Economic Geology

Vol. 66, 1971, pp. 1028-1041

Geologic,Mineralogicand Fluid InclusionStudiesRelating

to the Origin of Copper-bearingTourmaline
BrecciaPipes, Chile
R. H. SILLITOEAND F. J. SAWKINS

Abstract

In northandcentralChile,groupscontaining
fromtwo to overonehundredbreccia
pipesare locatedin a 2,000 kin-long, north-south-trendingbelt. In the large majority of
casesthe pipescut small,granitic, epizonalplutonsof early Tertiary age, but somewere
eraplacedin adjacentandesiticvolcanics. Individual pipes,which are circular to elliptical
in plan, range from as little as 3 m to 1,200 m in diameter. The steeplydipping to
vertical pipes contain angular to sub-rounded,and in somecasestabular, fragmentsof
host rock, and are bounded along their margins by zones of well-developedvertical
sheeting. The pipesappearto passupwardsinto bodiesof hydrothermallyalteredrock
surroundedby sheetedcontacts. Small bodiesof fine-grainedporphyritic felsic rock
were intrudedwith closespatialand temporalrelation to the brecciation.
The hydrothermalmineralizationof the pipesmay be dividedinto an early replacement
'•tage,followed
by open-space
filling.Fragment
replacement
produced
aggregates
of
quartz-sericite,
togetherwith intensesilicification
andtourmalinization.The fillingstage
resultedin tourmaline,accompanied by specularite,and followedprincipallyby quartz,
scheelite,chalcopyrite,pyrite, molybdenite,galena, and finally rare anhydrite, barite
and carbonates.
Studiesof primaryand pseudo-secondary
fluid inclusionsin quartz crystalsindicate
thatquartzdeposition
occurred
overthetemperature
rangeof approximately
440-350
øC.
Certain inclusionsalso indicate that both high and low density fluids were present at
timesduringquartzprecipitation,
and that strongsalinityvariationsoccurred(2.9 to
36equivwt % NaC1). Someof theinclusions studied
containcomplex daughter
mineral
assemblagesincludingcubesof sodiumchlorideandseveralbirefringentmineralphases.
Fluidinclusion,
mineralogic
andstratigraphic
evidenceindicatethatpipegenesis
occurred
at depths
of approximately
2-3 km belowthethen-existing surface.
The pipesare interpreted
as post-magmatichydrothermal collapsebreccias,
formed
as a resultof the removalof rock by the corrosiveactionof hydrothermalfluids, in a
manneranalogous'to the "mineralization
stoping"
mechanismof Locke(1926). The
continuingupwardpassage of suchfluidsthrough
theseuncementedcolumnsof breccia
resulted
in thedevelopmentof thereplacementandopen-space
fillingstages
of mineral-
ization. In someinstances,
furtherfragmentation
appearsto haveoccurredin situ at
thisstage
duetotheactionof chemical
brecciation
(Sawkins,1969).
Thegeologic,
mineralogicandfluidinclusion
datasupport a closegenetic
relationship
betweenthebreccia
pipesandthelatterstagesof theearliestTertiarymagmaticcycle
in Chile.

Introduction This studyincludes groupsof tourmaline

breccia
pipesin the Lluta, Yabricoya,SierraGorda,Cen-
NEAR-VERTICAL columnsof brecciacementedby tour- tinela, San Pedro de Cachiyuyo,Cachiyuyode
maline,quartzandsulfides, occuralonga north-southLlampos,Los Azules, Cabezade Vaca-Zapallar,
belt extendingfor approximately 2,000 km through Chacritas,Lana, Llamuco, Disputada,Rosario de
north and centralChile (Fig. 1). RengoandE1 Chivatominingdistricts(Fig. 1). A
This paperdescribes the brecciapipesin some largenumberof thesepipeshavebeenprospected or
detail in view of their wide distribution in Chile and workedon a relativelysmall scalefor copper,gold
the additionaloccurrenceselsewhere. The study was or tungsten. Currently,the largestoperations are
undertakenbecausethis classof depositis closely centeredon the San Pedro de Cachiyuyogroup of
associated
in time and spacewith felsicmagmatism pipes,where5-600 tonsof 2% copperore per day
andprovides to extendourknowledgeare producedfrom a seriesof smallopenpits, and
anopportunity
of post-magmatic
mineralization. the Los Bronces(Disputada)pipe,with a dailyout-
1028
 GEOLOGIC, MINERALOGIC AND FLUID INCLUSION STUDIES 1029

