill the given
quality requirements. Samples are taken and next it is determined if the quality characteristics
(properties), so-called test or inspection properties (characteristics), have been achieved as
agreed upon between supplier and the party having ordered the refractory materials.
One differentiates between the inspection by attributes or counting and the inspection by variables
or measuring depending on the way the inspection properties are recorded. For the inspection by
attributes the number of defective (bad) elements in the sample is determined. The acceptance
check is done by a good/bad inspection. For the inspection by variables the inspection
characteristic (property) is based on the Gaussian normal distribution. Refer to 7.4.2.
The sample inspection plan is the statistical instrument of the acceptance inspection. For the
attributive and variable inspection plans it is still possible to separate single, double, multiple and
sequential plans from one another. Generally the single inspection plan is used. A certain amount
of samples (sample size n) is to be taken from a lot.
For inspecting a series of lots one often applies a combination of inspection plans 'laving a
different "separation toughness". Moving frol11 one inspection plan to another is governed by skip
instructions. The collecting of several inspection plans is referred to as a inspection plan collection.
The most common inspection plan collection for inspections by attributes is DIN ISO 2859 and for
inspection by variables DIN ISO 3951. Figure 7.5 shows how to work with a inspection plan
collection, that is finding a inspection plan according to DIN ISO 2859, for example.
The starting criteria is the lot size N and the acceptable quality level AQL. In practice the lot size n
and one of the seven inspection levels (I to Ill; S1 to S4) are specified in advance. Generally
inspection level 11 is applied. Each pair specifies a designation letter to which an inspection
instruction belongs. One can opt for single, double or seven-fold inspection. The separation
toughness must also be chosen within an inspection level. Here one may opt for reduced} normal
or tightened (intensified) inspection. One usually starts with inspection level 1I and normal
Fig. 7.5: Inspection plan according to DIN ISO 2859-1 (according to Rinne/Mittag: statistical
methods for quality assurance)
inspection. Depending on the continuous inspection results it is possible to skip to another inspection
level. Quality will have an effect and help regulate inspection toughness.
Acceptance inspections for shaped refractory materials always involve inspections by attributes and
variables. For unshaped refractories (monolithic) only an inspection by variables is the general rule.
7.4.2 Explanation of Terms

AOQL (Average Outgoing Quality Limit) is the largest value (count) of the average share of bad items
which - after applying a specific sampling plan continuously - is on the average in the lots after
inspection and if rejected lots have been sorted out and the found bad items are replaced by good
items.
AQL (Acceptable Quality Level) is the limit value (count) of the quality level for all sampling
instructions connected to a sampling plan to which high acceptance probabilities (confidence levels)
are assigned. The AQL determines the percentage share of the permissible bad items in a lot.
Chance variation range is the range calculated on the basis of a known population in which
random sampling results with a given confidence level fall.
Collective sample is the amount (count) of packaged single samples which is representative of the
lot.
Confidence interval is the range calculated from the sampling result which includes the unknown
value (count) of a parameter of the population, for example μ or s, with a given statistical safety - the
confidence level.
Consumer's risk is the probability β that a lot, upon application of a sampling plan, is accepted if its
relative share of bad items equals the rejecting limiting quality (LQ) or its mean value (count) is equal
μG + Δμ or μG - Δμ
Fig. 7.6: Gaussian normal distribution
Elementary single sample is the amount of materials that are taken only once out of a packaged
item (unit). After repeating this procedure several times and mixing one generates a packaged
single sample.
Gaussian (normal) distribution is the distribution function of a random variable with the density
function having the shape of the Gaussian (bell) curve or normal distribution curve. Many
distributions in statistical practice are distributed normally or at least by approximation.
Inspection by attributes -> 7.4.3.2
Inspection by variables -> 7.4.3.3
KPRE is an acceptance factor according to PRE (Federation Europeenne des Fabricants de Produits
Refractaires).
Limiting quality level La, bad limit, is the highest value (count) of the permissible relative share of
bad items in the lot at which being reached or exceeded lots are considered as Hbad1l and with
high probability are to be rejected by a sampling plan.
Lot is the amount (count) of items and must be specified. These items have comparable properties
(characteristics). Samples are taken out of this lot and are tested/inspected to see if they are in
agreement with the acceptance criteria. Production lot, inspection lot and delivered (supplied) lot
must not be the same. A lot must consist of natural items. This means that the number (count) of
elements (items) must always be a whole number. These items are either pieces or packed
quantities. For taking samples, statistical assessment and evaluation, larger amounts of refractories
are split into small lots. The number (count) of items in a lot is specified as the lot size N.
Operating curve characteristic is the illustration of how the probability of acceptance L is
influenced by the relative share of bad items in the lot or by the mean value of the lot for a sampling
plan.
6.Quality Management 349
Packaged item is the packaged part of a lot. This could be a sack, big bag, carton, packed block of
material, drum or can.
Packaged single sample is the single sample that is representative of the packaged item. This can
be the packaged item itself or the result of mixing a certain number of items of elementary single
samples.
Population "is the amount of all items that are subjected to statistical assessment. Each lot formed
when dividing into sampling lots is a population. It is designated as N.
Producer's risk is the probability a that, in case a sampling plan is used, a lot is rejected if its
relative share of bad items equals the acceptable quality level AQL or if its mean value (count)
equals the guaranteed value (count) μG
Random sample consists of one or several items which are randomly selected and taken from the
lot. The number (count) of items for the sample is designated as sample size and is designated as
n.
Single sample is the amount of materials that are taken only once out of a larger amount.
Ts, Tj is the one-sided limit value (count) for single values (counts) and, depending on the property
(characteristic), expressed as highest value Ts or minimum value Tj
7.4.3 Shaped Refractory Materials

7.4.3.1 General
For shaped refractories the standard ISO 5022 provides attributive and variable inspection plans
according to which samples can be taken in order to obtain - based on the laws of probability
calculation - best possible precise statements about the uniformity of refractory materials being
supplied and in order to prove that the delivery agreements have been observed. The sampling
procedure and evaluation/assessment must be conducted by experts who are familiar with the
problems during manufacture and service of the materials. These persons must also be acquainted
with the specific problems of sampling.
The following information must be recorded during sampling and acceptance check: -
supplier and customer ordering
- designation/description of the materials
- number, designation and size of the lot
- date and location of sampling
- name of responsible person taking samples
- number (count) of pallets per brick item
- number (count) and designation of samples for inspection by variables with indication of the
brick item
- random sampling plan
- Evaluation (assessment) criteria for the agreed properties (characteristics) and guaranteed
values of the supplier ,
_ Possible splitting of the samples between manufacturer and independent lab if inspection by
variables
_ Documentation of all results in an acceptance report for inspections by attributes
For inspecting a lot there are two inspection procedures independent of one another:
_ inspection by attributes or good/bad inspection which is non-destructive and each shape generates
a separate inspection lot.
_ inspection by variables which is usually destructive and applied to several shapes.
Table 7.8: Single sampling plans for the inspection by attributes applying normal evaluation according to ISO
5022, Table 3
A lot is considered to be accepted if the acceptance conditions of both inspection procedures are
fulfilled.
7.4.3.2 Inspection by Attributes or Good/Bad Inspection
The sampling plans for this inspection procedure do not call for the Gaussian normal distribution (---->
7.4.2). Therefore the sample size n is far higher. During sampling the bad items are counted and it
is determined if the acceptance condition is fulfilled or not. This way mainly the outer appearance
and dimensional accuracy are inspected. At the same time the structure is assessed which is
referred to as inspection of "inner defects".
Due to the relative big sample size n for this inspection it is most common to apply reduced
sampling plans. They can be applied in cases when there have been no rejections over a longer
period of time or no rejections with larger series of products. The sampling plan can be reduced by
either inspecting the next lower sample size n for the lot size N according to Table 7.8 (ISO 5022,
Table 3) or by applying the single sampling plans for reduced inspection according to Table 7.9 (DIN
ISO 2859, part 1, Table II-C) are applied.
The evaluation (assessment) criteria listed below for the inspection by attributes and the permissible
share of defective/bad items (----> AQL) must be agreed between manufacturer/supplier and the party
placing the order. The reached agreements are specified in a so-called defect/bad item catalogue
which is commonly referred to as specifications. Shaped refractories used in coke oven construction
are assessed according to DIN 1089, part 1 and part 2.
7.4.3.2.1 Outer Appearance

Sound
Inner defects can be found by hitting dry bricks with a suitable steel hammer which has a wooden
handle (50 to 100 gr.). Only larger structural defects, for example larger cracks or obvious
separation of layers, can be detected by way of the sound. Depending on the brick grade being
inspected, the characteristic sound can be quite different.
Edge Strength
Edges and corners must be strong and tight. It should not be possible to rub grain out by rubbing the
area with the thumb. The number (count) and size of edge damages must not exceed an agreed
limit or limits indicated in standards.
Burn Cavities
A low number of flux agent burn cavities is usually of no significance. Some cavities on the surface
are permissible depending on the intended application of the refractory materials.
Cracks
The following rules have proven best in practice:
- Bricks, which only have surface cracks and have a good sound, are not assessed as being
defective/bad. Experts will easily recognize surface cracks. These cracks do not go deep but are
the result of firing behavior of that specific product 9ut of coarse grain ceramic material. In cases
of doubt it is required to cut the sample in half to get a better look:-
- Bricks with a crack to be seen on the outside and a poor sound must be assessed as defective/bad
without having to prove the measurements of the crack in each specific case.
- Bricks with a crack that can be seen on the outside without a poor sound require a measurement of
the crack length. Depending on the agreed specifications, the brick is evaluated as good or
defective/bad. There are cases when it is difficult to decide if an irregularity to be seen on the
outside is a 'crack or not. in such cases the width is measured, too. After checking the agreed
specifications, it is decided if the brick is good or defective/bad.
Table 7.9: Single sampling plans for the inspection .by attributes according to DIN ISO 2859, part 1
(excerpt)
For final evaluation in cases of doubt it is required to cut the sample in half. Then is will be
possible to determine the precise width and length of the crack.
Brick Texture/Structure
The texture/structure of the shaped refractory product can be assessed at the fractured section.
Usually the coarse grain will break if the bond is good in the brick 111atrix. During cutting or drilling
only a few individual grains should break off. As general rule: the bond strength can be assessed
best on sections/surfaces that have been generated by cutting or drilling.
The texture/structure must not contain any defects such as inner cracks or hollow areas caused by
separation of layers or structure. A few individual grains may break off without this being
considered as a defect. Defects are to be preferably proven at the cut sections/surfaces of bricks
taken for sampling or on samples being kept for inspection at a later date. Defects should not only
be proven by simply checking the sound as is often the case. Defects generally occur
systell1atically and tl1ere are a relatively high share in a lot being inspected. In such a case it has
proven best to inspect the affected brick shape as follows:
Disregarding the lot size, the reduced inspection plan according to Table 7.9 with n = 8, c = 1, and
d = 4 is applied with an AQL of 6.5 %. If the number of defective/bad items is 0 or 1 the acceptance
condition is fulfilled. If the number is 4, the lot is rejected. If the number is 2 or 3, it is then required
to inspect an additional 13 items. If no more than a total of 3 defective/bad items is counted, the lot
is accepted. Otherwise it is rejected.
7.4.3.2.2 Dimensional Accuracy

Permissible dimensional inaccuracy and warp can, for example, be listed in the specification, brick
drawing, PRE Recommendation R 23, Steel-Iron Material Sheets or DIN 1089. It is important to
check the main dimensions that are most important for proper service of the refractory brick in the
part being constructed.
End arch (wedge) bricks or complicated shapes, for example burner bricks, are to be positioned dry
on the radii or axes and checked to see if they are in conformity with the information in the drawings.
If a larger series of bricks is manufactured it is also possible to check dimensions in stacks of 1 0
bricks and sometimes the taper, too. Refer' to Figures 7.7 and 7.8.
For the inspection by attributes each brick item (brick marking) of each individual grade that is
presented for acceptance or a certain share of a brick item of each individual grade is considered to
be a separate lot. The samples are taken from each lot according to the specific sampling plan. The
sample size n also depends on the agreed acceptable quality level (AQL).
Generally the following AQL values (counts) are preferred:
- AQL 1.5 % for the inspection of outer appearance of shaped bricks or bricks with an important
function in a construction part for example suspended bricks in the roof of a tunnel kiln.
- AQL 4.0 % for the inspection of outer appearance of standard shapes, squares or shapes
manufactured as series.
- AQL 6.5 % for the inspection of dimensional[ accuracy and for the evaluation of brick
texture/structure.
The random rule must apply for selecting the items. Every item must have the same chance of being
picked and subjected to inspection. Larger amounts are generally positioned on pallets. Based on
practical experience, for inspection no more than 20 % of the s8111ple size should be taken from
one pallet. Consequently, the number of pallets, out of which samples are to be taken, can be
limited by taking this approach. The pallets themselves are also selected according to the randorl1
principle.
Before start of manufacture, the party placing the order' and manufacturer must agree in the
specifications on the requirements and criteria for an item under which an iten1 - due to insufficient
outer appearance - will no longer be suited for the intended application. If impermissible
dimensional inaccuracies are found it is possible to soil again unless these inaccuracies have no
negative effect when the materials are installed in the construction part. An item, which has been
assessed as defective/bad, must be excluded from all further inspections. It 111ay also not be sent
back to the lot.
Outer appearance is checked on the same items on which dimensional accuracy is inspected.
Since usually, for two inspections, a different AQL is agreed, there will be a different number of
items in a sample n in some cases. This is to be seen in Table 7.9. In such a case it is
recommended that, from the start, the higher n sample be selected. An inspection requiring a
smaller n sample should be discontinued.
7.4.3.2.3 Evaluation of Results
The discovered defective/bad items are counted in order to n1ake a decision on acceptance or
rejection. An individual item can have several defects or several impermissible dimensional
inaccuracies. However, this only counts as one defect. If for standard sampling plans in one of
these cases the number (count) of found defective/bad items y is higher than the acceptance
number (count) c, then inspection of the bad dimension or property (characteristic) is repeated once
the lot is presented again. If with a reduced sampling plan the number (count) of found
defective/bad iten1s is between the acceptance number c and the rejection number d one must
return to tile normal sampling plan.
An acceptance report is written in which the results of the inspection by attributes are indicated for
each lot. The inspection results of the supplier are also included in this report.
7.4.3.3 Inspection by Variables
7.4.3.3.1 Execution
Measurable material properties are inspected by this inspection method. In determining the
properties to be inspected, one prefers those properties for which the inspection costs are
considered to be reasonable. The inspections must be conducted quickly and reliably. The results
must be representative. Furthermore, the results assist in assessing the uniformity of a product and
are decisive for determining if the promises of the supplier or specifications agreed upon with the
end customer have been fulfilled,
Typical homogeneity parameters are, for example:
- bulk density or apparent (open) porosity
- cold crushing strength or cold modulus of rupture
- residual quartz content with silica bricks
- main chemical constituents
If a party ordering the refractories or an end customer also demands the inspection of properties
important for the specific application, for example creep under compression, the inspection is usually
not done on the entire sample size due to the high inspection costs. The inspection result only
serves as additional information.
If an AQL connected to a specific property is to be agreed upon beforehand, ISO 5022 offers several
equal possibilities to assess the uniformity of a product. These are:
- determination of a guaranteed value (count) )JG for a mean value with

- known standard deviation or
- unknown standard deviation
- determination of a limit value (count) Tsar Tj for the single value (count) with
- known standard deviation or
- unknown standard deviation
The agreed properties are to be independent of one another, for example bulk density or apparent
(open) porosity. The number of properties should not exceed three because for each property there
must be a producer's risk of 5 % and a consumer's risk of 10 % (refer to 7.4.2). Once three
parameters are exceeded the statistical probability increases that a delivery is rejected despite being
in agreement with specifications. The frequency distribution of the measured results connected to a
single property must correspond to the Gaussian normal distribution. In case of doubt this must be
checked.
The following rules apply for sampling with an inspection by variables: -
The lots must be set up to include all shapes.
- The maximum lot weight is 500 tons.
- With different manufacturing methods or brick weights within one delivery and with varying
required values (counts) the delivery being supplied must be split up, for example according to
the following classes:
class 1: machine-pressed bricks or items up to 15 kg,
class 2: machine-pressed bricks or items from 15 to 30 kg,
class 3: bricks not pressed by machines or items over 35 kg.
Table 7.11: Single sampling plans for the inspection by variables with given one-sided limit value for
individual values and known standard deviation according to ISO 5022 1 Table 9
The samples are taken according to the random rule. Each item must have the same chance to be
picked for inspection.
- The sample size n depends on if a mean value (count) or single value (count) has been specified
(refer to tables 7.10, 7.11 or 7.12).
- Under certain conditions sampling can be limited to individual shapes of a lot.
Inspection extent and expense of such statistically guaranteed inspection plans is immense and
often not justifiable for economic reasons. If there are no significant differences between the
examination methods applied by the lab of the supplier and the lab of the party accepting the
refractories, it will be possible to use the results of the supplier in the evaluation process. The
inspection effort can thus be cut in half.
7.4.3.3.2 Evaluation of Results of Inspection by Variables
7.4.3.3.2.1 Guaranteed Value (Count) J..IG for the Mean Value

The evaluation of the samples and the decision on the lot are done according to ISO 5022, section
5.3.2.2 or section 5.5.3. With a known standard deviation a mean value x is calculated from the n
single values (counts). If dividing up the samples, the mean value (count) is made up of n1 single
values of the producer and n2 single values of the party ordering the refractories. In this case n 1 =
n2 = n / 2.
If high values (counts) are unfavorable (upper tolerance limit) the rule for making a decision is:
With an unknown standard deviation there will be a larger sample size n. From the n single values
(counts) of an inspection the mean value and the standard deviation s are also calculated. Then the
four above-mentioned acceptance/rejection rules apply. In this case s takes the place of s.
7.4.3.3.2.2 Guaranteed One-Sided Limit Value (Count) Ts or Tj for the Single Value (Count)
The evaluation of the samples and the decision on the lot is done according to ISO 5022, section
5.4.2 or section 5.6.2. The inspection gives n single values with which first of all the mean value x is
calculated. With an unknown standard deviation s the standard deviation s is calculated and
next the quality index Q.
Table 7.12: Single sampling plans for the inspection by variables with given one-sided limit value for sinQle
values and unknown standard deviation according to 5022, Table 10
Consequently, the following decision rules apply:
Q ≥ K: the lot is accepted

Q < K: the lot is rejected
K is the acceptance factor which can be found in Table 7.11 or Table 7.12.
7.4.3.4 Practical Execution of Sampling

Taking the acceptance procedure of suspended roof bricks as an example, the individual activities of
a sampling procedure are explained.
7.4.3.4.1 Sampling and Inspection Plan