consideration
of the distributionof the brecciapipes,
describedhere,within this belt showsthat manyof
themare locatedto thewestof theprincipalporphyry
copper deposits(Fig. 1).
With few exceptions,
the brecciapipesoccurwithin
epizonalintrusions,whichare themselvesalignedin
a north-southbelt. These intrusionsare mainly
granodioritic,but somehave the composition of
quartz monzonite,and many are characterized by
subordinate
earlydioriticandlater,morefelsic(and
in many casesporphyritic)phases(e.g., San Pedro
de Cachiyuyo;Fig. 2). The intrusionscommonly
cross-cutCretaceous-early Tertiary, and in a few
casesJurassic,continentalvolcanicformations,which

i i i
KILOMETEIJ'•--"

0 ORO•pSOF rOURIq4LINE
MECCIA plpœ5

ß I•ORRHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS

FiG. 1. Locationmapof the tourmaline

brecciapipegroups
of Chile. Major porphyrycopperdeposits
arealsoshown.

putof 7,000tonsof 15½

copper
(Anc•n,
1969).A
brief summaryof the salientfeaturesof the Chilean Meta-andesite
volconics
(Cen-illos
Formation?-Middle-Upper
tourmaline breccia
pipeshasbeenpresented
by Ruiz Diorite.
et al. (1965),andshortdescriptions
of the Lluta
(Salaset al., 1966),Cabeza
deVaca(Parker,Salas Gronodiorit•.

and Perez,1963),Yabricoya(Thomas,1967),E1 MicmGrmite(•d olMite.

Chivato(Geier,1933)andLlamuco (McAllisterand
Ruiz, 1948) pipe-groupshavealsobeenpublished.
The LosBronces(Disputada)deposit hasbeende-
scribed in moredetailby Magliola-Mundet
(1964) OrawMandaluvium(Litter Tertiary-QuaWTmry).
and Alfaro. (1970).
TOUF•tA/INE BrcCCIA PIPES.
Fragmems
h•h« repkx•l by tourrm•ne.
Geologic Environment Fragments
alteredto quartz-sericite•or mr•'•<•-•

The beltof tourmaline

breccia
pipe-groups(Fig.
1) parallels
the longitudinal
distribution
of open Vein

folds,highanglefaults,volcanic
and sedimentary
rockunits,andelongateigneousintrusions
in Chile. Occun-enM
of disseminated
coppermimralizatio•.

Previously,
the tourmalinebrecciapipeswerecon- Strike
andd• o•roeanal.
sideredan integralpart of a well-defined
belt of
porphyrycopperdeposits
in Chile (Ruiz andErick- Fro. 2. Geological
map of the San Pedrode Cachiyuyo
sen,1.962;Ruiz.et al., 1965). However,further tourmaline breccia pipe-group. "
1050 R. H. SILLITOE AND F. ]. SAWKINS

contain intercalcations of non-marine arenites and maybethecauseof thelineararrayof the Yabricoya