Before the date of the sampling procedure the supplier sends the customer a list of all brick shapes
to be presented. This inspection list - Table 7.13 is an example - contains information on brick
items, piece amounts N, piece weights and total weight of the individual brick items. This list is the
base for the sampling and inspection plan and must be completed before the start of the actual
sampling procedure. Once this list is available, one may start with the actual sampling procedure at
the specific location, that is in the producer's plant, stock facility or at the construction site.
Table 7.14 shows a typical sampling plan for the presented suspended roof bricks. The plan
contains producer information according to inspection list, information on inspection by attributes
and inspection by variables, sample numbers and the properties to be inspected.
For the inspection by attributes first of all the standard AQL values (counts) are generally
determined for each brick item. The deviating AOL value for the outer appearance of shape H 20-
204 is due to the important function of this shape as a component in a suspended roof. Next the
sample size n for each brick item and for the normal inspection according to ISO 5022 (Table 7.8)
is determined or nred for the reduced inspection according to DIN ISO 2859, part 1 (Table 7.9). In
the next column the acceptance number c or the sampling instruction with acceptance number c
and rejection number d are entered.
There are cases where for a specific combination of AQL and distinguishing letters there will be no
sampling instruction c-d for the sample size. The table refers the user to another distinguishing
letter. Then the valid sample size is established by the new and not by the original distinguishing
letter. If this leads to varying sampling sizes for different AQL values, then it is possible to apply the
largest sample size to all defect classifications.
For the inspection by variables specific brick shapes are grouped together to lots because the
shape (geometry) is of no major importance. In such a case it is not recommended to take bricks
having about the same weight and make a lot. The lot should be made up of bricks according to
their importance as component in the suspended roof. This explains why the suspended brick H 20-
204 forms a separate lot and all other bricks make up another lot.
The sample size n for the inspection by variables depends on the total weight of the lot. The
samples are taken according to the agreed guaranteed value (count) for the properly in Tables
7.10, 7.11 or 7.12. In our case we have 10 samples for lot 2 with guaranteed mean value and
known standard deviation. For determining the proportionate sample number nant (ant =
proportionate) belonging to each brick shape in the lot it is first necessary to determine the sample
size n for each individual shape according to the tonnage and add up. Lot 2: n = 28. The
proportionate sample number:
Table 7.14: Sampling plan according to ISO 5022, Table 3, respectively DIN ISO 2859, part 1, Table lI e for the
inspection by attributes and variables including inspection plan
For lots with several shapes it is recommended to not subject those shapes that are few in number
to the inspections. This ensures that more important shapes are inspected with a higher sample
size.
The sampling plan also lists the properties to be inspected. The number of inspections corresponds
to the number of proportionate samples if the property is taken for an assessment of uniformity of
the delivered refractories, for example apparent porosity or cold crushing strength. Propel1ies that
are subjected to limited inspection serve as information only.
The described sampling plan exemplifies the large sample size, specifically if conducting a normal
inspection. This is often not justifiable for economic reasons so that a shortened inspection plan is
applied. There ~re two differences:
- Outer appearance is also inspected with a reduced inspection according to DIN ISO 2859 just like
dimensional accuracy is inspected.
- Just as the inspection of variables, the inspection by attributes also includes and covers all
shapes.
Furthermore, the reduced sample size nred is determined for each individual shape, depending on
its piece anl0unt N, and for tile lot depending on its piece amount L N. The proportionate reduced
sample size nant (ant = proportionate) can be calculated for the individual shape (refer to Table 7.15)
based on nred of the individual shapes, the total nred and the sample size of the lot. A comparison of
sampling plans shows to what extent the sample size can be reduced with the inspection by
attributes. If taking our example, lot 2 will have 171 samples for the normal inspection, 73 examples
for the reduced and up to 50 samples for shortened sampling. With an inspection by variables the
expense for sampling can be cut in half by dividing the samples.
Before sampling starts the sampling and inspection plans must be prepared. Furthermore, the
inspection sheets have to be prepared and available to record the results of "the inspection by
attributes. Figure 7.9 shows an example of an inspection sheet. A separate inspection sheet is
prepared for each brick item. In addition to general information or data there is space to record the
nominal dimensions to be inspected, permissible deviations, sample size n, acceptance number c,
rejection number d, AQL, and sample number of the bricks for inspection by variables.
7.4.3.4.2 Taking Samples and Inspection of Samples

Before taking the samples it is first required to determine the number of pallets for inspection by
attributes. As already mentioned, for greater piece amounts no more than a maximum 20 % of the
brick sample size n should be taken from one pallet. For smaller piece amounts this share is, of
course, higher.
With reference to our example using suspended bricks H 2.0-204 this means that 16 or respectively
6 bricks are taken from each pallet and, consequently, a presentation of 5 of the total 12 pallets for
sampling. The number of selected pallets should be according to the sampling plan and have a
justifiable ratio to the total number of pallets containing the specific shape. it is generally
recommended to increase the number of pallets to be selected with a progressive reduction of the
sample size. This applies specifically if the inspection by attributes is to cover all shapes.
Generally the party accepting the delivered refractories marks all pallets in the storage facility and
presents them for sampling. Often the supplier presents selected pallets with production control
already having been completed in the manufacturing plant. This is ok if the party accepting the
refractories picks two further pallets from the storage facility and these two pallets are inspected.
The results of this inspection must be compared and should agree with the results of the inspection
conducted by the manufacturer in the manufacturing plant.
The random sampling principle also applies for selecting the bricks on the individual pallets just as it
applies for picking the pallets. If the party accepting the refractories has no experience in regard to
the quality of the refractory product then the normal number of samples is taken according to ISO
5022.
Table 7.15: Reduced sampling plan analogous to DI~ ISO 2859, part 1, for inspection by attributes
Table 7.16: Result of the inspection by attributes according to sampling plan based on ISO 5022 and DIN ISO
2859
Samples for the inspection by attributes and inspection by variables are taken from various levels
of the pallets. This can mean that all items from one or two pallets have to be removed from the
pallets. This may take a lot of time.
If there are no rejections over a longer period of time, it is possible to apply a reduced sampling
plan, according to DIN ISO 2859, or the described shortened sampling plan. In this case the bricks
are often removed from the corner areas at various levels of the pallet. The samples taken for the
inspection by variables must have a good sound and no defects when inspected visually. They are
marked with the number indicated in the sampling plan and generally cut in half at the lab of the
manufacturer. One half of the brick is stored separately and serves as a reserve sample in case it
is needed. The structure/texture of the brick is assessed by looking at the cut surface of the brick.
Before the start of the inspection by attributes it is required to check each item to see if dimensions
and brick marking are in agreement with the brick drawing. This is recorded in the inspection sheet
under "shape was checked". The samples are measured with a calibrated tape measure and the
deviation from the nominal dimensions (size) recorded in the specific column in the inspection
sheet with a mark (with a short line). The same sample is taken for the inspection of outer
appearance (sound, cracks, etc.). If there are doubts in regard to the size of the crack it will be
necessary to cut the brick. All types of defects are recorded in the inspection sheet.
Once having worked through the sample size, the number of defective items y for dimensional
accuracy and outer appearance are determined, recorded on the inspection sheet and the results
evaluated. At this time the results of the supplier should be considered, too, and checked to see if
there is agreement.
In counting the defective items the following applies:
- The nominal dimensions must be assessed separately. The number of found impermissible
dimension deviations is added up. If there are several impermissible dimension deviations on a
single brick then this counts as one defect only.
- In regard to outer appearance several defects on a single brick likewise only count as one
defect.
If y ~ c the brick shape is accepted. If c < Y < d then inspection must continue until all samples of
the sample size have been inspected.
7.4.3.4.3 Illustration of Results of Inspection by Attributes

The results and evaluation are recorded in an acceptance report. Examples are given in Tables
7.16 to 7.18. For the sampling plan according to ISO 5022 or DIN ISO 2859 a decision on
acceptance or rejection is made for each individual brick shape.
The evaluation for a shortened sampling plan enables separate recognition of the number of found
defects for each shape in regard to a specific defect or nominal dimension. The decision on
acceptance or rejection involves the population of the shapes grouped together in the lot. For the
decision it must .be considered that the defective items may not alone be limited to one single
shape. Here, too, the sampling instruction c-d for the sample size nred of found defects must be
strictly observed for the individual brick shape. If the rejection number (count) d is reached the
specific shape must be assessed separately. ~
7.4.4 Unshaped (Monolithic) Refractory Materials
7.4.4.1 General
Sampling of unshaped refractory materials (monolithic) is described in several standards, for
example DIN EN 1402-2 and ISO 8656-1. The procedures can take much time and are often
expensive. Based on DIN EN 1402-2, a procedure - without the mentioned disadvantages - is,
consequently, recommended for sampling these products.
Table 7.17: Result of the inspection of outer appearance with shortened sampling plan analogous to DIN ISO
2859
7.4.4.2 Sampling
Before the start of the sampling procedure the following points must be recorded in a checklist
(refer to Figure 7.10):
- The inspection lot must be determined. Does the supplied amount of monolithic correspond to the
inspection lot or should it be divided up into partial lots?
- The type and weight of the packaged item must be established. Examples are sacks, big bags,
cartons, block material in boxes, hobbocks G, cans, drums. A pallet is not a packaged unit.
- Form of delivery of packaged items, for example on pallets. The number of pallets must be
determined and they must all be numbered.
Selection of sampling equipment (refer to DIN EN 932-1). This will depend on the type of the
packaged item. For sacks containing "fine-grain products an awl should be used for taking samples.
The diameter of the awl should be at least three times as large as the maximum grain size of the
refractory product. For coarse-grain products it is best to use a small hand size sample shovel. For the
big bags one uses sampling boxes. The opening of these boxes must be larger than the width of the
flowing refractory product.
- The locations for taking samples and the method for taking samples must be determined
beforehand. With sacks the awl is poked into the sack at various spots and an individual sample
taken at each spot. With big bags this sample must be taken during filling or emptying the big bag.
The sample must be from the product while it is flowing in or out.
The properties for assessing uniformity of the product must be determined beforehand. Such
typical properties include: .
For refractory castables, plastic mixes and ramming mixes, e.g. -
bulk density *)
- cold crushing strength / cold modulus of rupture *)
- permanent linear change *)
and for refractory mortars, e.g.
- sieve analysis
- main chemical constituents
- cold modulus of rupture *)
*) at different preferring or preliminary treatment levels, for example 100°C or 1,100°C
The rules for acceptance or rejection of an inspection lot must be agreed on beforehand. They
depend on the agreed guaranteed value (count) for the specific property, for example the mean
value x or the one-sided limit values Ts or Tj for the individual value (count).
The sampling procedure generally consists of three steps:
Step 1: Taking the- samples
Step 2: Dividing the samples, reducing the amount of sample material to one collective sample
for the lab
Step 3: Shaping, making specimens
Step 1
First the sample size, the amount (count)· n of individual samples from tile packaged products which
make up the sample, is determined. If for items < 35 kg from Packaged products the sampling plan
according to ISO 5022 has been agreed upon, the amount (count) n will depend on if a guaranteed
mean value with known or unknown standard deviation (refer to Table 7.10) has been agreed upon
for the property or a one-sided limit value has been agreed upon for individual values (counts) with
known or unknown standard deviation with given AQL (refer to Tables 7.11 and 7.12)
For items> 35 kg from packaged products, for example big bags, a sample size according to DIN EN
1402-2 must be agreed upon. However, it is recommended to determine this sample size on the
basis of a statistical inspection plan, for example according to ISO 8656-1. The amount n of single
samples from packaged products will depend on the magnitude of the variation coefficient v of the
property to be inspected (refer to Table 7.20).
This in turn will be based on the standard deviation δ and the mean value μ to v == 100 s / m in %. If
several properties are examined, the property with the highest variation coefficient is decisive for
determining the amount n of single items from packaged products. If v is unknown then the amount
is chosen according to class 3.
Table 7.19: Minimum amounts for single samples of a package/bag depending on the maximum grain size
according to ISO 86~6-1
The single samples from packaged products are fanned from p elementary single samples. In
practice six elementary single samples per packaged item have proven sufficient. The minimum
amount of the single samples from packaged products is determined according to the maximum
grain size as described in ISO 8656-1 (refer to Table 7.19). This amount must be larger than the
amount required for the various inspections.
Comment:
According to DIN EN 1402-2 and ISO 8656-1 a sack < 35 kg and < 50 kg is a single sample of a
packaged product. This, however, leads to huge sampling amounts and makes no sense at all for
example 0.5 tons for a lot size of 100 tons.
The single samples from packaged products are to be picked from the lot according to the random
sample principle and marked accordingly, for example with a stamp and signature of the person
having picked the sample. Upon delivery of the packaged products on pallets the marking of the
single samples should also include information on the pallet number. After having taken all single
samples from package products these must be grouped together to a collective sample.
Comment:
According to DIN EN 1402-2 no collective sample is formed.
Step 2
In step 2 the collective sample is homogenized and then divided up with a "splitting cross" or a riffle
sampler into a so-called lab collective sample. With this part of the samples it must be possible to
come up with the required amount of samples to inspect the properties.
Table 7.20: Minimum amount (count) n of the package or bag single samples according to ISO
8656-1
Step 3
The samples out of refractory
castables are made by vibrating,
self-Leveling or poking. The
samples out of ramming mixes and
plastic mixes are made by
compacting with compressed air
ramming tools. According to DIN
EN 1402-5, specific prismatic
sample shapes are required
depending on the type of refractory
material. Shape A is required for
insulating products and shape B or
C for dense products. Figure 7.11
gives the measurements for the
individual shapes. Basic, dense
refractory castables and mixes
capable of being shaped are
exempted. Samples of these
castables and mixes are
permissible if they have a diameter
of 50 mm and a height of 50 ± 1
mm. The samples are usually made
in detachable molds with the inner
measurements of one of the
mentioned shapes. It is important
that the width of the sample to be
inspected must correspond to the
height during make.
For gunning mixes a panel is made
first with the assistance of a
gunning form (mold). The gunning
form (mold) is open to the bottom
so that no rebound can be gunned
in (Figure 7.12). Figure 7.13
illustrates how to take samples out
of the gunned panel. Here, too, the
width of the sample corresponds to
the height during make. This fulfills
the requirement of a vertical
arrangement of the load direction
to the gunning/filling direction. All
sample surfaces should be
surfaces that can be cut.
Mortars are also inspected with
prismatic samples having
measurements of 120 mm x 20
mm x 20 mm. Load and filling
direction are vertical to one
another.
Fig. 7.11: Prismatic sample (test piece): shapes A, Band C
according to DIN EN 1402-5
Fig. 7.12: Farm (mold) for gunning mixes

Fig. 7.13: Cutting plan for taking samples (test pieces) out of gunned panels
The physical properties of refractory castables and mixes are inspected according to DIN EN
1402-6 or DIN EN 1402-7 and tile physical properties of refractory mortars according to PRE/R 43
or DIN 1089-3.
It must be considered that some properties, for example crushing strength or rupture strength, are
dependent on the shape.
7.4.4.3 Evaluation
The following evaluation procedure is given for making a decision in favor of acceptance or
rejection:
The collective samples are assessed according to ISO 5022. This is done for the guaranteed
mean value according to section 5.3.2.2 or 5.3.3 and for the one-sided limit value for single
(individual) values according to section 5.4.3 or 5.6.3. The mean value x can be determined on the
collective sample by a multiple determination of the specific property.
The following evaluation procedure has proven to work best for refractory mortars:
For the properties having been selected to assess the conformity of the delivered refractory
product a limit value Xmax or Xmin of a collective sample is agreed upon. The lot is accepted if the
"single (individual) value!! of the collective sample, which is made up of a multiple determination,
does not exceed or fall below the agreed limit value Xmax or Xmin
Comment:
For' basic, dense refractory castables and mixes capable of being shaped it is possible to work
with cylindrical samples having a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 50 ± 1 mm.
7.5 Inspection of Installation

7.5.1 Introduction
Section 7.3.2 describes how an inspection plan is used to ensure the quality of the refractories
being installed. This covers material procurement, selection of refractories, and transportation to
the construction site. Section 7.4 provides detailed information on practical procedures applied by
refractory manufacturers to implement requirements to ensure specific properties of refractories
during manufacture.
The properties of a refractory lining do not solely depend on the conditions during manufacture of
the refractories used for the lining. It is also very important that the instructions for preparation and
use of refractories, which are provided by the manufacturers, and the process/technical
requirements of the customer are considered and observed when installing refractories. In order to
give a guarantee to a customer that specific properties will be achieved, it may become necessary
to supervise and document the "history" of a refractory material from the moment it leaves the plant
of the manufacturer to its service at the location it is installed.
The inspection plan shown in section 7 .3.3 for the installation of refractory materials provides a
framework for quality assurance of the installation work. Specific aspects of the inspection plan will
be discussed below in more detail and a few examples of inspection records are also given.
7.5.2 Comments on the Preliminary Inspection

7.5.2.1 Technical Documentation, Installation Manual
All technical information and requirements should be collected as documentation and put in an
"installation manual". This manual should be handed to the construction site manager. The following
documents should be found in this installation manual:
- all survey and detailed drawings,

- collective and construction part piece lists,
- all material data sheets including .instructions for preparation and use and operational
instructions,
- general installation instructions; these contain standardized requirements for working with
machinery and general execution/installation details such as the design and arrangement of
joints, separation of individual layers of refractory materials etc.,
- specific working and installation instructions with requirements for the installation sequence,
local conditions etc.,
- quality inspection plans for material and installation work, possibly also for welding of anchors. The
completeness and revision updates of the documents must be checked by the construction site
manager upon receipt of the documentation. It is also recommended to brief the construction site
manager on contents and use of the documents in the installation manual at the start of construction
and specifically if there is extensive construction work.
7.5.2.2 Preliminary Inspection of Construction Part

The inspection of the supporting steel construction focuses on the following dim ens ion s/
measurements:
- main measurements, length, width, height
- ovalness, flushing
- length and design of openings and connections
- division measurements of anchors and consoles
As described in section 7.3.4, anchors or anchor systems may have to be subjected to a strength
test. The statics of the consoles may also have to be checked. The condition of the surface must be
checked to see if there is a covering with protective coatings, deposits of rust or other dirt.
The preliminary inspection of the construction part is less complicated if the steel construction
company can provide inspection records. These can be used for the quality documentation on the
refractories. The inspection can, consequently, usually be limited to a few samples.
In any case, before the start of installation work the customer must provide a specific "go ahead" for
the individual construction parts to be lined with refractories. The acceptance records of the steel
construction company should be part of the "go ahead" documentation.
7.5.2.3 Inspection of Incoming Materials, Material Storage, Transport at the

Construction Site
Based on the technical documentation the construction site manager checks the supplies arriving at
the construction site. This inspection of incoming materials is documented by the signed delivery
slip. Next it is important that the materials at the construction site are marked sufficiently and stored
properly until they are installed. For a big storage facility it will be necessary to have good and self-
organized logistics. Incoming and outgoing materials should be documented by a separate storage
facility administration. Further more, the series numbers must be recorded if traceability is required
as described in 7.5.3.3. In any case, before start of installation work the routes for the transport of
the refractories to the site of installation must be secured.
7.5.2.4 Readiness of Equipment and Scaffolds

Before the start of work it is necessary to clarify with the customer such questions as mutual use of
scaffolds, cranes, lifts, power and water supply lines and further technical equipment or
facilities. Use of equipment owned by oneself must be. checked and planned as part of work
preparation procedures. Safety aspects must also be reviewed. The measures of the safety concept
(refer to chapter 8) also serve to ensure best quality.
7.5.2.5 Qualification of Personnel

It must be ensured and proven that the personnel on site is trained and familiar with the special
aspects of their job. This applies in particular for work requiring good craftsmanship and experience
such as the gunning of refractory castables. For this work a "qualified gunner certificate" must be
presented. If this is not possible the worker must prove his qualifications by demonstrating his
gunning skills first before starting with the actual gunning work.
7.5.3 Comments on Production Inspection

7.5.3.1 Compliance with Engineering Requirements
The documentation on engineering in the installation manual describes all important details which
are of special importance for the functioning of the furnace/plant. Nonetheless, it makes sense to
prepare inspection records in order to systematically check and record the observance of technical
requirements. The following is recorded in the inspection records, for example:
- materials and wall thickness of the individual layers
- measurements of expansion joints
- covering over anchors
- insertion of joint material
- placement of separation layers
- inspection of measurements and fixation of forms (molds) before the refractory castables are
installed
Well prepared inspection records contain the nominal measurements and tolerances or at least
remarks as to where to find this information in the construction drawings. Preparation of such
inspection records may require much effort, specifically if the inspections are to be described in
great detail in order to force the construction site manager to carefully read and follow the inspection
requirements. It is possible to simplify matters by drawing so-called "inspection symbols" on the
construction drawings as illustrated in Figure 7.14. One can refer to these symbols in tile inspection
records ..
7.5.3.2 Compliance with Application/Working Guidelines, Gunning Experiments

(Tests)
The observation and compliance with instructions for preparation and use, application and working
must be carefully checked when unshaped refractory materials (monolithic) are installed. The
personnel in charge of installing the monolithic must receive special instructions. In critical cases it
will be necessary to record the following data in so-called "mixing records":
- surrounding conditions: air temperature, moisture, weather conditions
- temperature of the material before being installed
- temperature of the mixing liquid
- amount of material and amount of mixing liquid
- mixing time
- pot life G
If materials are to be installed by gunning it is recommended to conduct gunning experiments (tests)
before the actual start of installation. The names of the "gunners" should be recorded for each
specific construction component/part they have gunned.
7.5.3.3 Proof of Installation
The measures described in section 7.5.3.2 help ensure that the refractory materials are installed as
shown in the drawings. This gives a proof of installation via the construction drawings which,
however, only refers to the material designation indicated in the drawing.
If perfect traceability of the installed materials back to the manufacturer is required
then the series number of the manufacturer (production code) must be recorded whenever the
materials are moved (arrival at the construction site, storage facility, intermediate transportation,
installation site and sampling). This is the only way to ensure that at any moment the "location" of
the various materials can be determined in regard to amount and series number. Only this will
ensure traceability.
7.5.3.4 Sampling
The manufacturer's infonl1ation on properties of unshaped refractory materials (monolithic) are the
determined mean values under lab conditions. Even if precisely observing the instructions for
preparation and use, it is not guaranteed that the required properties will be attained under
construction site conditions. Consequently, it is standard practice to take samples from of the
materials being installed which can be inspected and tested as construction progresses or can be
put in stock as so-called reserve samples. These reserve samples will be of great assistance if any
defects are found in the installed materials at a later date. The procedures and measures described
in section 7.4.4 must be "adapted to the construction site" when being implemented.
The inspection plan must include the following:
- type of material inspections/tests
- dimensions/measurements of the samples
- making of samples and finishing work on samples
- nominal values (counts) and tolerances
- amount (count) of samples and sample location
- selection of lab for inspection/test work
- evaluation of inspection/test results including procedures in case of deviations
- putting the reserve samples in stock
The type of material inspections/tests are usually prescribed in the technical specification. For
refractory castables one usually checks bulk density and cold crushing strength. In special cases
one may also inspect the abrasion resistance and further properties listed in Table 7.5.
The samples are to be made just like the materials to be installed and based on the instructions for
preparation and use. The samples must be finished correspondingly and stored properly.
The basis for the nominal values (counts) are the data from the manufacturer and the technical
specification of the customer. Corresponding values (counts) have already been recorded in the
inspection plan for procurement of materials and these values now serve as comparative values.
For construction site samples it is recommended to record the required properties in a chart and to
agree upon tolerances beforehand to consider the expected scattering of inspection/test results.
This agreement is to be made by the manufacturer and customer.
Furthermore, an agreement must be. made beforehand in regard to which lab is to conduct the
inspections/tests. If working in foreign countries one may have to consider that possibly only a few
inspections/tests can be conducted by local labs.
For sampling there are two feasible methods:

- with a certain agreed amount of materials having been installed or
- at sampling locations agreed upon beforehand.
For the second Illetl10d it is best to mark the sampling spots (locations) in the drawings. For both
methods it is recommended to have a reserve sample for each sample made or taken. This enables
renewed inspections or tests if there are any deviations. Furthermore, this will help to more easily
detect coincidental defects during sampling or inspection. A prerequisite for this is careful recording
of all samples in sampling records in which the results can also be entered (refer to Figure 7.16). In
case of deviations the retraceability will also be of great assistance. The history of the material is
traced back all the way to the manufacturer by way of the series number. Clear instructions must
exist in regard to the next steps in case of deviations. The progress of construction must be taken
into consideration.
7.5.4 Final and Intermediate Inspections, Acceptance

Before acceptance by the customer the completed installation of refractories must be subjected to a
final inspection. This applies for the work of the main contractor as well as the work done by
subcontractors. If the construction work is extensive, then there should be several "intermediate
inspections" as work on the refractory lining progresses. For example after individual layers have
been installed or individual parts or components of the entire construction have been completed.
This also applies for the acceptance by the customer. There should be "intermediate acceptance" of
completed parts/components before the final acceptance. Every intermediate acceptance increases
the certainty that all relevant requirements have been fulfilled and documented.
If intermediate acceptance procedures are implemented, the final acceptance can be limited to a
review of the intermediate acceptance records and possibly the fulfillment of requirements for the
individual intermediate acceptance procedures.
7.5.5 Inspection Records and Inclusion in Inspection Plan

Figure 7.14 shows an inspection record for the "construction component - overall inspection" of a
cyclone. This record includes all inspections/tests of installed refractories for this construction
part/component.
For an extensive inspection it may be appropriate to prepare three separate records for
- the preliminary inspection (anchors and steel construction),
- the installation of the refractories (production inspection) and
- final inspection.
This is specifically recommended if one intends to record all measured values (counts) on the sheets.
In the given example it is assumed that only a few important and decisive data must be recorded in
the sheet. This data is based on a larger amount of individual measured values (counts) which must
be recorded on site by the construction site manager. The sheet shown in Figure 7.15 is also suited
for the inspection of the anchors. The recorded data must be added to
the inspection record.
Figure 7.17 shows the hierarchical structure of an inspection plan for the installation of refractory
materials. This plan is based on a listing of all construction components/parts, the connected
inspection plans for these components/parts as described in section 7.3.3, inspection records for the
components/parts and connected measured data or values. Figure 7.17 also gives the alternative for
splitting up the inspection records. Specific inspection records can refer to several or to a[1
construction components/parts depending on the extent of the inspection. Consequently, Figure 7.16
is an exam pie of a record for sampling that covers more than one construction
component/part.
Fig. 7.17: Hierarchical structure of an inspection plan for installation of refractory materials
8. Occupational Safety, Health Protection and Environmental Protection· 383
8. Occupational Safety, Healtt1 Protection and

Environmental Protection
H.-G. Dorrllagen, H. LOtcke, H.-W. Scholz, H. Wimmer, A. ZOlch
8.1 Occupational Safety and Health Protection
8.1.1 Legal Base

Based on public interest the lawmaker is the highest authority in charge of regulations governing
occupational safety. The duty of employers to provide social and medical assistance to employees
is set forth in the Code of Social Law (embracing laws on social security and services, vocational
training, etc.) in SGB VII, § 21, in the German Civil Code in BGB, § 618, and in the Commercial
Code in HGB, § 62.
In the early 1970s a further law was passed with the designation Industrial Safety Laws (Arbeits-
sicherheitsgesetz) which focuses on occupational safety and health protection.
The European Union likewise established European guidelines. According to EU-agreements the
individual member states are obligated to establish these guidelines as national laws. These
regulations are fine-tuned and supplemented by further national laws, regulations and technical
rules (TR). The following are mentioned here:
- occupational safety law
- construction code of the specific state of the country (e.g. code applying in the state of North
Rhine-Westphalia)
- construction site code
- place of employment code
- hazardous substances code
- technical rules for hazardous substances/materials
- industrial safety code
Even if most all legal regulations concerning industrial and occupational safety are to be found in
these seven codes/laws, the laws and regulations mentioned above in the first paragraph apply
likewise and may well be applied for decisions in critical cases.
In addition to all laws and regulations provided by the lawmaker, extensive guidelines, regulations
and rules issued by the employers' liability insurance -associations (trade associations/unions) apply
likewise. This autonomous right enables regulations to protect workers and employees as persons
insured by the employers' liability insurance associations. This right focuses exclusively on the
member companies according to their pertinent competence and local jurisdiction. This right
involves:
384 8. Occupational Safety, Health Protection and Environmental Protection
Fig. 8.1: Regulations as part of EU agreements
- accident prevention guidelines which are integrated into the so-called regulations of the
employers' liability insurance association
- rules of the employers' liability insurance association
- information from the employers' liability insurance association
- principles of the employers' liability insurance association
Here it must be pointed out that some parts of these regulations and rules have similar ternlS and
designations but, nonetheless, have a different meaning and! consequently! must be not confused
with one another. This applies specifically for:
- construction code: state laws governing the responsibilities of the builder,
- construction site directive: directives to implement EU guidelines applicable at construction
sites,
- construction site code: the builder is responsible for implementing the two above-mentioned
items (construction code and construction site directive) at a specific construction site.
8.1.2 The Way to Safety Management

In principle the government is responsible for checking the implementation of the guidelines and
regulations mentioned in section 8.1: 1. In Germany the employers' liability insurance associations
take over part of checking and consulting responsibilities. In the end! it is the-responsibility of both
sides of industry (unions and employers) to implement all laws, guidelines and regulations
governing occupational safety and health protection.
8. Occupational Safety, Health Protection and Environmental Protection . 385
Since the Industrial Safety Laws were established in the early 1970s most all companies have made
a tremendous effort to improve occupational safety and health protection by employing safety
specialists and engineers as well as company physicians. For a long period of time one noticed a
tendency to react instead of taking a proactive approach. The reaction was usually to requirements
established by government agencies, dangerous situations, incidents or accidents. Often the
measures taken, once reacting to a problem, were viewed more as a hindrance to work or plant
operations. Consequently, many workers and employees had a hard time accepting the measures
and upper management was often likewise not very supportive. High cost in some cases was
another reason for Jack of support.
This is where a safety management system enters the picture. Similar to quality assurance within a
quality management system, occupational safety becomes an integrated part of planning and work
preparation so that the derived safety measures flow into the work process without any problems.
The figures in the construction damage report prepared by the German Federal Government prove
that those persons and companies with good planning and organization are far less subject to
accidents, defects and mistakes. Consequently, production will be much more efficient.
Work processes are becoming increasingly complex and more is needed than to simply prepare
additional or new safety regulations. A methodic procedure is required that covers all organizational
units and levels in a company. Thinking must also change - from simple fulfillment of existing
occupational safety and health protection regulations and guidelines to self-sustaining and vividly
practiced occupational safety and health protection.
The safety management system should serve to provide a "scaffold" to accomplish this. It requires
extensive documentation of implemented measures and continuous review by upper management.
The connected obligation and responsibility to be able to prove the measures taken will lead to more
bureaucratic effort and expense. However, this has the advantage that management is forced to be
active when it comes to occupational safety and health protection matters. One can expect that
accident figures will decline over a medium period of time. A side effect will be that the connected
fees owed to the employers' liability insurance association will decrease, too. However, the decisive
factor is the improvement of the general health of all workers and employees which in turn should
effect higher motivation and job satisfaction.
8.1.3 Safety Management System According to SCC
SCC stands for Safety Certificate Contractors. It provides the requirements regarding occupational
safety for the safety management system. This system is based on the so-called "SCC
Questionnaire" which contains 57 questions on the organization of occupational safety and health
protection at a company. The questionnaire is outlined in ten sections:
1. Safety, health and environmental protection, policy and organization, engagement/involvement
of management
2. Determination and assessment of dangers
3. Selection of human resources
4. Information and training
5. Communication of safety, health and environmental protection to workers and employees
8. Occupational Safety, Health Protection and Environmental Protection 387
6. Rules, regulations, guidelines, project safety plan

7. Inspection of safety, health and environll1ental protection
8. Health programs at the company
9. Purchasing of materials, equipment, services
10. Reporting, recording and examination of accidents, incidents and dangerous situations
With the SCC questionnaire a uniform assessment procedure was created. This will assist
companies to better organize all aspects of occupational safety, health and environmental
protection. The number of accidents will decrease and systematic accident prevention is
enhanced.
8.2 Inter-Company Organization

8.2.1 Obligations and Commitments of the Employer
The employer determines what work is to be done and gives instructions on connected work
conditions or requirements. Consequently, it is also the responsibility of the employer to provide
the organizational and personal requirements to enable work without danger. In short,
responsibility for occupational safety and liability in case of accidents or occupational illnesses is in
the hands of the employer. This responsibility leads to the regulations listed in section 8.1 which
include the following obligations and commitments. The employer:
- lists all rights, obligations and commitments of all employees in a written job description,
- transfers his obligations to the supervisors,
- appoints coordinators for occupational safety,
- appoints safety experts/engineers and company physicians,
- includes the works council in the organization of occupational safety,
- ensures first aid in case of accidents,
- prepares and holds meetings of tile occupational safety committee,
- prepares and issues company directives,
- prepares and publishes danger and stress/load analyses
- ensures that all employees are instructed properly,
- reports dangerous work to the authorities,
- prepares and issues erection instructions for the specific construction job/site,
- manages the organization of the construction site taking occupational safety aspects into
consideration,
- checks and reviews the implemented measures to ensure occupational safety and health
protection,
- ensures continuous checks and inspections of plants/equipment/tools that require inspections.
8.2.2 Transfer of Obligations and Commitments

In some cases the obligations and commitments according to the company organization structure
and job descriptions (refer to section 8.2.1) are transferred to senior managers by way of the "line
function". Obligations connected to the work agreements (contract), which also include the
requirement and authority to make decisions, do not require a specific transfer of the obligations as
defined by the regulations of the employers' liability insurance association. This however, must be
done if employees without management function are included in the responsibility line of the
company. This applies specifically for:
- pertinent measures: company facilities, machinery, equipment, tools, working areas, social areas
must be provided, built or established and maintained in a safe manner;
- organizational measures: preparing and issuing company directives which help ensure safe
execution of work and
- human relations measures: selecting suitable workers and employees and supervising their
work.
The typical case of a transfer of such obligations and commitments is the appointment of a
construction site manager or another person with a supervisory function for a specific construction
site.
Outside this line of responsibility the functions for safety experts/engineers and the company
physician are assigned to the so-called "staff function responsibility!! according to the occupational
safety laws (refer to sections 8.2.4 and 8.2.5).
8.2.3 General Obligations and Commitments of All Employees

All workers and employees are committed to support measures serving occupational safety. In
particular this includes: .
- Observance of all company instructions and directives concerning occupational safety.
- Use and wear of the personal protection gear provided by the employer.
- Use of operational facilities, equipment, tools etc. according to their appropriate intention and
function.
- Elimination of any defects or dangers immediately if the employee is in a position to do this.
- Reporting of any defects or dangers immediately to superiors if the employee is not in a
position to eliminate the defects or dangers himself because of lack of experience or authority.
8.2.4 Safety Expert/Engineer

According to the regulations of the employers' liability insurance association every company must
appoint "safety experts/engineers" who are to be consulted in all matters involving occupational
safety. Smaller companies can take advantage of the expertise of the technical consultation
services of the construction employers' liability insurance association without having to hire a safety
expert/engineer. The responsibilities of the safety expert/engineer include:
- consult the employer when offering jobs and establishing job descriptions,
- cooperate with the works council and company physician,
- stay in contact with construction employers' liability insurance association and medical
services of this association,
- involvement in projected-related safety concepts,
- appointment and deployment of safety representatives for construction sites,
- continuously assess and review work conditions, .
- help formulate company directives,
- help prepare danger and stress/load analyses,
- conduct safety instruction meetings,
- check the observance of safety instructions,
- motivate workers/employees to observe the safety instructions and work safely,
- assist in training the safety representatives,
- check and review plant, equipment, work procedures in regard to safety aspects,
_ implement accident prevention guidelines at the construction site and in the plants, -
process accident, damage, danger or incident reports,
- investigate causes and reasons leading to accidents and
- prepare accident statistics and annual reports on occupational safety.
If the expertise of the safety expert/engineer is insufficient, then this person must insist and ensure
that a suited expert, for example a technical expert from the employers' liability insurance association
or an expert from the government technical inspection agency is contracted for assistance.
Safety experts/engineers consult the companies and may not give orders themselves. The safety
experts or engineers only have the possibility to prevent safety dangers or existing hazards by way of
the employer or his representative. The decision to act remains in the hands of the employer or his
representative. On the other hand, safety experts/engineers in charge of occupational safety must not
heed instructions from an employer or his representative in matters connected to this sector.
8.2.5 Medical Services and Appointed Company Physician
In regard to continuous medical consultation and services the employer can rely on the medical
services of the employers' liability insurance association or employ a company physician. Similar to
the safety expert/engineer, the company physician has a consulting function and not a management
function. When applying his medical expertise the physician must not necessarily heed instructions
from the employer or his representative. The physician must at all times consider his obligation to
maintain professional discretion - also in dealing with the employer.
Medical services of the association or the company physician assist the employer in all matters
concerning health protection. The objective is to:
- assist the employer in questions concerning social and sanitary facilities,
- consult the employer regarding work procedures and work materials,
- select and test proper materials and equipment to protect the body,
- consult in matters connected to work cycles, work time, breaks, job sites, work procedures,
work surroundings,
- organize first aid in the plant,
- assess work conditions,
- organize medical exams in connection with health protection.
8.2.6 Appointed Safety Representative

A safety representative must be appointed if an employer employs more than 21 persons.
'
However, the employers liability insurance associations recommend to appoint a person even if
less than 21. persons are employed. The number of safety representatives indicated in the
guidelines issued by employers' liability insurance associations depends on the total number of
workers and employees.
Safety representatives are employees who are integrated in normal work procedures. On the job
and without special authority, these persons motivate the colleagues to behave and work in a safe
manner. Employees, who have a specific responsibility, such as a foreman, chief masons or other
superiors, should not be appointed as safety representatives.
Safety representatives must specifically see to it that
- the obligations and commitments of all employees listed in section 8.2.3 are observed,
- the workers receive instructions on how to properly operate machinery and equipment and
handle materials,
- new workers and young people (youths) are taken care of properly and
- they assist in investigating reasons for accidents or incidents.
The safety representatives do not have any additional degree of responsibility in comparison to all
other workers or employees.
8.2.7 Works Council

According to the Works Constitution Act the works council is authorized and obligated to:
- check and review the acceptance of occupational safety instructions by the workers and
employees,
- encourage workers and employees to observe the instructions,
- accept and review complaints of workers or employees and request the employer to remedy
the situation,
- assist in formulating rules and instructions connected to occupational safety and

- support supervisors with suggestions, information and consultation in matters connected to
occupational safety and health protection.
8.3 Occupational Safety and Health Protection in the Project
8.3.1 Planning Phase, Tender and Offer