lutites. They imposeno deformationand generally pipes. In the San Pedrode Cachiyuyo
district,the
only weak contact metamorphismon these rocks. SanPedro,SanPedroA andSanPedroB pipeslie
Some brecciabodies,however, are located in andesitic at the junctionof granodiorite
andan earlierbodyof
volcanicrocksimmediatelyadjacentto plutonsin the diorite (Fig. 2), and in the Zapallardistrictone of
Zapallar, Rosariode Rengo and Sierra Gorda dis- thepipesspansthecontact between granodioriteand
tricts. The La Tigre (Yabricoyadistrict) and Cha- the country rock andesite,but suchcontactzonesare
critas pipeslie within smallmeta-andesiteroof pen- not generallythe loci of pipes.
dants. Unlike the porphrycopperdepositsof Chile, In the Cabeza de Vaca district, the Remolinos
which are typicallyassociatedwith small stocks,the Nuevopipeis displaced
on the 100m levelby a low-
brecciapipesare in most casesrelated to intrusives angle fault; however, its formation after the com-
of muchlarger dimensions. For example,the Cabeza pletionof mineralization
is demonstrated
by the in-
de Vaca-Zapallarand Los Azulesgroupsof pipesare clusionof tourmalineand sulfidefragmentsin the
situated near the eastern margin of the Cabeza de fault gouge.
Vaca granodioritepluton which coversan area of Individualpipe structures
are typicallycircularor
approximately 400 sq km, and the Yabricoyapipes ellipticalin plan, althoughsmalllateralprotruber-
piercethe Yabricoyagranodioritewhich has an ex- ancesare not uncommon. On a large scalethe brec-
posedlengthof over 36 km. The granodioriteintru- cia columns are essentially
vertical,althoughinclina-
sions that form the host rocks of the San Pedro de tions of up to 45ø may be maintainedover short
Cachiyuyo,Sierra Gorda and Centinelagroups of verticalintervals. Greatvariabilityin pipediameter
pipesare smaller,however. has been noted. In the Cabezade Vaca-Zapallar
The ages of few of the brecciapipes and their district the long dimensionof individualstructures
enclosing plutonsare definitelyknown. Coarsemus- rangesfrom as little as 3 m to a maximum of about
coviterelatedto brecciapipe formationnear the Mina 70 m. However,severalpipesin otherdistrictsare
Japonesain the Cabezade Vaca district has yielded still larger; the Araucopipe (Yabricoyagroup) at-
a K/Ar age of 62 ñ 7 m.y. (Sillitoe, Mortimer and tainsdimensions of approximately 250 x 100 m, and
Clark, 1968), and the Lluta granodioritepluton,host the Los Bronces(Disputada)pipehasa diameterof
to the Lluta group of pipes,has been dated by the 1,200m (Alfaro,•970). The topof onebreccia pipe
lead-alphamethod at 53 ñ 10 m.y. (Ruiz et al., hasbeenrecognized,and structuresconsideredto be
1965). Also, the intrusioncut by the Cachiyuyode upward terminationsof pipeshave beenobservedat
Llampospipeshas given a K/Ar age of 60.6 +---1.0 severallocalities(see below), but the lower limit of
m.y. (Farrar et al., in press). As statedabove,the nopipewasaccessible duringthepresentstudy.Sev-
rocksintrudedby the pipe-bearingplutonsare dom- eral pipes have an observablevertical extent of over
inantlyof Cretaceous-early Tertiary age. Thus the 100m, and the San Pedrodeposit,in the San Pedro
majority, but not necessarilyall, of the intrusions de Cachiyuyodistrict,according
to old minerecords
associatedwith the tourmalinebrecciapipesare con- continuesto a depth of 216 m, where the breccia
sideredto be of early Tertiary age. structure terminates (Nelson Pizarro; personal
comm.,Oct., 1969). Geier (1933) depictedthe
Location and Structure of the Breccia Pipes bottomingof the E1 Chivatopipesat a depth of
200 m, but the nature of these downward termina-
The brecciapipesoccurin groupsof from 2 to over tions is not known. Drilling in the Los Bronces
100, which generallyoccupyrestrictedareas. The (Disputada)pipehasdemonstrated its persistence
to
San Pedro de Cachiyuyodistrictcontains24 pipesin a depth of at least 712 m below surface(Alfaro,
an area of 7 sqkm (Fig. 2), the Los Azulesdistrict 1970).
has approximately40 pipes,the Llamucodistrict6 The sharpcontactsbetweenbrecciabodiesand the
pipes,and the Cabezade Vaca-Zapallardistrictwith enclosing
rocksaregenerallycharacterized
by sheeted
an area of 7 sq km hasover 100 pipes. The Yabri- zones. Thesezones,comprisinga numberof closely-
coyapipesare exceptional in that they occurin a 20 spacedvertical fractures,do not exceedthree meters
km long northwesterly-trending belt within the host in width, and retain the sameform irrespective of
intrusion(see Thomas,1967, Fig. 4). pipe diameter. Normally the fracturescut fresh or
No consistentstructuralcontrolof brecciapipe lo- little-altered
rocks,andsomearelinedby smallquan-
cationhasbeenrecognizedin the districtsunder con- tities of tourmaline,quartz and sulfides. In some
sideration.The emplacement of the Yabricoyapluton pipes(e.g., the San Pedrode Cachiyuyo
group),
was at leastpartially controlledby a seriesof north- however,a well-developed gougewith subhorizontal
and northwest-trendingfaults (Thomas, 1967), and slickensides
fills the fractures. Locally,the sheeted
the influenceof essentiallysimilar structuresat depth zoneis poorlydeveloped,
as aroundpart of the pe-
 GEOLOGIC, MINER,4LOGIC AND FLUID INCLUSION STUDIES 1031