8.3.1.1 Preliminary Comments
A project is defined as the planning and execution of a construction project. Construction sites are
worldwide the most dangerous work areas where many accidents occur. The conditions at
construction sites change continuously due to the progress of the project. Often work must be done
side by side or above the location of other work and sometimes even by different companies.
Consequently, occupational (work) safety and health protection must be carefully considered
during the planning phase and planned in such a way that it will function. The requirements for
work procedures without mistakes and disturbances are already established in the invitation to
tender and offer.
The same applies for handling hazardous materials/substances and disposal of such substances.
Sections 8.4 and 8.5 provide details on this subject.
8.3.1.2 Obligations and Commitments of the Builder
According to law, the builder of any construction project requiring approval by government
agencies has a number of obligations and commitments. This is especially the case if more than
one company is involved in the construction project. The builder must:
- report the new construction site to the government agency in charge of occupational safety,
- appoint a person responsible for preparing the preliminary project drawing and appoint a
construction manager in charge of coordination,
- fulfill! his obligation to make land or premises safe for persons or vehicles,
- appoint an occupational (work) safety and health protection coordinator,
- prepare and issue construction site regulations,
- prepare and issue an occupational (work) safety and health protection plan and
- consider occupational safety during tender procedures and when awarding contracts to
execute the construction work.
8.3.1.3 Invitation to Tender
Before the start of tender procedures concerning the intended construction work, the builder must
have prepared a general concept focusing on occupational (work) safety and health protection. The
construction site regulations and the occupational (work) safety and health protection plan are part
of the invitation to tender. This invitation to tender should include:
- an organization chart showing the organization at the construction site,
- information on measures connected to occupational (work) safety and health protection with
specific mention of the necessity to observe these measures,
- information on existing and still required safety equipment and
- information on possible endangerment to neighboring facilities or by neighboring facilities.
8.3.1.4 Offer
In the offer the employer (company interested in executing the construction work) must explain how
the work to be done will fulfill the requirements of occupational (work) safety and health protection.
Information must also be provided on which safety measures will be taken by the company
(independent of the builder's requirements) and how these measures will fit in the general concept
and will be coordinated with this concept.
During the offer phase it may well be necessary to visit the planned construction site in order to check
or agree on access roads, setup locations for construction site equipment, scaffolds, platforms, lifts,
cranes, electrical equipment, social and sanitary facilities. It should also be checked what safety
equipment is on site and can be used together with other companies.
The offers should contain the following documents:
- the construction site organization chart of the company making the offer with proof of authority
of the construction site specialist to give instructions,
- recommendations for mutual use of safety equipment,
- construction site setup plans for own scaffolds and equipment,
- danger and stress/load analysis and
- safety certification according to SCC.
8.3.1.5 Inquiries to Subcontractors
Invitations to tender being sent to subcontractors must also include the items listed in sections
8.3.1.3 and 8.3.1 .4.
8.3.2 Preparation of Construction Execution, Personnel Planning, Work

Scheduling 8.3.2.1 Preliminary Comments
Having awarded the contract, the requirements listed in the tender and offer must be described in
more detail and specific measures planned in more detail. The employers' liability insurance
association can provide extensive checklists. The following sections list the most important items.
8.3.2.2 Personnel Management
The requirements listed in section 8.2 must be determined and established with specific focus on
the construction site. The following are required:
- the responsibilities must be listed, for example in the construction site organization chart,
- obligations transferred to the supervisors and the authority of the construction site specialist to
give instructions established as the coordinator in charge of accident prevention guidelines,
- appointment of safety expert/engineer,
- handing out of erection/installation and operation instructions,
- planning of use of personnel and checking of the qualifications of personnel,
- planning or proof of given instructions according to sections 8.3.3.3 and 8.3.3.4,
- consideration of special regulations if youths are employed at the construction site,
- implementation of measures which serve to motivate the workers and employees and establish
a good atmosphere on site and
- special measures have been implemented for foreign workers.
8.3.2.3 Work Scheduling

Work planning and scheduling must be based on the given conditions at the construction site. The
planning at the time of preparing the offer may possibly have to be adapted to the actual and
current situation. In regard to occupational (work) safety and health protection the following are
important:
- safety of roads on the construction site,
- safety of equipment, lifts, vehicles transporting personnel,
- setup and load capacity of scaffolds and equipment,
- setup and safety of lifting equipment and required safety distances,
- mechanized work procedures,
- selection of equipment taking generation of dust, noise and vibrations into consideration,
- supervision of equipment checklists,
- use of hazardous substances; it must be checked if substitute materials can be used instead,
- selection of material storage areas and
- determination and establishment of flow of materials.
8.3.2.4 Prevention
The timely inclusion of the safety expert/engineer in work scheduling procedures ensures that the
measures to ensure occupational (work) safety and health protection are considered and planned
appropriately. Preventive measures include:
- supervision of the construction site by the safety expert/engineer,
- danger and stress/load analyses are prepared according to section 8.3.2.5,
- medical services serve the construction site and, if deemed necessary, there will be preventive
medical checkups,
- first aid is organized,
- provisions are made for fire protection and
- personnel is informed of fire protection measures.
8.3.2.5 Danger and Stress/Load Analysis
Occupational (work) safety laws obligate the employer to determine the dangers and stress that may
affect employees during work. Consequently, for each construction site it will be necessary to
determine sources of danger or stress. Based on this work it will be possible to prepare a safety
concept. Dangers often occur in the following situations:
- when working on movable platforms or lifting equipment,
- in rooms with little space,
- when it is hot,
- when working in areas high off the ground and
- when handling hazardous substances.
It is not necessary to always prepare new danger and stress/load analyses because most types of
dangers and stress are quite similar at all construction sites. A new assessment will be required if
there are deviations from the standard conditions. The employers' liability insurance associations
offer checklists.
8.3.2.6 Awarding Contracts to Subcontractors
According to the requirements in the invitation to tender the following must be observed when
awarding contracts to subcontractors in regard to occupational (work) safety:
- proof of qualification by way of a SCC certificate,
- accident statistics are presented,
- proof of membership in employers' liability insurance association,
- employed foreign workers have accident insurance,
- proof of illness and social security insurance (E111/E1 01) in case of work at construction sites
in foreign countries,
- proof of health documents and/or proof of health examinations,
- appointment of construction site specialist as safety coordinator and his authority to give
instructions precisely described,
- proof of safety training of supervisors and workers/employees,
- proof that at least 10 % of subcontractor personnel has been trained in first aid,
- proof that a translator will be contracted, for example for giving safety instructions,
- proof that personal protection equipment is available for personnel,
- clarification of mutual use of existing safety facilities and equipment and
- proof of inspection of lifts, electric equipment, stop devices, safety belts to the extent that the
subcontractor provides this.
8.3.2.7 Procurement of Materials and Equipment

Regarding procurement of materials and equipment for the construction site the requirements listed
in the following regulations should be included in the procurement documents. This will ensure that
requirements concerning occupational (work) safety and health protection are fulfilled. The
requirements are listed in the:
- Equipment Safety Act,
- VDE guidelines and standards,
- Safety data sheets according to regulations governing hazardous materials and substances,
- DIN and EU standards,
- Industrial safety code governing operational safety, for example for pressure tanks and
- Technical Rules for combustible liquids.
8.3.2.8 Preparation of Construction Work File

At the construction site the construction site manager will need all information and documentation
to ensure proper and safe execution of the work. This includes all documents on occupational
(work) safety and health protection such as:
- plans to set up the construction site,
- names of all contact partners at the construction site,
- plan in case of having to make emergency calls,
- the main contents of the order letter,
- schedules for erection/installation and deadlines,
- construction site regulations,
Fig. 8.5: Organization of work safety and health protection at the
construction site - construction site organization charts which identify
responsible persons,
- information on available personnel and their qualifications,

- proof of precautionary health checks,
- lists of machinery, equipment, personnel transportation equipment/vehicles with proof of
inspection,
- information on subcontractors and their qualifications,
- work permits,
- names of personnel trained in first aid,
- drawings with safety information,
- list of instructions to be given,
- company directives,
- permits for working inside containers and/or rooms with little space,
- permits for so-called hot work,
- signs indicating limit number of persons to be transported,
- access permits,
- the "go-ahead" statements to use scaffolds and platforms and
- statically calculations for special scaffolds.
8.3.3 Occupational Safety and Health Protection During Construction Work
8.3.3.1 Responsibilities and Authority of the Construction Manager

The builder transfers his obligation to make the land or premises safe for persons or vehicles to the
appointed construction manager. The construction manager must pay special attention to all involved
companies thus ensuring they work hand in hand to observe the regulations governing occupational
safety and health protection. If deemed necessary, the construction manager can call for an
inspection by the technical services of the construction employers' liability insurance association.
Based on his responsibilities, the construction manager is authorized to issue and give instructions
to personnel of his own company and to personnel of subcontractors working at the construction
site. He may give specific instructions to the construction site specialists. This authority to give
instructions to personnel of subcontractors must be agreed upon before awarding contracts. The
authority to give instructions does not relieve the supervisors of subcontractors from their
responsibility for their own personnel.
The construction manager decides independently which construction work he will supervise on site
and which work he will not supervise without being negligent. Consequently, the construction
manager is not obligated to always be present on the construction site unless he is aware that some
companies or subcontractors on site are unreliable. Even though each company has its own
responsibility, the construction manager assumes responsibility if a company acts improperly or
noticeably fails in fulfilling obligations and the construction manager has knowledge of the existence
of an imminent danger.
8.3.3.2 Responsibilities and Authority of the Construction Site Specialist

The construction site specialist is obligated to support the construction manager in regard to
occupational safety and to coordinate matters with all companies on site if this becomes necessary
in order to prevent one company from endangering another company. He is responsible that the
workers/employees reporting to him are properly instructed and observe the safety regulations. He
is also the coordinator for accident prevention guidelines if subcontractors are working on the
construction site. His responsibilities include coordination of measures to prevent accidents and to
ensure occupational (work) safety. To this extent he has the same obligations and authority as the
construction manager referred to in section 8.3.3.1 above.
8.3.3.3 Safety Instructions from the Builder

At many construction sites it is mandatory that all workers/employees receive special instructions
from a representative of the customer before the start of work. This is most always the case when
dealing with intermediates, for example in chemical plants where only the plant operator is precisely
aware of the dangers that can arise as a result of occurring or generated gases or wllen specific
materials are used during work.
The workers/employees of subcontractors must also attend these instruction sessions. If foreign
workers are employed at the construction site then it may well be necessary to contract translators
to ensure that the instructions are translated.
The instruction sessions must be documented in a suitable manner. Every person must prove his or
her participation by providing his/her signature.
8.3.3.4 Provision of Safety Instructions, Toolbox Meetings

The safety expert/engineer must organize the safety instruction session if this is not offered by the
builder. The instructions presented and discussed at this session must be repeated in a continuous
cycle in form of so-called tool box meetings and supplemented with current topics focusing on
safety aspects. These meetings also enable workers/employees to report what they have noticed,
make suggestions or discuss their concerns about occupational safety.
According to the regulations issued by the employers' liability insurance association it is required
that every worker/employee is present at such a tool box meeting once a year and independent of
the instruction session referred to in section 8:3.3.3 which is held for a specific project or
construction site.
8.3.3.5 Occupational Safety as a Topic at Construction Progress Meetings
Matters concerning occupational (work) safety and health protection are to be discussed at the
regular meetings of the construction manager with the construction site specialists as construction
work progresses. If required, the specialists for occupational safety, the company physician and
the occupational safety and health protection coordinator should attend these meetings.
8.3.3.6 Safety Inspections
The safety experts/engineers of all involved companies will conduct regular safety inspections in
order to check if the safety regulations, guidelines and instructions are being observed. Such
inspections are also to be conducted by the construction manager, construction site specialist and
managers of the involved companies. They are obligated to document any noticeable deficiencies
or violations and report this to the responsible safety expert/engineer.
8.3.3.7 Behavior in Case of Danger and Accidents
If, despite all precautions, dangerous situations or accidents occur at the site it is very important to
limit the damage as best as possible by the workers/employees taking immediate measures. The
construction site emergency call plan must be implemented if there is a serious accident. The
safety expert/engineer is responsible for all formalities/paperwork in connection with his legal duty
to inform government agencies, employers' liability insurance association etc.
8.4 Hazardous· Material/Substances Regulations

8.4.1 Requirements to be Fulfilled According to the Regulations
The most important regulations are listed below for working with and handling hazardous
material/substances in refractory engineering.
The investigation obligation (§ 16) requires that the employer determines if a hazardous material
or substance is being used during the handling of materials, prepared mixtures out of materials,
and products. Materials with a low health risk must be applied with first priority. However, other
materials can also be used if taking state-of-the-art into consideration (VDI 3469, sheet 1, VDI =
Association of Engineers). Before processing hazardous material or substances the employer is
required to determine possible dangers, take precautionary measures, and inform
workers/employees accordingly.
The general protection obligation (§ 17) regulates the required measures which are necessary
for protection of health and the environment when working with hazardous material/substances.
The measures focus on safety, health protection and hygiene on the job site. In certain cases
health checkups must be conducted. This paragraph also regulates:
- responsibilities of physicians,
- form and content of certificates issued by physicians,
- maintenance and filing of records on health checkups,
- possibilities to conduct health checkups more frequently (within shorter time periods) and
- further exceptional cases.
The supervision obligation (§ 18) indicates what must be done if the air on the job site contains
one or more hazardous materials or substances. Measurements at the job site are required if not
enough facts are known on
- maximum job site concentration, MAK value (count)

- technical guide concentration, TRK value (count) and
- biological job site tolerance value, BAT value (count).
Measurements can only be conducted by accredited institutes and labs. A list of the accredited
institutes and labs can be obtained from the construction employers' liability insurance
association.
The sequence of protective measures (§ 19) regulates the cases once the release of gases,
vapors and suspended matter cannot be avoided according to state-of-the-art. The following
sequence applies:
_ The hazardous material/substances must be eliminated at the place of origin without danger to
humans or the environment.
- If this is not possible it is required to ventilate the area.
- If the triggering level is exceeded, the employer is required to provide suited protective gear. In
addition, the working hours are to be adapted to the requirements of health safety. The triggering
level is exceeded if the observance of the air limit values (count) is not proven. For split air limit
values (counts) the lowest value (count) applies if other agreements are not made
for the specific case. -
A company directive (§ 20) lists the dangers for humans and environment when handling and
working with hazardous material/substances. Furthermore, this directive must include the required
protective and safety measures such as:
- proper disposal,
- behavior in case of danger and
- first aid measures and instructions.
EU Safety Data Sheet

according to EU guideline 91/155/EWG
revised on: page 1 of 2
1. material/substance, preparation and company designation
1 .1 trade name: .....

1.2 producer/supplier:
telephone: fax: e-mail:
1.3 emergency information:
2. composition - information on components
- chemical characterization:
- hazardous contents:
CAS. no.: chemical designation content symbols warning messages
(EINECS no.)
hazardous
substances other:
3. possible dangers
3.1 special dangers for humans and environment
4. first aid measures
4.1 indication of overload/overdose:
- after inhaling: - after eye contact:
- after skin contact: - after swallowing
4.2 first aid
- after inhaling: - after eye contact:
- after skin contact: - after swallowing
4.3 information
5. firefighting measures
6. measures after unintentional spilling/release
6.1 measures to protect humans
6.2 measures to protect the environment
6.3 measures to take up the material/substance, cleaning measures
7. handling and storage
8. exposure limit and protective gear for humans
8.1 additional information for the design/construction of technical
plants 8.2 contents of interest for job/work site, limit value
(counts) to be checked:
Cas no.: designation measurement method limit value (count)
8.3 protective gear for humans
8.3.1 general protection and hygienic
measures: 8.3.2 breathing mask:
8.3.3 hand protection:
8.3.4 eye pritection:
8.3.5 body protection
Fig. 8.7: Standardized safety data sheet

8. Occupational Safety, Health Protection and Environmental Protection' 401
EU Safety Data Sheet

according to EU guideline 91/155/EWG
revised on: page 2 of 2
9. physical and chemical characteristics/properties 10. stability and reactivity

9.1 appearance 10.1 conditions to be prevented/avoided
9.1.1 shape: 10.2 substance to be prevented/avoided
9.1.2 color:
9.1.3 odor: 11. toxicological information
9.2 safety relevant data 11.1 acute/critical toxicity
9.2.1 change of state/condition: 11.2 experience with humans
9.2.2 flash point: 11.3 toxicity
9.2.3 flammability temperature: 11.4 further information
9.2.4 self-ignition:
9.2.5 fire supporting properties/characteristics: 12. ecology information
9.2.6 explosion danger:
9.2.7 explosion limit: 13. disposal information
9.2.8 steam pressure:
9.2.9 density: 14. transport information
9.2.10 solubility:
9.3 further information 15. regulations
16. other information

All information is provided on the state of knowledge we possess at this date. The data
describe our products in regard to safety requirements. Consequently, the indicated
data do not ensure specific properties or characteristics.
The party receiving our products is responsible and committed to observe existing laws
and regulations.
replaces edition dated:
department responsible for issuing this data sheet:
legend:
n.a. = not applicable
n.z. = not applicable
kDv. = no data available
nsb. = not relevant for safety concerns
Fig. 8.7: Standardized safety data sheet (continued)

According to § 21 of the hazardous material/substances regulations the employer must inform the
workers/employees and the works council.
8.4.2 Safety Data Sheets

The standardized data sheets according to EU Guideline 91/155/EG (refer to Figure 8.7) give
information to users if they must reckon with dangers when applying the materials, prepared mixtures
or products. The manufacturer or the supplier is required to provide such a safety data sheet for
every product. The users can rely on the information given in the safety data sheet as being
complete and correct. The information given in sections 4 to 6 is used for preparing a company
directive issued by the employer for a specific application and also for instructions for preparation
and use connected to a specific product.
8.4.3 Company Directives

The employer must issue company directives for handling and working with products containing
hazardous material/substances. The same applies if hazardous material/substances are generated
during handling or working. Materials and substances requiring special marking must be equipped
by the, manufacturer with a danger or warning symbol, the risk and safety advice phrases or
indications "warning - contains asbestos" or "can cause cancer". These markings are written on the
packaging as well as in the safety data sheet. For all other materials and substances it is
recommended to stick to the safety, protection, first aid, disposal recommendations given in the
instructions for preparation and use for the specific product. The data in the instructions for
preparation and use often do not consider all specific applications. Consequently, additional
information and data may be required in the company directive, for example when gunning a
refractory castable.
Section 8.5 focuses on handling breakout and demolition material/substances.
8.4.4 Hazardous Material/Substance Groups
8.4.4.1 Shaped and Unshaped (Monolithic) Refractory Materials

Health is endangered once siliconized dust (quartz dust) is generated when applying or working
with shaped or unshaped (monolithic) materials as well as when applying aggregates, binding
agents, additives and mixing liquids.
8.4.4.2 Materials Containing Solvents
Usually these are mixtures of various chemical elements which are used as protective coatings,
layers, acidic mastics or adhesives. They can be hazardous to health, combustible, and a danger to
our environment. One differentiates as follows:
8.4.4.3 Asbestos
Production and application of asbestos in generally prohibited in the Federal Republic of Germany!
However, it is not always possible to avoid asbestos dust during breakout, demolition or
reconstruction/remodeling work. In such cases extensive precautionary and protective measures
are required according to TRGS 51 9 (TRGS = Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances). All
areas, parts or components containing asbestos, which are to be broken out or demolished, must
be marked and identified according to Figure 8.8.
Any work, during which asbestos or fine dust containing asbestos is generated, must be reported
beforehand to the trade inspection office and construction employers' liability insurance association.
The workers involved in this work must be informed of the dangers and instructed in regard to
protective measures and use of protective clothing. Furthermore, health checkups must be ensured.
8.4.4.4 Ceramic Fibers

Ceramic fibers are classified in category 2 - carcinogenic in animal experiments - according to EU
Guideline 97/69/EG. No equally good substitute materials exist today for ceramic fiber materials
used in refractory engineering. Consequently, the following rules and guidelines must be observed
(TRGS 521, part 1, TRGS = Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances):
- ready-sized and ready-made products must be used,
- the construction sections/areas are to be kept as small as possible and should be
protected/covered with foil,
- job/work sites must be ventilated,
- breakout sections should possibly be wet down,
- breakout parts are to be kept moist,
- breakout materials are to be collected in plastic sacks/bags,
- tools must be thoroughly cleaned with water and
_ during breakout work protective clothing (worn only once) and FFP3 protective breathing masks
must be worn.
Tile following regulations apply as part of the Recycling and Refuse Laws: -
Regulations for implementing the European Refuse Register
- Regulations for determining refuse requiring supervision and to be recycled
- Regulations for proof of proper recycling and disposal
- Regulations for transport permission
- Regulations for economic refuse concepts and refuse accounting
- Regulations for companies in the refuse and disposal business
Furthermore, the "Guidelines for Operation and Recognition of Disposal Cooperatives" are to be
observed.
Finally, the following guidelines of the employers' liability insurance associations are mentioned:
- Accident Prevention Guidelines of the employers liability insurance associations
- Rules for Working in Contan1inated Areas of the employers' liability insurance associations
8.5.3 Responsibilities
The recycling and refuse laws differentiate between "producers" and "owners" of refuse. However,
1l10st responsibilities and obligations concern both:
"A producer of refuse according to this law is any natural person or legal entity whose activities
generate refuse or any person who has induced preliminary treatment, mixtures or other treatments
which effect a change of the composition of refuse." (Paragraph 3, section 5)
"An owner of refuse .... is any natural person or legal entity who is the factual owner of the refuse.
11 (Paragraph 3, section 6)
The legal definition is unsatisfactory for the construction business because - according to the "pay-
as-you-generate principle" - the responsibility of disposal should be assigned to the builder
or party placing the order to build.
The Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Housing and the Federal Ministry of Defense have
the san1e standpoint. These ministries have issued the so-called "recycling assistance guidelines"
(issued in June 1998) for property belonging to the Federal Republic of Germany and for
construction work ordered by the Federal Ministries. Responsibilities are regulated as follows:
"The builder has the responsibility for disposal and is also responsible for generated construction
waste/refuse until it is sent to its final disposal. It is not permissible to transfer ownership and,
consequently, transfer of the responsibility of disposal to the contractor (construction company
accepting the order)."
"The builder is responsible for supervision, proper and safe disposal of waste/refuse including
proper documentation and proof of correct disposal."
"For waste/refuse, which is generated by the construction company while fulfilling the contract, the
responsibility of proper disposal is in the hands of the construction company. The general regulations
of VOS, part C, - ATV DIN 18 299 (VOS = contracting rules for award of public works
contracts) apply.
The responsibilities are founded on the following:
_ The express declaration of intent is decisive. The declaration of intent obviously comes from the
builder.
_ Implementation of waste/refuse generation principle: The impact on the environment is generally
caused by the builder. It may happen that a negative impact on the environment is first caused
due to improper disposal by. the construction company.
- Influence possibility: During disposal the construction company can only be held responsible
to the extent that the construction company can influence matters.
8.5.4 Refuse Register
All refuse is designated/classified according to a refuse type list that applies in all European countries.
This "European Refuse Register" was last updated on January 1, 2002, and implemented via German
law (refer to Table 8.2).
8.5.5 Disposal of Packaging
Packaging should be separated as indicated in Table 8.3. For this it will be necessary to contact an
accredited refuse disposal company. As part of the order confirmation documentation, the supplier of
construction materials must provide a list with the waste/refuse collection locations within 20
kilometers.
It must be ensured that only lockable refuse/waste containers are used at the construction site. This
is very important for breakout and demolition materials.
Glossary 411
Glossary
422 Literature
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424 Authors
Authors
Bobbert, Klaus H.
Dipl.-Ing., Proxy, Burwitz Feuerungsbau GmbH, DOsseldori, Germany
Bruder, Rolf
Dipl.-Ing., Department Manager Design, JOnger+Grater Feuerfestbau GmbH,
Schwetzingen, Germany
Cicetti, Daniele
Dipl.-Ing., Executive Manager, Wilhelm Talke GmbH & Co. KG.
Schornstein- und Feuerungsbau, Nuremberg, Germany
Claren, Wilhelm
Designer, Manager Application Technology, EKW GmbH, Eisenberg, Germany
Dormagen, Hans-Gerd
Dipl.-Ing., Division Manager Technology in the Service Center Occupational Safety
of the Construction Employers' Liability Insurance Association Rhineland and Westphalia,
Wuppertal, Germany
Eschner, Axel-Reiner
Dr.-Ing., RHI-Didier-Werke AG, Wiesbaden, Germany
Grass, Hans-Jurgen
Dipl.-Ing., (FH) Keramik, Technical Assistance (with authority to represent the company in all
sectors of its business), Lafarge Refractories GmbH, S1. Augustin, Germany
Kemnitz, Helmut
Manager of the Technical Office, Lafarge Refractories GmbH, S1. Augustin, Germany
Klinger, Wolfram
Dr.-Ing., Manager Central Research and Development RATH-AG, Rath GmbH, MeiBen, Germany
Knorth, Hermann
Chief Mason and Specialist for Reinforced Concrete, Manager of Design Department, KARRENA
GmbH, Ratingen, Germany
Krebs, Rudolf
Dipl.-Ing. Director of Research and Development, Plibrico GmbH, Neu\tvied, Germany
Li.itcke, Helmut
Dr. rer. nat., Manager Data Processing/Organization, KARRENA GmbH, Ratingen, Germany
Meinig, Ji.irgen
Dipl.-Ing., Executive Manager, Hotwork International GmbH, Partenstein, Germany
Nebe, Ulrich
Dr. rer. na1., Project Manager, RHI DINARIS GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany
Noakowski, Piotr
Professor, O.-Ing., Executive Manager of Failure Analysis Associates B.V., OtJsseldorf, Gernlany
Authors 425
Nebgen, Peter
Dipl.-Ing" Executive Manager, ikb GrllbH Ingenieur- und KonstruktionsbOro tOr Feuerungsbau,
Andernach, Germany
Palten, Volker
Dipl.-Ing., Proxy, Technical Manager, MARVO Feuerungs- und Industriebau GmbH, Kerpen,
Gernlany
Papp, Gabor
Dipl.-Ing., Manager Application Technology, Saint-Gobain Ind. Ceramics OOsseldort GmbH,
DOsseldorf, Gernlany
Posingis, Ulrich
Dipl.-Ing" Proxy, Division Manager, KARRENA GmbH, Ratingen, Germany
Potsch, Hans-Dieter
Or.-Ing., Division Manager, RW TOV Anlagentechnik GmbH, Essen, Germany
Puchner, Hartmut
Dipl.-Ing., (FH) Canvassing and Calculation, F & S Feueriestbau GmbH & Co. KG, Magdeburg,
Germany
Rasch, Rudiger
Dipl.-Ing., Division Manager, KARRENA GmbH, Ratingen, Germany
Reuter, Olaf
Dipl.-Ing., (SFI/EWE), Executive Manager, bsk BolzenschweiBtechnik GmbH, Cologne, Germany
Routschka, Gerald
Dipl.-Ing., (FH), previously DIFK Oeutsches Institut fOr Feuerfest und Keramik GmbH, Bonn,
Germany
Sauer, Hans-Joachim
Dipl.-Ing., Project Manager, OOMS-ITTNER-HOF GmbH NL Frankfurt/M., Eschborn, Germany
Schmitt, Edmund-Martin
Division Manager Plant Engineering, Burwitz Feuerungsbau GmbH, Peine, Germany
Schnitzer, Heiko
Dipl.-Ing., Division Manager Technology, PLIBRICO GmbH, Neuwied, Germany
Scholz, Hans-Werner
Construction Engineer and Chief Mason, Executive Manager, SBG Schornsteinberatungsges. mbH,
Schauenburg, Germany
Schutz, Jurgen .
Oipl.-Ing., Q~ality Manager, Lafarge Refractories GmbH, 81. Augustin, Germany
Stegh, Gangolf
Dipl.-Ing., Executive Manager, OOMS-ITTNER-HOF GmbH, Cologne, Germany
Wagner, Klaus
(Business Adnlinistration / IHK), Department Manager Erection/Installation, JOrgen+Grater
Feuerfestbau GmbH, Schwetzingen, Germany
426 Authors
Wesser, Rolf
Dipl.-Ing., Marketing Department Manager, Proxy, Lafarge Refractories GmbH, St. Augustin,
Germany
Wilhelmi, Bruno
Dipl.-Ing., (FH), Senior Technical Manager, RH I DINARIS GmbH, Wiesbaden, Germany
Wimmer, Heinz
Dipl.-Ing., (grad.) Mechanical Engineering, Division Manager, Rath GmbH, Monchengladbach,
Germany
Ziilch, Annette
Dipl.-Ing., Executive Manager, Deutsche Gesellschaft Feuerfest- und Schornsteinbau e.V.,
Di.isseldorf, Germany
The following authors contributed to the 2nd edition:

Borges, Werner, Degree in Business Administration
BreBlein, Raimund, Dipl.-Ing.
Fruhauf, Peter, Dipl.-Ing.
Fuehres, Margit, Dr., Degree in Mineralogy
Gedack, GOnter, Dipl.-Ing. t
Grater, Fritz, Dipl.-Ing., Executive Manager
Hlawatschek, Helmut, Dr.
Hofgen, Heiner, Dr.-Ing.
Josten, Hans, Dipl.-Ing.
Kandziora, Josef, Chief Engineer
Keyk, Wolfhold, Dipl.-Ing.
Kleinevoss, Albert, Dr. rer. nat.
K6hne, Volker, Dr.-Ing.
Kreuels, Klaus, Dipl.-Ing.
Lepere, Klaus, Dipl.-Ing.
Overkott, Engelberth, Dr. rer. nat.
R6pke, Helmut, Dr. rer. nat.
Rohbock, Lothar, Senior Engineer
Schreckenberg, Friedrich, Degree in Commerce
Stark, Johannes, Executive Manager
Stein, GOnter, Dipl.-Ing.
Stein, Hermann, Construction Engineer, Retired Director
Vogel, Klaus, Dipl.-Ing., Executive Manager
Worms, Alfred, Degree in Mineralogy .
Index
Index 427
A Analysis limit values (counts) for drinking water 62

Above hand side 261 Anchor~)57, 70,102,118,120,122,208,211,
Abrasion 278, 289, 316, 378, 411, 417 224,227,229,283,286,376
Abrasion resistance 18, 60, 378 Anchor brick(s) 102, 118, 224
Absorption 416 Anchor distances 102,208
Accelerator 32, 221, 222, 223 Anchor material(s) 102, 118-
Acceptable quality level 346, 349, 354 Acceptance Anchor profile 224
210, 230, 334, 339, 340, 342, 346, Anchor system(s) 118, 227, 376
347,348,349,351,354,355,358,360,363, Anchoring 38, 48, 56, 71, 72 , 78, 101, 102, 103,
367,370,375,376,379,390 104, 108, 113, 118, 128, 171, 226, 227, 250,
Acceptance certificate 340 276,283,284,286,287,344
Acceptance check 346, 349 Anchoring elements 38,226, 227
Acceptance factor 358, 360 Anchoring of a wall 71, 103
Acceptance inspection 230, 346 Anchoring system 48, 56, 113
Acceptance number (count) 355, 360, 363 Andalusite 9, 39
Acceptance report 367 Anisotropy 22
Acceptance rule 358 Anode baking furnace 244, 245, 254
Accident prevention guidelines 384, 389, 392, Anode blocks 15
396 Anthracite 14
Accident prevention guidelines, coordinator for Antioxidants 13
396 AOOL - average outgoing quality limit 347 AOL -
Accident report 389 acceptable quality level 346, 347, 349,
Acheson process 15, 11 351,353,354,355,360,363,370
Accessory oxides 11 Appearance, outer20B, 351,354,355, 360, 367, 368
Activity energy of the molecules 131 Application (installation) times 225
Additive 39, 45 Application (service) limit 6, 9, 20, 28, 30, 45, 68,
Adhesive (glue) 30, 226, 227, 286, 299 138,139,155,159,418,419 Application
Advanced ceramics 15, 416 (service) range 230, 419 Application
AES-fiber 128 (service) temperature 47, 412 Application
AES-fiber material 128 (working) capability 68 Application
Air limit value (count) 399 (working) consistency 39 Application
Air quenching 23 (working) methods 68, 219 Application of
Air pressure, required 220 mortar 299
Algorithm 181 Applications for dry mixes 302
Alignment axis 294, Arched section 278
Alignment of bed joints 294, 295 Arches 105, 120, 180, 189, 192, 255, 256, 261,
Alignment (adjusting) of bricks 204 268
Alignment string 246, 294 Alignment Arc stud welding 228, 229, 230,234,283,344 Arc
timber (beam) 297, 299 Alkalis 9, 25, welding, manual 228
55, Arrangement of vertical joints in the ring 296
Alkaline earth oxides 9, 412 Asbestos 402,403
Alkaline earths 9, 55, 63 Asbestos dust 402
Alkaline earth silicate fiber (AES) 42, 43, 47, 60, Assignment of company commitments 388
128,129,130,226,404 Alkali Atmosphere, oxidizing 15-
oxides 5, 7, 9, 23, 412 Auger pressing 14
Alloying, possibility of 48 Austen ite 48
Alumina brick 18 Authority to give instructions/orders 394, 396
Aluminous cement 31, 39 Autoclave 28
Aluminum melting furnace 151 Autoclave machine 218,219
Aluminum phosphate 22, 23 Awl 370
A1203-Si02 products 34
Aluminum oxide fiber 227
Aluminum powder 22
428 Index
B Bottom, arched 77, 92, 236

Baddeleyite 14 Ball-in-hand Bottom beams 240
test 217, 285 Base material Bottom bricks in glass furnaces 240
pyramid 4 Bottom bricks in hearth furnaces 235
Basic guidelines for brickwork 209 Bottom of a glass tank 241
Basic repair 286 Bottom out of carbon bricks 237 .
Bottom out of graphite bricks 237 .
Bauxite 9, 39, 151, 152, 153
Bottom slabs 240
Beam, warpage of 188'
Bottom to wall connection 109
Beam(s) 179, 180, 188, 189,.237, 240, 270, 297,
Bottom used for marking only 268
299
Bottom vibrating machine, electric 310
Bearing capability 179, 180, 187, 188, 189, 192
Bottom vibrating machine, pneumatic 310
Bed joint(s) 73, 74, 209, 211, 294, 295 Beerschen
Breakout work 202, 294, 403,404 Breakout
Law 146
material, contaminated 404 Breaks (time off
Bending (rupture) moment 188, 191, 194, 196
work) 390
Bending (rupture) test 234, 346
Bricking center 260, 268, 278
Bevels 278
Bricking scaffolding 268
Big bag 349, 370 Binary
Brick, carbon-bonded 13
system 5, 8, 412
Brick, carbon-containing 10, 13
Binder~)7, 15,31,30,32,33,39,45,61,62,74, Brick, fired 9
221,285,317,421 Brick, high-alumina 9, 10
Binder clays 31 Brick marking 354, 367
Bitumen 58 Brick matrix 353
Black body 144 Brick, pitch-impregnated 10, 13
Blanket (mat) anchoring with cuplocks 276 Brick, refractory 5, 11, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28,
Blankets (mats) 42, 60, 130, 227, 249, 250, 276, 30,33,37,45,46,69,70,102,105,106,109,
420 110,111,135,139,155,167,169,189,209,
Blankets (nlats), layer design 227, 249, 276 226,244,272,273,274,293,304,307,354,
Blankets (mats) on rolls 227 412,419,420
Blast furnace 33, 238 Brick, resin-impregnated 10, 13
Blast furnace bottom 15, 238 Blast Brick shape around a pipe 172
furnace runner systems 38 Blast Brick shape, made by hand 70, 415 Brick
furnace tap holes 33 shaping method, by hand 70, 415 Brick,
Blast tuyere level 237 sintered 14
Blister effect during welding 231, 232 Brick, special ceramic 14
Blocking bricks 240 Bricks, basic 11, 13, 14
Blocks, pre-compacted 32, 33 Brickwork ring 294 Brinell
Bodies, capillary porous 324, 325 hardness 51
Body, ceramic 305, 412, 414 Briny water 63
Bogies 242 Brittleness 45
Boiler roof 77, 89 Bulk 61
Boiler studs 283 Bulk density 5, 14, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23. 25, 28, 29,
Bond, ceramic 15, 16, 22, 26, 31, 33, 39, 301, 41,45,47,70,134,153,155,181,216,356,
317,412,416 370,378,412,413,418
Bond, chemical 22, 31 Burn cavities 351
Bond, high-alumina 15 Burner 112,120,121,319
Bond, hydraulic 26, 31, 33, 41, 413, 416 Burner area, design 112
Bond brickwork 293 Burner lining 120, 124
Bond systems 15, 31
Border layer temperatures 67, 148, 149,150, C
151, 1 52, 153, 154, 1 65
Cadmium 16, 230
Border surface (interfacial) tension 324
Calcia brick 13
Boric acid (H3B03) 303, 320 Borosilicate
Calcium aluminate cement 39. 40
glass 14, 18, 412
Calcium hydroxide 11, 416 Calcium
Bottom(s) 14, 15,77,78,90,91,92,98,105,
silicate 28, 29, 59 Calcium silicate
109,120,126,151,202,214, product 28
215,202,235,236,237,238,240,242,255, Calculation 131,139,141,147,148,151,152,
256,268,278,297,301,304, 153,154,164
308,310,311,312,314,320,418 Calculation, non-stationary 160. 168, 171
Index 429
Calculation, multi-dimensional 131, 171, 172, Certificate issued by physician 398

174 Chamber walls 244, 254
Calculation, one-dimensional 131, 171, 174 Channel induction furnace 319
Calculation, stationary 162, 165, 174 Charge material, liquid 235
Calculation area for a fin pipe wall 172 Checklist 67, 368
Calculation eX81llple for heat flux (flow) 151 Checklist for sampling 369
Calculation model 171 Check of incoming materials 212
Canvassing 333 Check of outgoing materials 212
Capacitor battery 229 Check of me/t-down length 233
Capillaries 38, 323, 324, 326 Check of welding work data 233
Capillary diameter 324 Chuck device for tie rods 260
Capillary forces 324, 325
Chlorine 55, 415
Capillary network processes 324
Chrome-corundum mixed crystals 10
Carbon 13,14,15,23,34,55,74,146
Cilromia (chromium oxide) 11, 14, 18
Carbon black 10, 14
Cement fondue 31
Carbon bond 33
Circular arch roofs (crowns) 256
Carbon brick 14, 15, 237, 238
Clamped bearing 271
Carbon bursting 23
Classification 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 20, 21, 23, 24, 28,
Carbon content 13, 14
31,34,36,45,48,62,171,418,419 Classification,
Carbon deposits 23
European 35
Carbon dioxide 60, 63, 146, 412
Classification temperature 20, 23, 25, 26, 35, 37,
Carbon lattice 11
45,47,404,412,419
Carbon mix 237
Clear space 269 Coating
Carbon monoxide 23, 412, 417
material 58
Carbonate of ammonia 22
Code number key of VDEh 35
Carburization 55, 412
Code of social law 383
Cartons 368
Coil 304, 307, 316, 319,320
Casing 58, 61, 134, 148, 151, 155, 175, 192,
Coil condition 305
199,208,211,226,227,235,
Coil damage 316
237,244,245,255,266,268,289
Coil equalizing mix 304, 306, 307, 314, 315
Cast iron 172, 320, 414
Coil with water-cooling 307
Cast materials in bulk 61
Coke lattice 14
Cast rails 270
Coke oven 74, 75, 246
Cast steel 53, 54, 245, 412
Coke oven battery 7, 246, 252, 253, 351
Castable (also refer to refractory castable) 31,
Coke oven heating wall 246
32,37,38,62,118,212,216,217,218,221,
Cold crushing strength 5, 11, 23, 28, 29, 39, 40,
223,235,313,314,315,316,317,342,416, 420,
41,342,355,363,370,378,413
421
Cold modulus of rupture 39, 40, 355, 370, 413
Castable pressure, hydrostatical 212, 416 Castable,
Cold operation test 327
self-Ieveling (self-flowing) 38, 217, 304, 420
Cold to cold cycle 19
Castables in the furnace lid (roof) 321
Collective sample 347, 370,371,375
Casting 4, 16, 22, 23, 28, 31, 70,216, 218, 307,
Comb anchor system 227
420
Combustion chamber 67,68,75, 102, 120, 125,
Casting furnaces 317, 319, 321,
131,199,245,256,283,330,331,411 Combustion
Casting methods 23
chamber atmosphere 134, 142, 156 Combustion
Casting procedure 218
chamber of a hot blast stove 265 Communication of
Casting spout 312, 313
safety, health and
Cavities 290, 351
environmental protection 386
Cement bond 22, 28
Compaction 5, 16, ~2, 37, 70, 215, 216, 217,
Cement industry 11, 15, 293, 419
225,285,301,305,308,310,311,312,313,
Cement works 293
314,316,419 '
Ceramic cap 227
Compaction equipment (tools) 212
Ceramic fiber products and materials 5, 41, 43, 47,
Compaction time 217
58, 60, 75, 118, 128, 130, 199, 226, 240,
Company directive 399, 402
243,245,277,317,403,412
Company physician 388, 389, 390, 398
Ceramic fiber module 160, 229, 227
Compatibility conditions 186
Ceramic ring 228, 229, 231
Compensation strips 227
Ceramic ring holder 229
Compressive strain 183, 184, 185, 188, 190,
191,192,196,326
430 Index
Computer aided design (CAD) 67 Computer Cooling-down 1, 7, 8, 131, 160, 170, 256, 302,
calculation of heat flux (flow) 155 Computer 304,320,321,323,324,325,326,328,329, 420
printout of a stationary heat flux Cooling-down and heating-up as part of the
(transition) calculation 156, 157 production process 321
Concrete 189, 218, 421 Cooling-down speeds 326
Condensation 325, 420 Condensate Cooling phase 326
29, 47, 225 Cordierite 9, 26
Cone repair 315 Corner design 244
Confidence interval 347 Corrosion 10, 13, 14, 18, 20, 25, 53, 55, 58, 185,
Confidence level 347 208, 283
Connected load 232 Corrosion, chemical 53
Consistency 32,33,34,37,39,40,217,226, Corrosion protection, heat-resistant 145, 413
237,285,412 Corrosion protection work 58
Console 208, 259 Corrosion resistance 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 18, 49,
Constriction force of pressure 180 Constriction 55
stress 186, 187, 188 Construction code of the Corrugated anchor(s) 57, 344, 345, 346
specific state of the Corundum 5, 9, 10, 15, 16, 39, 45, 412
country 383 Corundum bricks 199 Corundum-chrome
Construction component - overall inspection brick 10
379,380 Corundum insulating brick 25 I
Corundum insulating refractory brick 25