riphery of the Los Broncespipe. The verticalsheet-

ing is intersectedby dosely-spacedinward-dipping
fracturesin the contactzonesof somepipes.
The sheeted contacts are never continuous circular
bandsof fracturessurrounding a pipe,but consistof
severalshort, straight or gently curving lengthsof
sheetedzone,eachwith a slightlydifferentdirection;
many lengths of sheetedzone have a tendencyto ;'.i".j
3...¾
'7' .

curve at one end (Fig. 3).

The brecciafragmentsare angular to sub-rounded ~

(Figs. 4 and 5), but well-roundedfragmentswere 'g .,•

observedvery locally in some pipes, as in Mina

. .

.•,
..

Fit;. 4. Normal breccia composed of angular to sub-

rounded fragments and. cemented by tourmaline. Later
tourmaline veinlets cross-cut the breccia. At least some of
the fracturing is attributed to in situ chemical brecciation.
Cabeza de Vaca group. Field of view approximately 60
centimeters wide.

Lucero in the Cabeza de Vaca district. The breccia

fragmentsnormallyrangefrom 1 cm to 50 cm in size,
but blocks several meters in diameter occur, and a
block on level 1 of Mina Remolinos Nuevo has a
maximumdiameterof roughly11 m. In somepipes
(e.g., Los Bronces,Disputada) parts of the large
fragmentshave themselvesbeen intimately broken
in situ, the non-dispersedpiecesnow being cemented
by a networkof tourmalineveinlets(Fig. 5b). Finer-
grainedfragmentalmaterialis presentas a matrix to
the fragmentsin a very few instances,as on the lower
levels of Mina RemolinosNuevo. In many pipe-
depositsthe fragmentsare irregularly shapedand
show no specificorientation,but in others a tabular
form is well-developed(Fig. 5a and b), as in the
La Tigre pipe (Yabricoya district), where fragments
60 cmlongand averagingonly 2 cm in thicknesswere
noted. Theseplaty fragmentsare typicallyarranged
in a parallelfashion,and are mostcommonnear pipe
margins(Fig. 5a). In manypipeswhereparallelism
of fragmentsis well-developed
it may be observed
that towardsthe pipe center the fragmentsare sub-
! I I I I horizontal,whereastowardsthe marginsthe inward
dip increasesand then reversesitself, culminating
in vertical fragmentsimmediatelyadjacent to the
sheetedzonein somepipes(Fig. 6). This couldbe
Flreccia
and,partially
replaced
cemented by tourmaline interpretedto indicatea topplingand down-settling
of detached,tabularfragments,which have perhaps
Unaltered
granadiarite undergonelater compaction.
Typically, the fragmentshave undergonerotation
Vertical fractures; some and a certainamountof displacement, but virtually
tourmaline- lined no evidence of extensive vertical mOVement of the
componentshas been recognized,becausefragments
FXG.3. Plan of two small breccia pipes in the Cabeza de
are alwaysof the sametype as the enclosingrocks.
Vaca group emphasizing the nature of typical sheeted In the caseof a pipe which spansthe granodiorite-
contacts. andesitecontactin the Zapallar district, one half of
1032 R. H. SILLITOE AND F. J'. ,S',4WKINS

.
sheeted
.
ZO.I1 ß .
ß •" 9 . ".-.. -3'•!•,:-. . ' ., •. •

;:"- '""

"7'i • •
.;

-' • • . ::.