Construction dimensions 209
Corundum zircon brick 14
Construction drawings 214, 217, 225, 377, 378
Corundum zirconia brick 18
Construction employers' liability insurance
Crack(s) 7,16,48,57,176,178,183,188,193,
association, guidelines (regulations) 384, 387,
199,208,210,235,269,320,326,353,351, 367
389,398,405
Construction employers' liability insurance Crack formation 48, 176, 180, 181, 183, 326
association, information 384 Construction Creep appearance 193
employers' liability insurance association, Creep resistance 48
Creep rupture strength 53
principles 384
Construction employers' liability insurance Creep under compression 23, 256, 355, 413
association, rules 384,405 Cristobalite 5, 7, 8, 16, 45
Cross bond 77
Construction manager 391, 396,398
Cross-section twist 186, 187
Construction management 202, 208
Crowding forces 326
Construction parts, cantilever 224, 255
Crown brickwork 262, 263, 264
Construction progress meeting 398
Crown form (mold) 266, 268
Construction site code 383, 384
Crown rise 260, 266
Construction site emergency call plan 398 Crown tension (stress) 256
Construction site equipment 392 Crown thickness 256
Construction site housing 204, 208 Construction Crown(s) 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 105, 189,
site in foreign country 202 Construction site 190,191,192 193,209,211,223,224,255,
manager 208, 344, 375, 376, 256,257,260,261,262,263,264,265,266, 268,
377,379,388,394 269,
Construction site organization chart 392 Crucible, refractory 304 Crucible
Construction site samples 378 furnace 314, 315, 316
Construction site setup plan 202, 204, 392, 393 Crucible induction furnace 33, 303,304,306,
Construction site specialist(s) 392, 394, 396, 398 3.13, 314, 320, 321
Consumer's risk 347, 356 Crucible push-out device 306
Contact method 229 Cryolite melts 28
Container shipment 65 Crystallite(s) 45, 413, 418
Continuous caster 4 Crystal phase 9
Continuous casting 10 Crystallization, water of 303, 412
Control valve 327 Cuplocks 130, 250, 276
Convection 18, 133, 134, 141, 142, 143, 146,
171,413 D
Converters 14
Damage report 385
Cooling 1,7,8,16,33,45,48,68,131,160,
Danger analysis 392
170,181,198,199,225,230,256,302,304,
307,314,319,320,321,323,324,325,326,
327,328,329,330,411,416,420
Index 431
Danger, assessment of 386 Disposal 1,208,391,399,404,405,410

Danger (incident) reports 389 Disposal cooperatives 405
Danger symbol 402 Disposal information 401
Dangerous situations 385, 387, 398 Disposal of packaging 66, 410
Data sheet 10, 35,48, 68,202,' 204,376, 394, Disposal possibility 202
400,401,402 Disposal recommendations 402
Data sheet of a saw for cutting brick 206, 207 Disposal responsibility 405, 410
Deflocculated 31, 413 Division pieces (dividers) 212, 213, 214, 216, 221
Deformability 48 Documentation files 334
Deformation 26, 183, 188, 192, 233, 278, 298, Documentation levels 335
414,419 Dolomite 13, 34, 413
Deformation bel1avior 190 · Dolomite brick 13, 295, 416
Deformation verification 188 Dome arch 77, 86, 265, 266
Degassing 231 Dome(s) 180, 192, 193, 255, 260, 265
Dehumidification 324 Dome-shaped ceilings (roofs) 192
Demolition work 404 Double piston pump 221, 222
Dents in the shell 294, 297 Double corrugation anchors 57
Dependency of the tl1ernlal conductivity 137 Drawing files 334
Diversification 414 Drawn arc stud welding 228, 229, 230
Dew point, falling below 53, 55, 58, 148, 414 Drinking water 62, 63,202
Diagonal dominance 167
Dry installation of bricks 294
Diatomaceous earth 26
Dry joint(s) 71, 75, 304, 313 .
Difference calculus 162, 164, 166
Dry mix(es) 33, 301, 302, 303, 305, 308, 310,
Diffusion 323, 324, 325, 412, 414
311,312,313,314,316,317,319,320,321 Dry
Dimensional accuracy 240, 342, 351, 353, 354,
pressing 9, 28
355,363,367,368,414
Dry shrinkage 326
Dimension deviation (linear tolerances) 70, 367
Dry spots 220
Dimensioning 189, 193, 260, 269, 416
Drying 1, 5, 23, 3D, 38, 62, 113, 159, 202, 224,
DIN 1089-3 375
DIN EN 729 232 230,304,307,313,320,321,323,324,325,
DIN EN 993-8 23 326,327,328,329,330,331,415,420 Drying curve
DIN EN 993-9 23 326, 328,329, 330,331
DIN EN 993-12 3, 418 Drying damage 326
DIN EN 993-14 5, 23 DIN Drying, instructions for 329
EN 993-15 5, 23 DIN EN Drying period 328
1094-1 and-3 5 Drying plants 159
DIN EN 1094-2 5, 18, 20, 22 Drying procedure 324, 325, 328, 329
DIN EN 1094-4 23 Drying process 324, 326, 331
DIN EN 1094-5 23 Drying shrinkage 23,326
DIN EN 1094-6 23 Drying technology 324
DIN EN 1418 233,234 Ductility 48, 57, 414
DIN EN 10204 340 Dust, siliconized 402, 404
DIN EN 12475-1 to 4 5 Dust, measures to protect against 301
DIN EN 1402-1 and ISO 1927 30 Duty of employers to provide assistance 383
DIN EN 1402-2 367, 370, 371 DIN
EN 1402-5 372 E
DIN EN 1402-6 375
DIN EN 1402-7 375 Edge strength 351
DIN EN ISO 9000 ff 333 DIN Electric arc furnace 5, 14, 16, 221
EN ISO 9001 333, 334, DIN Electric insulation 304
EN ISO 12944-8 58 Electric wall vibrating machine 311
DIN EN ISO 13918:1998 228,234
Elephant feet 316
DIN EN ISO 14555:1998 230, 232, 233, 234
Embrittle 29, 55 ,-
Direction dependency 22
Emergency calls, plan for 394
Direction of ramming work 223
Emissivity 18
Discreteness 164, 165, 166, 169, 171, 172, 174
Emissivity factor 142
Discreteness method 171
Discreteness process 173 Emissivity ratio 144, 146
Discreteness schema 162, 163 Employees, proper instruction of 387
432 Index
Employer, obligations and commitments 387,

388
Employment of youths 390, 392 Fabric 129
Enamel industry 15 Fans 327
End arch bricks 77, 81 Feeder ports 66, 414
End clips, metallic 227 Felt 60
Endothermic 303, 414 Felt, ceramic 60
End ring of a flat roof (arch) 354 FEM 162, 167,171,173,174,175,176,177,
Engineering ceramics 16 Engineering 178,414,422
requirements 342, 377 English bond 77 Ferrite 48
Entry door, open 78, 101 Fiber, ceramic 5, 19, 41, 43, 47, 58, 60, 75, 118, 128,
Equalization of deep dents 297 130, 160, 199,226,227,240,243,245,
Equation system 163, 164, 165, 167, 169, 186 277,317,403,412
Equilibrium condition 186 Fiber foams, plastic 45
Equipment, location of 204, 208 Fiberglas melting tank 14
Equipment on construction site 204 Fiber materials, plastic 45
Erosion(s) 10, 68, 411 Fiber modules 227
Erosion resistance (strength) 15, 18 EU Fiber module, glued 227
agreements 383,384 Fiber modules with metallic anchoring 250 Fiber
EU directive 43 mixes 129
EU guideline 384, 400, 401 Fiber product, vacuum-shaped 227
EU safety data sheet 400,401, 402, 403,404 EU Fiber, polycrystalline 41, 45, 419 Fillers
standards 394 28, 45
European refuse register 405, 410 Final compaction 311
Eutectic 5, 414, 419 Final test (inspection) 344, 346 Fin
Evaluation of results 342, 355, 358 pipe wall 120, 123, 172 Firebrick
Evaporation 229, 323, 325 Everyday bond 73, 77
use water 63 Fireclay 8, 9, 15, 22, 25, 39, 199, 216 Fireclay
Example calculation, non-stationary 168 brick 8, 9, 25, 61, 69, 75, 199, 256 Fireclay
Execution of construction 333 Expandable products 9
perlite 26 Fireclay refractory castable 39, 40
Expansion 7, 25, 60, 74, 75, 145, 183, 186, 187, Firing growth 113
194,198,199,255,256,269,270,320,326, 420 Firing shrinkage 23; 113, 414
Expansion behavior 75, 320 First aid 387, 390, 393, 394, 395, 402
Expansion calculation(s) 197
First aid measures 399, 400
Expansion cardboard 294
Fitting ring 268
Expansion coefficient 199
Fitting pieces of pipe strands 278
Expansion cracks 320 Expansion
Flame radiation 146
difference 183, 199 Expansion,
Flat (arch) roof 255, 266, 267, 268
reversible 197, 198
Flat course(s) 77
Expansion, thermal 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 23, 28,
Flat steel anchor 286
59,75,179,194,198,199,270,412,419,420 Expansion
Flexibility 41
coefficient 7, 181, 199
Expansion joint(s) 60, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 93, 94, Floating 63, 146. 237, 242
95,96,97,98,99,105,106,108,118,171, Float glass 240
179,180,199,210,211,213,225,235,240, Flow conditions 142
242,244,269,270,271,274,278,282,342, 377 Fluidized bed, circulating 330, 331
Expansion joint brick 102 Flux 5,6,7.221,351,413
Expansion joint, horizontal 77, 96 Fly asl1 210
Expansion joint in suspended roof 271 Foil 62, 64, 66, 224, 313, 403
Expansion joint material(s) 60 F()(€e, capillary 324, 325
Expansion joint, staggered (offset) in bottoms 78, Force distribution 256, 257, 258
98 Forced air 328
Expansion joint, vertical 77, 93, 94 Foreign component(s) 5
Expansion possibilities 326 Expansion Foreign workers 392. 394, 396
stiffness 180 Form (mold) for gunning 111ixes 373
Exudation 18 Forms (ten1plates) 231, 268, 304,321
Forms (templates/molds), arrangement of 307
Forsterite brick 13
Foundry furnaces 301
Index 433
Fourier series 140, 161 Glaze, .ovvn 16

Fracture (rupture) expansion 49' Glued spot 102
Frequency distribution 356 Functional Gluing method 293, 294, 299
product(s) 3, 4, 5, 10, 11 Gluing modules 45, 420
Furnace atrTIospl1ere 23, 25, 60, 68, 415, 418 Go ahead 208, 209, 293, 328, 376, 395 Good/bad
Furnace bottom(s) 15, 202, 235, 238, 311, 314, inspection 346, 349, 351 Government agency in
320 charge of occupational
Furnace breakout 301 safety 391
Furnace casing (SI1811) 155, 199, 211, 226, 237, Grain borders (interfaces) 16
244,245,255,268 Furnace Grain gradations 39
edge, repair of 316 Furnace form Grain growth 30
(mold) 311, 312 Furnace lining Grain size, maximum 31, 370
45, 160 Grain structure 33, 301, 415
Furnace operation, discontinuous 314 Granite 59
Furnace/plant operated periodically 155 Furnaces Granulate 415
in the nonferrous metal industry 235 Furnace shell - Granulated carbon packing 11
> refer to furnace casing Furnace tank 319 Graphite 10, 13, 14, 34, 411
Furnace throat 319 Graphite brick 14, 74, 237
F used cast basalt 60 Graphite mold(s) 16
Fused 111agnesia 11, 13 Graphite paper 75
Fused silica 7 Gravity mixer 216
Fused silica products 6, 7, 8 Green body 23
Green bricks 14, 22, 23
G Green strength 31, 38, 415
Gap method 229 Groundwater 63
Guidelines for lining work 294
Gas 22, 3D, 38, 53, 55, 134, 136, 137, 143, 146, 147,
Guidelines (rules and regulations) issued by the
170, 171, 191, 202, 204, 228, 232, 278,
employers' liability insurance associations 383
283,307,324,325,327,328,329,411,412,
413,414,415,416,418 Gunner certificate 377
Gas bodies 145, 146 Gunner(s) 377
Gas burner 304, 307, 313, 320, 321 Gunning 4, 31, 33, 38, 204, 214, 216, 219, 221,
Gas molecules 30 285,342,377,402
Gas permeability 28, 326 Gas Gunning castables 39 Gunning
experiments 377 Gunning form
pipes for refornlers 278
(mold) 372, 373
Gas, prevent from coming through 270 Gas
Gunning machines 202, 208, 218, 219, 220, 221
radiation 146, 147
Gunning mix(es) 5, 32,36,39,214, 220,372,
Gas, roaming 210
373
Gas speed 330
Gunning nozzle 220, 222, 223, 285
Gas stream 134, 143, 231 Gas
Gunning process (method) 218, 219, 220, 221
streams, convective 134
Gunning skill 377
Gaussian (normal) distribution 346, 348, 351,
Gunning technique 39
356
German Civil Code 383
German madness degree 63 H
Glass fibers 18, 43, 47, 128, 129, 226, 404
Glass fiber fabric 30 Hairline cracks 320 Hand
Glass fiber fleece 28 ramming 14, 311
Glass furnaces 9, 26, 189, 240, 244 Hand rammers (equipment) 305
Glass industry 8, 11, 14, 18, 69 Glass Hard foam plate(s) 60
melting furnace 7, 240 Hardener 268
Glass melting tank 7, 10, 240 Hardening process 37
Glass melts 10 Hardening test 225
Glass structure 45 Hardening time 212
Glassy component 25, 26 Hardening (setting) time of the adhesive 299
Glassy fibers 41, 43, 45 Glassy Hardness conditions 48
phase 6,7,8,9,415 Glaze 11, 16, Hardness range of drinking water 63
45, 226 Hardness test 234
Hazardous material/substance 398, 399, 402, 404
434 Index
Hazardous material/substance group 402 Heating-up speed 181, 184, 185, 196, 199, 303,
Head bolt 286 321,329 Heating-up
Head plate(s) 289, 290, 291 test(s) 175
Header bond 77, 262, 263 Heating-up with the gas burner 320
Header courses 77 Headers Hexmesh (Hexrost) 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 344
246 Hexmesh (Hexrost) lining 289
Header heads 246 Hexmesh (Hexrost) design 290, 291
Health documents 394- High temperature behavior 6
Health examinations/checks 394, 395, 398, 403 High temperature glass fiber 43, 47, 128, 129,
130,226,404
Health programs/protection at the company 386,
387 Highly dispersive 30
Health protection 1, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, Holding element, metallic 70
Holding studs with nubs 227
390,391,392,393,394,395,396,398 Hearth
plateau 127 Holding time(s) 48, 326 Hollow
Heaters 226 foot stud(s) 286
Hollow space 61, 21 A, 235, 284, 285, 324, 420
Heat amount 132, 138, 161, 165,181,325
Hollow spheres (balls), ceramic 22 Homogeneity
Heat bridges 68
parameter 5, 355
Heat capacity 132, 181, 420
Horizontal thrust 190, 191, 192
Heat conduction 18, 133, 134, 137, 138, 140, Hose scale 209,266
141,142,147,148,283 Hot air 307,328, 330, 331 Hot
Heat exchange 131, 134 blast circulating duct 281 Hot
Heat flow 132,138,139,140,141,142,147, blast stretch duct 282
149,150,151,155,159,160 Hot crushing strength 102, 416
Heat flow density 132, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144, Hot gas 327, 328
146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 153 Hot gas volume 329
Heat flux (flow) 25,132,147,148,150,151,155, 160, Hot gas generator 251
181 Hot gunning 219, 221
Heat flux (flow) calculation 68, 142, 154, 156, Hot property 11, 23
157 Hot wire method 18, 134
Heat flux (flow) count 147,153 Hydrate sleeves 323
Heat insulation 45, 105, 113, 131, 133, 139, 142, Hydration 11, 13, 64, 323, 412, 416
159,160,179,185,187,189,242,289 Heat Hydration process 38
insulation, subsequent 159 Hydraulic setting 22, 31
Heat loss 68, 133, 148, iSO, 155, 159, 160, 235 Hydrogen atmosphere 23
Heat radiation 133, 144, 145 Hydrogen compound 231
Heat storage capacity 25
Heat transmission (transfer) 133, 141, 144, 328 I
Heat transfer (transmission) coefficient 141
Heat transfer (transmission), not connected to a Impact energy 220
substance 133 Impact bending test 234
Heat transfer (transmission) resistance 150 Heat Imperviousness of joints 74
treatment 4, 5, 22, 28, 48, 57, 102, 412, Inclined suspended roof 77, 89, 271
418,419,420 Inclusions 210
Heat treatment furnace 15, 73 Independent decision of construction manager
Heating 1,40,45,48,55, 74,170,174,179, 396
181,198,199,256,313,319,320,321,323, Inductor 318,319,321
328,329,411,412,420 Industrial furnace engineering 43, 269
Heating medium 327 Industrial safety code 383, 394 Industrial
Heating walls in a coke oven battery 246, 252, safety law(s) 383, 385 Industrial water
253 63
Heating-up 1, 7, 30, 75, 131, 133, 160, 170, 185, Industry, petrochemical 34, 274, 404
193,196,202,224,256,285,302,303,304, Inert gas(es) 29, 146, 228
305,312,314,316,320,321,323,325,326, Individual crack(s), visible 326
328,329,415,420 Infiltration 10, 18, 25, 74, 235
Heating-up burner 319 Infiltration resistance 13, 14
Heating-up curve 167, 168, 328 Initial form (mold) 316
Heating-up instructions/regulations 7 Heating-up Initial strength 37
of a crucible induction furnace 321 Heating-up Injection mix(es) 33
period/time 160, 174, 175, 176
Index 435
Interfacial energy 14 Insulating brick 26, 151, 152, 153

Inspection 34, 66, 202, 233,235, 294,327,334, Insulation 111aterials, 111icroporous
338,342,344,346,347,349,351,353,354, 29 Insulation resistance 319
355,358,360,363,367,368,375,376,377, Interface, two-dimensional 172
378,379,380,381,387,394,396,411,415, 419 Interl11ediate bricks 270
Inspection at the construction site 202 Inspection by Internal forces in a crown 193
attributes 346, 348, 349, 350, 351, Internal stress 186, 187, 325
352,354,355,360,362,363,364,366,367 Inspection International standards, comparison of 49, 50
by variables 346, 348, 349, 355, 356,
Investigation obligation 398
357,358,359,360,362,363,367
Invitation to tender 391 t 394
Inspection certificate 339, 340
Iron oxide 6, 15, 23, 413, 416
Inspection costs 355
Irreversible 60, 197, 198, 416, 420
Inspection date 338
Inspection instruction 346 ISO 5019 refractory bricks, dimensions 69
Inspection, intermediate 342, 344, 379 Isostatic 5, 14, 70, 416
Inspection levels 346, 347 Isotherm illustration 174
Inspection list 360, 361 Iteration steps 153
Inspection lot 348, 349, 368, 370
Inspection of dimensional accuracy 354, 368 J
Inspection of incoming 111aterials/refractories Jack(s) 268, 297, 298, 299
334, 342, 376 Jack method 293, 294, 297, 299
Inspection of outer appearance 354, 368 Job(s) 377, 386, 387, 389, 390, 398, 400, 403,
Inspection of samples 363 404
Inspection of the anchors 379
Job site concentration 399
Inspection of the joints 230
Inspection of the weld bead 233 Job site tolerance value (count) 399
Inspection plan(s) 333, 334, 338, 339, 340, 342, Joint gauge 237
346,347,349,353,358,360,362,363,370, 375, Joint material 60, 73, 74, 75, 209, 377
376, 378, 379, Joint, self-cleaning 75
Inspection plan, installation of refractories 339, Joint, staggered 119, 216
342,343,344,346,375,382 Joint, thickness 210, 211, 235, 237, 261
Inspection plan, procurement of materials 339, Jointing materials 5, 25
340,341,346 Joints, special tool for cutting 225
Inspection plan, statistical 370 Joints, types of 71, 74, 119
Inspection plan, welding 344, 345
Inspection, proof of 395 K
Inspection properties (characteristics) Inspection Key brick(s) 108, 261, 263, 268, 278, 296
record 334, 339, 346, 375, 376, 377,
Kieselguhr 22 t 26, 28
379,380,381
Kieselguhr brick 26, 28
Inspection report 338, 344 Kiln furniture 9, 15, 416
Inspection results 355, 378 Kiln rig 204, 293, 300, 301
Inspection sheet(s) 363, 364, 367 Klasse method 134
Inspection symbol 377
KpRE 348
Inspection, visual 327, 344, 346
Installation block 273
Installation clips 227 L
Installation conditions 68 Installation
foam 60, 240 Installation manual 375, Lab collective sample 371
376, 377 Installation of refractories Lamination 223
204, 379 Installation (laying) plan Laser impulse method 134 Law
227, 240 Installation section(s) 245 governing chemicals 404
Installation (service) possibility 68 Layer design 185, 187, 197,227,249,276
Installation site 64, 208, 212, 218, 219, 222, 223, Layer (course) stress 185', 187, 193
244,301,378 Layer temperature(s) 67, 148, 149, 150, 151,
Instructions tor installation/erection 289 1.52, 153, 154, 155, 159
Instructions tor preparation and use of materials Layers, separation of 351, 353
217,224,225,227,342,375,376,377,378, 402 LC castables 221
LCC castable 316
Leaks 269
Legal base 383
Leveling equipment 237
436 Index
Liability 387 Material no. 1.4301 55

Light fireclay 22 Material no. 1 .4828 55
Lime industry 293 Material no. 1 .4841 56
Limiting quality level (bad limit) 348 Material no. 1.4862/1.4864 56
Limit temperature(s) 6, 9, 20, 30, 45, 67, 68, 138, Material, transportation of 204, 208
139,155,159,418,419 Materials and equipment to protect the body 390
Limit value, one-sided 349, 357, 358, 359, 370 Materials, arrival of 339, 378
Line function/responsibility 387, 388 Materials in stock 212
Linear change 20, 35, 37, 198 Matrix 10,14,57,164,169,326,353,417 Matrix
Linear change, irreversible 197 element 163, 164, 168
Linear change, permanent 20, 23, 49, 370, 411, Meal pipes 278
416 Mean value, guaranteed 356, 360, 370, 375
Linear change, reversible 113
Measurements, nominal 377
Linear expansion coefficient 199
Measures if detecting defects 346
Lining of casting spout 312,313
Medical services 389, 390, 393
Lining of cylindrical vessels 127
Melt bath 231
Lining with permanent molds (forms) 313
Melt bead 45
Liquid level 324
Liquid molecules 324 Melt down forms (molds) 301, 313, 317
Liquid, transport of 324 Melting 15, 229, 231, 233, 414, 417, 418
Listing/specification of the lots 346 Melting chamber boiler
List of delivery slips 334 Melting cycle 313
List of performances 201 Melting furnace(s) 10, 43, 151, 187, 191, 235,
List of typical waste 406, 407 Load 301,304,317,319,320,321,331 Melting
and constriction 179 Location for point 11,14,15,414,417,418 Melting
hookups 202 Location of surface 240
equipment 204, 208 Location Melting temperature(s) 11, 15, 414, 417
plans (maps) 201 Melt(s) 6, 10, 16, 18, 25, 28, 43, 55, 60, 69, 228,
Long term behavior 20 229,231,319,320,321,412,413,414,419
Long term shrinkage behavior 21 Membrane pipe walls 283
Lot(s) 346,347,348, 349,351, 353, 354, 355, Meniscus 324, 325, 417
356,358,360,363,367,368,370,371,375 Low Metal matrix 55, 56, 419
voltage unit 319 Metal screen (mesh) 289
Metal steam, formation of 231
M
Methane 23
Magnesia 11, 34, 416 Method, iterative 147
Magnesia brick 11 Magnesia- Micrograph examination 234
chromia bricks 11 Magnesia- Micropores 30
chromite 413 Microporous 417
Magnesia sinter raw materials 11, 14 Mineral fiber 43, 44, 159, 404
Magnesia-spinel bricks 11 Magnesia- Mineral phases 9, 12
zircon bricks 11 Magnesium chloride Mix, plastic 32, 33, 62, 118, 120, 216, 223, 283,
11 326,370,372,411
Magnesium hydroxide 11, 416 Mix, self-Leveling (self-flowing) 218
Main constituent, chemical 355, 370 Mixer(s) 14,32,202,204,216,217,218,219,
Main stress 176, 178 22-1, 222, 285, 303
Making slight indentations at the weld spot 231 Mixing time(s) 217, 219, 303, 377
Martensite 48 Mixes for surface protection 33
Mastic joints 71 Mixing and conveyor unit for refractory castable
Material, heat-insulating 3, 18, 19, 22, 30, 61, 68 220
102,103,104,105,134,209,278,324,331 Mixing equipment 208, 217
Material inspection 411 . Material, microporous Mixing liquid 32, 33, 38, 39, 40, 41, 61, 216, 225,
insulation 29, 30, 155 Material, oxidic 3, 14 226, 377, 402 ..
Material, unshaped (mon91ithic) 189, 216, 243, Mixing nozzle 222 Mixing
245,246,269,274,283,402 records 377 Mixing water
Material, cleverness of 179, ,180, 188 62, 63, 225
Material matrix 326 Modification(s) 5, 6, 71 14, 55, 320, 417, 418, 419
Module(s) 45, 160, 226, 227. 245, 248, 250, 417,
420
Module surface 226
Index 437
Modulus of elasticity 188, 4.17 Obligations and commitments of the employer

Moist felts 45 387
Moisture, influence of 212 Obligations and commitments of the builder 391
Mold(s) 5, 16, 18, 70, 118, 212, 213, 214, 215, Obligations and commitments, transfer of 387, 388
216,218,221,223,224,260,261,265,266, Obligation to make land or premises safe for
267,268,278,279,301,302,304,305,307, persons or vehicles 391
308,310,311,312,313,316,317,319,321, Occupational illness 387
342,372,373,377,416 • Occupational safety 387, 388, 389, 390, 391,
Mold boards 212 396, 398
Mold cost share 70 Occupational safety and health protection
Mold, oil for 214 coordinator 391
Mold, skin of 212, 216 Occupational safety law 383
Mold supports 213 Offer202,391,392,393 Oiled
Mold, wax for 214 Moler paper 75
earth 22, 28 Monlent Operating curve characteristic 348
twisting 194 Operation conditions, not stable 20
Monolithic(s) 3,4, 5,30,32,33,34,35,36,37,
Operation data of the furnace (plant) 67
39,64,69,113,119,155,156,189,197,204,
Operation pressures 68
209,211,212,216,240,243,245,246,247,
Operation temperature(s) 67,68,74, 132, 148,
269,274,276,283,324,342,347,367,368,
226,303,320,321,419
369,377,378,402,412,417,419,420,421
Operator test 233
Mortar bridges (pieces) 211
Order calculation 202
Mortar, high content of alkali oxide 25
Order confirmation 201, 410
Mortar joints 25
Order letter 394
Mortaring 33
Order documents 201
Mother mold 70
Organization chart showing the organization at
Muffle furnace 15
the construction site 391
Mullite 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 15, 45, 414 Mullite/corundum,
Organization of occupational safety 386,387
insulating refractory brick 18,
Outlet (discharge) spout 320
25
Outside insulation 160
Mullite-zircon brick 14 Multi-component
Outside vibration equipment 301
adhesive (glue) 299 Multiple crack 326
Owner of refuse 405
Multi-tier oven 255, 266, 268
Multiple determination 375 Oxidation 11, 16, 53, 416
Oxidation resistance 13, 15
N
p
Natural gas 327
NCC 38 Packaged unit (item) 64, 368
Neck of a glass tank 261 Nephelometric Packaged single sample 348, 349
agents (opacifiers) 30 Net generator Packaging 64, 65, 66, 211, 212, 237, 301, 339,
171 402,410
Nickel 53, 55, 56 Packaging materials 37,66,202,208,408,409
Nickel base alloy 49 Paddle mixer 32, 216, 217, 218, 221, 222, 285,
Nitride bond 15 303
Node coordinates 171 Non- Paddle mixer, vertical 218
conformity report 339 Pallet dimensions 65 Pallet,
Nonferrous metals 16, 235 lost 64
Normal distribution curve (also refer to Gaussian) Pallet, no return 64
348 Pallet pool 64
Normal force 183, 193, 195 Panel 372
Notch-bend test 234 Paper 45, 64, 75,240,268,301,303,416,417
Notch joints 119 Paraffin 61
Notch stress 294 Partial pressure 146, 414, 420
Nozzle 14, 32, 220, 222, 223, 281, 285, 411 Partial repairs 293
Patching material 118, 283, 285
O Patch mix 316, 317
Patch repair 286, 289
Obligations and commitments of the employees
Periclase 11, 416"
387,388,390
438 Index
Peripheral condition(s) 131, 147, 148, 151, 154, Pressure resultant (vector) 189, 190
155,158,162,165,168,169,171,181,228, 329,414 Prevention of the outbreak of fire 43
Peripheral value (count) problem 171 Primers 230
Perlite 22, 26, 48, 216 Process conditions 9, 113, 131, 134, 141
Perlite brick 26 Procurement 333, 339, 341, 342, 375, 378, 394
Permanent lining 33, 304, 307 Producer of refuse 405
Permits for hot work 395 Personnel Producer's risk 349, 356
(HR) management 392 Product, basic 34
Person responsible for preparing preliminary Product, carbon-containing 10, 13, 34
project drawing 391 Product, fused cast 5, 16, 18
Phosphate 28 Product, out of ceramic fiber 5
Phosphate bond 10, 31 Product(s), unshaped (monolithics) 4, 5, 3D, 33,
Phosphates, no presence of 23 34,35,36,37,39,64,69,113,155,156,197,
Phosphoric acid 22 204,209,211,212,342,347,367,368,369,
Piece (item) list 201, 340, 376 377,378,412,417,419,420,421
Pilot current 228 Production code 378 Production
Pipeline with lining out of refractory castable inspection 377, 379 Properties of
282,285,286 the materials 68
Pipe shaped plates 283, 287, 288 Property data 10, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 70
Pipe wall 120, 123, 172, 283, 285, 287, 288, 289 Pipe Props 213, 266, 268, 278, 295, 299
wall with patching mixes 284 Protection gear, personal 389 Protection
Piping 60, 230, 278, 283 obligation, general 398
Pitch 10, 13, 58 Protective coating(s) 283, 285, 376, 402, 412
Pitch bond 10, 11, 13 Protective furnace gas (controlled atmosphere)
Placing in forms (molds) and division 212 231
Planned construction site 392 Protective gear 230, 399, 400 Protective
Plastic foil(s) 61, 62, 224, 225 measures 399, 402, 403, 404
Plasticity 223 Pseudowollastonite 7
Plateau bottom 242 Pyrometers 132
Plate method 134 Pyrometric cone equivalent 3, 6, 418
Plate, vacuum-shaped 45
Pneumatic (compressed air) hammer 223
Q
Pneumatic (compressed air) vibrator 310, 316
Poking 4,31,217,218,224,326,372 Population 5, Qualification of personnel 204, 377
346, 347, 349, 367 Polyethylene foil 64, 66 Quality assurance 1, 230, 232, 224, 347, 375,
Pore formation 22, 102,230,231 385
Pore size distribution 39 Quality assurance of the installation work 375
Porosity 5, 15, 16, 18, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 30, 41, Quality control 23
134,136,355,356,363,415,418 Quality management 333, 334, 335 Quality
Positioning method 231 management system 333, 385 Quality plan
Pot life (time) 225, 299, 377, 418 335, 336, 337, 338 Quartz 5, 8, 59, 60
Pouring height 223, 305, 308 Quartz coarse sand 43, 59
Pouring mix 235 Quartz transformation 320
PRE 34, 348, 353, 375 Quartz transition 59 Quartzite
Pre-fabricated part(s) 4, 30 6, 302, 320
Pre-firing temperature 134 Quartzite dry mix 301,303, 317, 320, 321
Preliminary inspection 375, 376, 379 Preliminary Qual1zjte modification 320
inspection of construction part 376 Preliminary Quartzite ramming mix 320
performances 208
Pressing, isostatic 5, 70, 416
R
Pressure casing 199
Pressure casing (shell) temperature 199 Radial cracks 193
Pressure casting (pouring) furnace 318 Radiation coefficient 68, 144, 145
Pressure drop 325 Radiation energy 144
Pressure, excess 327 Radiation exchange ·142
Pressure load(s) (stress) 23, 26, 179, 256, 413 Radiation exposure 119
Pressure on brick edge 235, 294 Radiation of technical surfaces 145, 146
Radiation therrnolneter 132
Index 439
Radiographic test 234 323,325,326,328,331,344,375,379,417, 420

Ramming 4, 14, 31, 32, 33, 118, 223, 237, 301, Refractory mastic(s) 73, 74, 75, 102 Refractory
304, 305 mortar(s) 33, 73, 74, 75, 268,370,
Ramming form (mold) 308, 311 375,413,415,421
Ramming mix 5, 3D, 31, 32, 33, 215, 223, 224, Refuse incinerators 1, 10, 15, 283, 330, 331
225,226,240,301,313,320,370,372 Refuse register 405, 406, 407, 410
Ramming tool foot/feet 309 Refuse type list 410
Random sample principle 371 Regular castable 31
Random (sample) rule 354, 358 Regulations for foreign construction site 202
Raw material component, main 35 Regulations governing transportation of
Ra\i\' materials, non-oxidic 3, 14 !lazardous material/substances 404
Reaction 4, 5, 31, 32, 53, 55, 303, 385, 412, 413, Reinforcement 14, 183, 185, 193, 419
414,416,419 Reinforcement fiber(s) 28
Readiness of equipment 342, 376 Rejection number (count) 355, 360, 363, 367
Readiness of scaffolds 342, 376 Rejection rule 258
Rear brickwork (lining) 58 Relative elevation 208
Rear insulation 26
Relaxation 326, 419
Rear lining 256, 257, 293, 304, 306, 314, 315,
317.318 Removal of forms (molds) 224, 266, 302
Rear, ramming over 237 Removing slag 320, 321
Rebound 220, 223, 285, 372 Renewed operation 323
Reconstruction (remodeling) work 402 Repair mix 31,306,314,315
Rectifier 228 Requirements of end customer 201
Recycling assistance guidelines 405 Rescue routes 202
Recycling laws 404 Reserve sample(s) 367, 378, 379
Reduction appearances 23 Residual moisture 212,323
Reduction furnaces 15, 74 Reference Residual quartz 7, 355
measuring locations 328 Reformer Residual stress (tension) 325
bottom 77, 91 Resilience 45, 47, 60
Refractoriness 3, 6, 9, 15, 22, 30, 179, 187, 243, Resin bond (resin-bonded materials) 10, 11, 13
416,418 Resistance thermometers 132
Refractoriness under load 9, 23, 256, 418, 419 Responsibilities and authority 396, 397
Refractoriness under load (differential) 6, 418, Reversible 60, 197 416, 420
J
419 Riffle sampler 371

Refractory brick, insulating 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, Ring bond 77, 85, 279, 301
26,28,45,102,105,106,107,109,110,111, 139, Ring brickwork 293, 294
155,209,226,244,272,273,274,293, 412 Ring joint(s) 73, 74, 75
Refractory brick, insulating and with high share of Rise (of arch) 80, 189, 192, 246, 255, 256, 260,
marmite 25 266,325
Refractory brick, insulating (roof or suspended roof Rise measurement 260
out of this brick grade) 106, 107, 273, 274 Riser (ascension) pipe lining 15
Refractory castable(s) 4, 35, 36, 37, 38,39, 40, Rolling mill furnaces 235
41,48,61,62,120,122,139,151,152,153, Roof anchoring 71, 104
175,176,188,198,202,204,213,214,215, Roof design out of ceramic fiber materials 277
216,217,218,219,220,222,223,224,225, Roof beams 269, 270
226,237,240,266,278,282,283,285,286, Roof form (mold) 216
289,290,295,304,324,326,370,372,375, 377, Roof to wall connection 110
378,402,412,420 Room temperature 14,31, 32, 33,37, 411, 413,
Refractory castables, chemically-bonded 32 419,421
Refractory castables, deflocculated 31, 32, 38, Rotary hearth furnaces 242
39,41 Rotary kiln(s) 11, 13, 75, 211, 293, 294, 299, 301
Refractory castables, heat-insulating 38 Refractory Rotation model 172
castables, insulating and dense 215 Refractory Rotor gunning machines 218
lining(s) 1, 26, 29, 3D, 37, 48, 55, 57, Round bar (steel) 56, 57, 274
60,61,68,69,131,148,151,155,159,170, Round bar (steel) anchors 56, 57 283
179,181,184,185,188,199,201,202,209, Round ramming tool 308, 314
211,217,221,226,228,235,242,243,253, Round stud with twist clips 130
278,283,294,301,304,313,319,320,321, Rowlock course(s) 77
Rust deposit 376
440 Index
S Separation joint(s) 61, 73, 74, 75