•. •--• •: ../
-•- .•.. .. -.•
• f.• •. •"- .'%" • .'..•"•-••....•:•. t.:.)•.• meter !
• • ß . ...... • .• . - . I
.. • . • • . ß. : -- ½ •. ..
. . .... .

'•:tG. 6. Sketch of the configuration of slab-like fragments

adjacent to pipe contacts.

the structureis composed essentiallyof volcanicsand

-• .• •, •.. •...' • ,,,:... •. the otherhalf of granodiorite,with no significantmix-
• •::t - Z'x •.3• • .': . .': •"' .•'r• - .-:.• •'v' ,.... •--.. ing of the fragments. In the Los Broncespipe,how-
ever, scarcefragmentsof andesiticvolcanics,which
:":'P .,.,,t/.''":" '--.-- onceformeda roof over the granodioritepluton,are
found up to 200 m below the uppermostoutcropof
-'/ '-" .. . . "-', :•f5 the breccia pipe (Alfaro, 1970), demonstratingat
..
.'. I
':,' :
½,..:"-. :
-*'•_.... '.•-•. least this downward movement for some of these

FI6. ,5a. Vertical, slab-like fragments adjacent to the fragments. In somepipes,it is clear that very little
sheetedc9ntact are visible on the left side of the photograph. movementof the fragmentshastaken place,the pipe
Inwa•:ds•rom the contact,smallerslab-likefragments in a structuresbeing filled by a mass of rock fractured
sub-horizontalpositiongive way to irregularly shaped,ang•
ular fragments..Matrix of fragments is largely tourmaline. ß in situ (shatter or cracklebreccia).•
Cabeza de Vaca group. Field of view approximately 2 During the study,severaloval or circular bodiesof
meters across.
hydrothermally altered rock, bounded by sheeted
zones,but lackingbrecciation(includingthe shatter
variety), were recognized. In severalpipes in the
Llamuco group and in the body adjacent to Mina
Japonesain the Cabezade ¾aca district (marked as
ß•b
• •'ß ß, ..-,.
-•,• • •q ' .. :'•l. "sericitized granodiorite" on Figure 3 of Parker,
...... . -• •. • ..... Perez and $alas, 1963), little or no internal fractur-
ing is visible. In somewhatsimilar occurrencesin
the San Pedro de Cachiyuyodistrict (Fig. 2), the
outcrop is characterizedby sheeted zones, lying
. . [... • , ..;•.:-
. ,.:'•..t.
•.-.... . • •..-'• . .......
• .....:.';-.•."•,
..- .. .. within the hydrothermallyaltered bodies. Portions
• .....
... , •' •' of these latter bodiesare composedof 2 mm thick
sheetsof rock, partly interleavedwith quartz and
tourmaline,
dippinginwardsfrom the margins;a
typical body of this type is illustratedin Figure 7.
Also in the San Pedro de Cachiyuyodistrict, the
F•6. 5b. Horizontal, slab-like fragmen• near to pipe con- x At this juncture, it should be stressed that the breccia
tact. Matrix is tou•aline. In situ disruption of fragments, pipes herein considered are distinct from pebble breccias
easily visible in larger fra•ents, may be a•ri•ted to ch•- (hydrothermal intrusion breccias) in which rounded,frag-
ical bre•iation. La Tigre pipe, Yabricoya group. Field of ments are enclosed by a clastic, 'sometimestourmalinized,
view approx•tely 45 centimeterswide. matrix.
 GEOLOGIC, MINERALOGIC AND FLUID INCLUSION STUDIES 1033

upward terminationof a pipe is exposedin the face

of a shallowopen-cut(Fig. 8). Normal brecciaends
abruptlyagainsta dome-shaped roof and is overlain
by unbrecciatedrock,whichis hydrothermallyaltered
where observable. In view of this evidence, the
structuresdescribedaboveare tentativelyinterpreted
as the uppermostparts of the brecciapipes.

Hydrothermal Mineralization
Two broadmineralizationstages,the first involving
replacement and the secondopen-spacefilling,may be
recognizedin the tourmalinebrecciapipes(Fig. 9).
Th.e first megascopicallyvisiblestageof fragment
replacementconsistsof the alterationof plagioclase
euhedrato a pale green,greasymineral,which yields
D.T.A. andX-ray powderdiffraction
datafor mus-
covite,so.
metime•with minorkaolinite;this is the
main alterationproductat Mina RemolinosNuevo.
In some:pipes,however,the fragmentsare little al-
tered (e.g., Delirio pipe, San Pedro de Cachiyuyo
district,a,n.d
the largestpil•ein the Llamucogroup).
More intense alteration results in the conversion of
the rock fragmentsto an aggregateof white sericite
and secondaryquartz (quartz grainsfrom the orig-
inal rock are in somecasesstill visible), whichmay
I• •l•
I• [ II]: I• •111
]• ;I• ••II ll:I . 2[ •[ [•I•
•II•I
be classifiedas sericiticalteration,following Meyer : }•I.I
•• I;• •I I]•• .... • II I Jl:
i I I•I
and Hemley (1967). At leastsomeof the pyrite and

Fro. 8. Dome-shaped,upward terminationof normal brec-

cia. Brecciais confinedto lower two-thirds of open-cuton
the photograph. Near San Pedro C pipe, San Pedro de
Cachiyuyogroup. Field of view approximately16 meters
across.
+

minor chalcopyritewhichoccursas disseminations

in
the brecciafragments
.mayhaveformedcontempo-
raneouslywith this earlyquartzandsericite. This is

SERICITE

FLUORITE
REPLACEMENT
I OPEN--SPACE FILLING

CHLORITE
BIOTITE
QUARTZ I
BERYL
TOURMALINE

POTASH FELDSPAR

SPECULARITE
FLUORAPATITE
SCHEELITE

PYRITE

CHALCOPYRITE
BORNITE
NATIVE GOLD

MOLYBDEN ITE
GALENA

ANHyORITE
I

GRANOOJORITE
•HO!!ING
OUARTZ-SERIClTE ALTERATION ß lO
VERTICAL AND IHI:LIKD
SHEETING
BARyTE
CARBONATES

UNALTERED
GRANODIO•ITE •½.,' LOt•-ANGLE,
•..•...-
CLOSELY-
FRACTURAT
ION
SPACED
Fro. 9. Generalizedparageneticdiagram for the Chilean
Fro. 7. Plan of the San Pedro C pipe-top,San Pedro de tourmaline breccia pipes. Exceptionsto this sequencedo
Cachiyuyodistrict,showingundisplaced
vertical sheeting,and occur,and any one pipe may not necessarilycontainall the
inclined fracturing in the northeastpart of the structure. minerals listed.
1034 R. H. SILLITOE AND F. J. SAI/VKINS

the principalalterationtype in many pipes,and is the replacement quartzwith whichit is closelyasso-