Separation toughness 346 Series
Safety certificate contractors 386
number 376, 378, 379
Safety coordinator 394
Service (application) limit 28, 3D, 45, 419
Safety data sheet(s) 202, 394, 400, 401, 402
Service limit, mechanical 68
Safety equipment 391,392
Service limit temperature 6, 9, 20, 45, 68, 138,
Safety expert (engineer) 387, 388, 389, 390, 392,
139,155,159,418,419
393,396,398 Safety
Service limit, thermal 68
inspections 398 Safety
Service (application) range 411, 419
lining 317
Service (application) temperature 25,26,47,
Safety management 384,385,386
412,418
Safety markings for asbestos 403
Setting cars 237
Safety regulations 204, 385, 396,398
Setting process 37, 216
Safety representative 389, 390
Setting test 225
Safety training 394
Setting time 41, 212, 225
Salt melts 55
Shape, pressed 70
Sample(s) 3, 30, 34,49,53,342, 346, 347, 348,
Shaped body 15
349,351,353,354,355,358,360,363,367,
Shaped brick(s) 23, 69, 70, 73, 78, 100, 102,
370,371,372,374,375,378,379
260,268,270,342,353,354,415
Sample, elements of 346 Shaped bricks in a flat roof 353
Sample inspection plan 346 Shaped part, vacuum-shaped 45
Sample location 378 Sample Shaping methods 70
shovel 370 Shaping, plastic 9, 70
Sample size 346,349,351,354,355,358,360, Share of defective/bad items, permissible 351
363,367,370 Shearing stress 326
Sampling 34, 338, 342,347,348,349, 350,351, Shelf life 208, 212
352,353,354,355,356,357,358,359,360, Shell (casing) brickwork 268
362,363,364,366,367,368,369,370,371, Shipment 65, 66, 342
378,379,381 Shipment, overseas 66
Sampling equipment 370 Shotcrete method 222
Sampling instruction(s) 347, 360, 367 Sampling Shotcrete mix 214 Shotcrete
plan(s) 338, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, nozzle 222
352,354,355,356,357,359,360,362,363, Shotcreting 31, 32, 38, 39, 221, 223
364,366,367,368,370 Shots 45, 47
Sampling, record of 381 Shrink film 211
Sampling records 379 Shrinkage 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 41, 45, 68, 113,
Sampling, unshaped refractory products 198,304,320,326,411,414,418,420,421
(monolithics) 367, 369 Shrinkage cavities 290
Sand-lime brick 58, 412 Shrinkage crack 320
Sand mold 16 Shrinkage joint 227
Saturated steam pressure 324, 325 Scaffold(s) Shrinkage space 225
204, 208, 235, 245, 268, 274, 294, SiC caps 283, 284
342,376,386,392,393,395 SiC, hot-pressed 16
Scale layer 230 SiC rarnming mix 33
Scaling 53 SiC, self-bonded 15
Scaling resistance 55 SiC tubes 284
SCC 386 Side arch brick 77, 80, 102, 263
SCC certificate 392,394 SCC Side displacement (shifting) 189
questionnaire 386, 387 Sigma phase embrittlement 55, 56
Sealing materials 270 Signs indicating limit number of persons to be
Secondary line 319, transported 395
Section mold (forrn) 118 Sieve analysis 370
Segmental arch, raised 255, 256, 257 Silica 199, 414,418, 419
Segmental arch roof (crown) 255, 256, 257 Silica brick 6, 7, 74, 75, 246, 355
Selection criteria 46, 55, 56, 68, 102 Self- Silica, colloidal 45
flowing (self-Ieveling) 31, 38, 217 Silica crown 256
Semicircular crown 255 Silic~ insulating refractory brick 25, 26
Semi-dry pressing 9, 28 Silica mortar 74
Separating agent 313 Silicic acid 28
Index 441
Silicic acid, amorphous 30 Specific form (mold) for ramming work 307, 317
Silicic acid, pyrogenic 31 Silicon Specification 10, 133, 147, 339, 344, 346
carbide 15, 16, 34, 411 Silicon Specifications 34, 62, 113, 210, 344, 351, 353,
carbide brick 15 Silicon carbide 355,356,378
product 16 Silicon dioxide 15, Specimen (also refer to sample) 20, 34, 45, 175,
412, 417 Silicon nitride 15, 34 176,177,178,198,370,415,418
Sillinlanite 9 Spindle jacks, supported 268 Spinning
Sinlilitude theory 143 solution 43, 45
Simple support/propping 293, 295 Single Splitting cross 371
sample 347, 348, 349, 370, 371 Spot welding 227
Single sampling plan(s) 350, 351, 352, 356, 357 Spread angle 57
359 Spring constant 179, 188, 190
Sintered alumina 39, 198 Sprinkler part 220
Sintered bauxite 9 Stability condition 164 Stabilized
Sintering 14, 16, 26, 3D, 31, 73, 301, 302, 305, power regulation 232 Staff
312,316,317,319,320,412,413,418,419 function responsibility 388 Stairs
Sintering agents 7, 33, 301, 302, 303, 304, 320
261
Sintering agents, early 302,317,321
Standard deviation 356,357,358,359,360,370
Sintering behavior 11
Standard (standardized) shapes 23, 69, 70, 77,
Sintering charge 302, 320, 321
79,80,86,87,92,102,270,274,293,354
Sintering form (mold) 304, 308
Standard shapes for fireclay bricks 69
Sintering temperature 320, 321
Start block of material 320
SiSiC composite material 15
Start of work on construction site 208
Size, excessive 23
Skewback brick 78, 100, 223, 255, 256, 258, State, polycrystalline 45
259, 260, 266, 268 Stays 213,237, 266,268,278,295,299
Skewback ring 266 Steam bubbles 325
Skewbacks (abutments) 77, 100, 223, 255, 256, Steam buildup 325
258,259,260,266,268 Steam condensation 325
Slabs, fused-cast 240 Slag Steam diffusion 323,324
attack 58, 293 Steam flow 323, 324
Slag coating 293 Steam hole(s) 224,225, 305,326
Slag resistance 13 Steam phase 323
Slag zone 14 Steam pressure 324, 325, 326, 328, 401, 420
Slagging behavior 11 Steam stress (tensions) 303, 326, 420
Slag(s) 3, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 25, 43, 60, 69, 74, Steam, unsaturated 324
221,283,286,293,299,316,317,319,320, Steel 48
321,413,419 Steel code 49
Sliding benches in pusher-type furnaces 245 Steel construction 70, 113, 118, 185, 193, 202,
Sliding center 278, 279 244,266,269,272,342,376,379 Steel
Sliding joint(s) 62, 73, 75, 211 form (mold) 16, 307, 313
Sliding joint material 75 Steel iron list 49
Slip casting 9, 14, 419 Steel iron material sheet 34,49,353
Slit stud 57, 283 Steelladle(s) 10, 13, 14, 33
Slug conveyance 218,219 Smoothing Steel model 224
(equalization) joint(s) 74 Steel pipe jack 298
Smoothing (equalization) layer out of refractory Steel rods, heat-resistant 272
castable 237 Steel shims 294
Softening behavior 26, 418, 419 Steel, tension in 188
Softening range 25 Steel treatment vessel 14
Sol gel process 43,419 Stefan-Bolzmann-Law 144
Solid body radiation 146 Stiffness 180, 192, 285
Solid substance 419, 420 Solution Stomach side 261
heat treatment 57, 419 Sound 2, Storage 64, 66, 68, 204, 211, 212, 225~ 342,
235, 351,353, 367 Sound test 419 376,400
Spade ramming tool 305,307,308,316 Spalling Storage administration 208
25, 74, 181, 185, 193, 210, 269, 294, Storage area 66, 211 , 393
314,320,326,420 Storage capacity 204
Storage conditions 202
Storage facility 204, 211", 363, 376, 378
442 Index
Storage heat 25. 41, 132, 133, 147, 153, 155, Suspended roof out of ceramic fiber 274
159,160 Suspended roof out of insulating refractory
Storage plan 66, 204 bricks 106, 107,272,273,274
Storage requirements 66 Suspended roof out of plastic mix 275 Suspended
Strength hole 41 Strength roof out of standard shapes EO 77, 86
test 376 Suspended roof out of standard shapes HO 77, 87
Stress by steam pressure 326 Suspended roof out of unshaped refractory
Stress calculation 131, 174, 175 materials (monolithics) 269, 274, 275
Stress distribution 325 Suspended roof, suspension 271
Stress in the wall 326 Suspended roof with arch 271
Stress (load) analysis 393 Suspension clip 272, 273, 274
Stretch metal 227 Suspension part(s) 212, 213, 270, 272
Stretcher bond 77, 263 Suspension parts, heat-resistant 272
Stretcher course(s) 77 Synthetic resin mastic 60
Strip annealing unit 251 System matrix 166
Structural elasticity 10, 11
Structure (texture) 367 T
Structure (texture), type of 48 Structure
(structural), condition of 48 Structure Tape measure, calibrated 367
(texture) damage 23 Structure (texture) Taper 102, 261, 354
defects 353, 419 Structure (texture), Taphole mix 33
evaluation of 354 Structure (texture) Technical consultation services of the
separation 353 Strut device 311 construction employers' liability insurance
Stud holder 229, 231 association 389
Stud welding 228, 229, 230, 231, 234, 283, 344 Technical guide concentration 399
Stud welding equipment 57, 226 Technical expert from the employers' liability
Stud welding joints 230, 232, 233, 234 insurance association 389
Stud-welding setup 57 Technical rules for combustible liquids 394
Stud welding with tip ignition 228, 229 Studs 33, Technical rules for hazardous
130, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, substances/materials 403,404 Technical
234,250,283,284,285,286,289 services 396
Styropor 213 Temperature, dependent on 19,47,53,147,187,
Subcontractor 228,338,344,379, 392, 394, 194,324,420
395, 396 Temperature condition (state), non-stationary
Subsequent treatment (finishing) 4, 38, 224 1 79, 181, 183
Suction equipment 208 Temperature conductivity coefficient 167
Sulfur 53, 56 Temperature curve 169, 170, 181, 185, 328, 420
Sulfuric acid 55, 58, 63 Temperature gradient 139, 140, 149, 160, 161,
Sulfur attack 55 323,324,325,328,420
Sulfur compound 53, 55 Temperature recorder 329
Supervision of work 233, 344 Temperature regulation 328
Support console 259 Temperature stress 179, 185
Support foil 313 Temperature the furnace is designed to operate
Support form (mold) 31 at 148
Support ring 266 Tempering 11, 412
Supporting columns 208 Tempering bed 16
Surface protection 33, 58, 208 Tensile strength 47, 53, 179, 183, 190, 326, 41 9
Surface water 63 Tensile stress 53, 176, 181, 183, 184, 185, 190,
Surrounding (ambient) temperature 7, 68, 132, 199,326,328
133,147,151,171,181,198,199,211,224, Tensile test 233, 234
225,226,299 Test report 340
Supply equipment (systems) 208 Test report (inspection) certificates 340
Supply lines 222, 327, 376 Test/inspection conducted by the manufacturer
Suspended brick (brickwork) 295, 354, 360,363 342, 363
Suspended roof 172,202, 224, 269,270, 271, Test/inspection plan for construction consonant to
272,273,274,275,370 Suspended be installed as part of
roof, design 272 Suspended roof for installation of refractory materials 343
tunnel kiln 77, 88
Index 443
Tests/inspections, non-destructive 233, 349 Triggering level 399

Tests/inspections of propel1ies connected to Tropical areas 225
refractory materials 339 Tuckstone (brick) 265
Test standards, for dense l11aterials 23 Tuyere bottom 120, 126
Test with torque wrench 234 Two component material 216
Thermal color 132
Thermal conductivity 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21 , U
22.23,25,28,29,30,41,47,133,134,135,
ULC castable 221
136,137,138,139,146,151,152,153,155,
ULCC 31, 37, 38
161,181,237,418
Unevenness in the casing bottom 236
Thermal conductivity, coefficient of 133, 137,
Unevenness in the steel construction 244
141,146,147,152,153,156,161,165,174
Thermal conductivity of gas 136
V
Thermal diffusivity 162
Thermal expansion of additives 59 Vacuum suction (lifting) device 237, 240, 241
Thermal expansion, reversible 8, 23, 419 Thermal Vacuum treatment 11
resistance 139, 141, 146, 149, 150, 152, Vander Walls forces 420
153, 228, Vapors, alkaline 25
Thermal shock 3, 25, 29, 67, 68, 155, 235, 316, Variation coefficient 370
420 VDE guidelines and standards 394
Thermal shock resistance 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, Veneering 38, 45, 160, 226, 420
18,19,23,28,29,41,199,242,246,316,412 Thermal Verification, static 179
stress 58, 148, 170, 174, 176, 183, 230, Vermiculite 22, 27, 28, 216
255,325,413 Vibrating plate 310
Thermocouples 132,320,327, 328, 329, 331 Vibrating rammer (ramming tool) 308 Vibration(s)
Thickness of joint, given (nominal) 210 5, 23, 30, 31, 33, 38, 39, 70, 212,
Threaded bolt 231 230, 242, 393
Threaded rods 213, 214 Vibration method/work 32,312
Three-link supports 297, 298 Vibration pressing 14
Three-phase generator 232 Vibration procedure 311
Tile(s) 58, 61, 62 Vibration rammer (ramming equipment) 301
Time required to install forms (molds) 31 Vibration ramming 301
Time required to make molds 70 Vibration time 310, 311
Time schedule(s) 201 Vibrator(s) 37, 38, 217, 310, 316
Tip ignition 228, 229, 234 Vibrator, internal 38,217,219
Tobermorite 28 Vibrator, outside 37, 38, 217, 220, 301
Tolerance (s) 10, 56, 70, 73, 209, 210, 231, 237, Viscosity 325
294, 342, 377, 378 Voltage, decrease (drop) 232
Tolerance limit 56, 358 Volatilization 23, 323, 325
Tolerance range 414
Tolerance value 399 W
Tongue and groove 70, 74, 102, 280
Toolbox meetings 396 Wall(s) 243, 244, 245
Tools 16, 28, 70, 201, 202, 204, 209, 212, 226, Wall anchoring 71, 72, 103
305,308,319,372,387,388,389,403,404, 415 Wall, cylindrical 140, 143, 150, 155, 157, 166
Tooth bond 77, 85, 278, 280 Wall designs, lightweight walls 159
Top fonn (mold) 216 Wall designs, multi-layer 25, 138, 148, 150 Wall
Total thermal resistance 139, 146, 149, 153 form (mold) for refractory castables 213,
Total (true) porosity 18, 23, 3D, 415 214,215
Traceability 376, 378 Wall of a pellet unit 248
Trade inspection office 403 Wall lining 47, 245, 283, 285, 287, 312
Wall repair 315
Training of safety representatives 389
Trammel 237 Wall, self-supporting 244, 245, 246
Transformation degree 7 Wall supports 106
Wall vibrating machine 311, 312
Translator 394, 396
Wall with hung in consoles for support 244
Transport forms (molds) 127
Wallpapering 226, 420
Transport ladles 33, 221, 319
Warm gunning 221
Tridymite 5, 7
Warpage 188, 212,269
444 Index
Waste (refuse) generation principle 405 Work execution drawings 201

Water, addition of 37, 416 Work inspection(s) 233, 344
Water from other sources 225 Work item(s) 202
Water glass 28, 60, 421 Work planning/scheduling (also refer to work
Water glass bond 22, 58 schedule) 393
Water hardness, degree of 63 Work platform 208, 301
Water repellent finishing 3D, 421 Work procedure for the gluing method 299
Water ring 218 Work progress journal 233
Wear layer 33 Work record 202, 203, 204
Wear lining 304, 306, 314, 315, 317,318 Work schedule 202, 204, 205,
Wear protection 289 Work sequence 214, 215,216
Weather conditions 38, 66, 204, 211, 230, 377 Work surroundings 390
Weather, protective measures 202 Work time 390
Weld beads with a low amount of pores 231 Working in contaminated areas 404, 405 Working
Weld joint 228, 230 joint(s) 45, 73, 118, 119, 217, 225, 240 Working
Welding current intensity 232 lining 304
Welding gun 229, 230, 231 Works Constitution Act 390 Works
Welding operations as test 230 Council 387, 389, 390, 402
Welding performance 228
Welding pictures, typical 233 Welding X
position (location) 228,230 Welding
procedure specification 344 Welding X-ray diffraction analysis 7
process test 233
Welding work 55, 228, 230, 231, 232, 233, 344, y
346
Welding workers (welders) 230, 233, 234 V-anchors 237
Welding time 228, 229, 233
Wet process 218 Z
Wettability 10, 15
Winter conditions 225,226 Zinc 16, 230 Z-
Wire nails 227 joint 214 Zircon
Wood model 224 11, 14,30
Wool, loose 61, 129 Zirconia 11, 14, 18, 26, 34
Zircon silicate 14, 34, 43
Work cycle 390

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Refractory

2nd revised and updated edition

2. MATERIALS IN REFRACTORY ENGINEERING .............................................................. 4

2. Materials in Refractory Engineering

2.2 Shaped Dens Materials

Table 2.2.4: Mineral phases in basic refractory products

2.3 Shaped Heat-Insulating Materials

2.3.2 Insulating Refractory and Insulating Bricks'

2.3.3.1 Plates and Shaped Parts out of Vermiculite

2.3.3.2 Plates and Shaped Parts out of Calcium Silicate

2.4 Unshaped Refractory Materials (Monolithics)

Table 2.4.1: Deflocculated castables

2.4.2.1.3 Chemically Bonded Refractory Castables

2.4.3 Classification of Additives According to Chemical Composition

Table 2.4.5: Comparison between conventional gunning and shotcreting

Pressure Gunning Shotcreting

injection of "mixing liquid" double piston pump, transport to the nozzle

hitting the application/service location injection of compressed air and solidification

accelerator at the nozzle

"normal" solidification behavior solidification at the application/service location

2.5 Ceramic Fiber Materials

form of delivery typical applications at temperatures between 1,000 °C and

1,800 °C for high temperature furnace engineering

lining of high temperature furnaces up to approx. 1,100 DC;

casting siphons, stoppers, transport crucibles, furnace parts, half

paper sealing material for high temperature applications, protection during

welding work, filters

fiber foam, pressed fibers filling of joints, repair of cracks

Fig. 2.5.1: Temperature ranges for application of inorganic mineral fibers

Table 2.5.3: Continued

standard designation type' description

2.6.3 Characteristic Properties

Table 2.6.7: Comparison of diameter tolerances

2.7 Surface Protection

2.8 Other Materials

2.8.1 Wall Tiles and Sand-Lime Bricks

2.8.2 Concretes with Calcium-Silicate Cements

Table 2.8.1: Expansion and burnout materials

material application examples

hard foam expansion joints in cold and hot layers

2.8.5 Filler Materials

Table 2.8.2: Materials for separation joints and application examples

material application examples

Table 2.8.4: Hardness range of drinking water

hardness range and water classification depending on water hardness

hardness total hardness hardness degree hardness

2.9 Packaging, Transport and Storage of Refractory Materials

H.-J. Grass, H. Schnitzer

Headauarters Niirnbera Branch Berlin

3.2.2 Selection Criteria for Refractory and Heat-Insulating Materials

- State of the charge to be heated

3.2.3 Regulations and Conditions on Site

3.3 Design with Shaped Dense Materials

3.3.2 Standard Shapes

3.3.3 Shaped Bricks

3.3.4 Anchoring with Holding (Anchor) Bricks

2. according to arrangement in the construction part - bed joints

Fig. 3.4: Types of joints ,