typicalof the unbrecciatedbodiesinterpretedas the ciated.
upwardterminations of brecciapipes. In the larger The age relationsof the quartzand tourmalineof
breccia fragments,quartz-sericitealteration is re- replacementoriginand the sericiticalterationare not
strictedto marginal zonesin someinstancesand is knownwith certainty,as the rimming sequences do
succeeded inwardsby rock in which the plagioclase not providean unequivocal criterionfor determining
has been convertedsimplyto pale green sericite,or an order of deposition.However,their simultaneous
by freshrock. This earlyalterationandthe succeed- deposition,or possiblythe formation of sericite-
hagmineralizatidn
arelargely
restricted
to thepipe quartz,succeeded
by quartzandthentourmaline,
are
structuresand rarely extendmorethan two or three considered the mostlikely alternatives.
metersintothe enclosing rocks,whichare eitherfresh In severalof the pipeswhichcut volcanics in the
or characterized by disseminations and joint-coatings Zapallardistrict,the fragmentsare alteredto, and
of ohiorite,epidoteandminortourmaline.The wide- partially cementedby, chloriteand biotite,and in
spreaddistributionof ohiorite, epidote,and tour- pipesthat are developed in volcanicrockselsewhere
maline in some of the pipe-bearingplutons may chloriteis a commonalterationmineral. A golden-
suggestthat thesemineralsformedprior to the de- brown phlogopiticmica associatedwith minor K-
velopmentof the pipesand are deutericin origin. feldsparwas foundas smallpodsand veinletson the
Exceptionsto this generalschemehave been recog- contactsof the Hundida pipe in the Yabricoyagroup.
nized in the Centinelaand Cachiyuyode Llampos The open-space fillingstagewasgenerallyinitiated
districts. In the former area, silicificationand minor by the deposition of black tourmaline,which takes
argillicand sericiticalteration,associated with dis- any of the variousformsnotedabovefor replacement
seminated coppermineralization, are presentin the tourmaline. Quartz, usually granular, may accom-
granodioriteadjacentto the pipes. pany the tourmaline,and in rare instances(e.g.,
In very rare instances,the bordersof brecciafrag- Hundidapipe,Yabricoyagroup) massivequartzrep-
mentsare partially replacedby K-feldspar,as on the resentsthis early phaseof filling in many parts of
lower levels of Mina Remolinos Nuevo. This alteea- the brecciapipe. At Mina San Pedro B, San Pedro
tion, of uncertainage, is probablyequivalentto the de Cachiyuyodistrict, sericite,accompanied by only
potassic(Creasey,1966; Guilbertand Lowell, 1968) small quantitiesof tourmaline, is an early fillhag
or potassiumsilicate(Meyer and Hemley, 1967) mineral.
alteration in porphyry copper deposits. At the This early filling stage,dominatedby tourmaline
RemolinosNuevo pipe, very sparse microscopicdeposition,was followedby the formationof quartz,
fluorite euhedraoccur and may be associatedwith with well-terminatedprismaticcrystals,in somecases
the sericitic alteration. white or yellowish,but more commonlytransparent,
In somepipes,brecciafragmentsalteredinternally projecting into any remainhagopen space;this gen-
to quartz and sericite have been marginally re- eration of quartz has provided the material for the
placedby quartz and black,iron-bearingtourmaline present fluid inclusion study. The quartz crystals
(schorl). In fact, few of the brecciabodies,with normally attain lengths of 1 to 4 cm, and at the
the exceptionof the pipe-topsnoted above,are en- Hundida pipe in the Yabricoya district, crystalsup
tirely lacking in theseminerals. Normally, the re- to 14 cm were collected. At Mina San Pedro, San
placementtourmalineis presentas an outer zone Pedro de Cachiyuyodistrict, euhedral fluorapatite
rimmingthe quartz,althoughthe two mineralsare crystalsup to 5 cm in length accompanyprismatic
hatergrownin many instances. The replacement quartz in the hypogeneore from the deepestlevels.
quartz takes severalforms, ranging from a dense, Specularite,and subordinateassociatedmagnetite,
aphaniticform to a porous,granularaggregate. In are present in small quantities; in most casesthey
somecases,granularaggregatesof quartz constitute were depositedcontemporaneously with the tourma-
the rims of fragments whose cores have been cor- line, but in someinstancesthey accompanyprismatic
roded away. In someinstances(e.g., the Arauco quartz and sulfides. At Mina Arco de Oro in the
pipe,Yabricoyadistrict), practicallythe wholestruc- Cabeza de Vaca district, speculariteis unusually
ture has been converted to tourmaline. The tour- abundant. In rare instances small amounts of euhed-
maline, always a black variety, may be aphanitic, ral tourmalineand platesof specularite are included
finely- or coarsely-granular,or consistof radial ag- in, or encrust,the prismaticquartz in the rugs. At
gregatesof acicularcrystalsup to 6 cm long. In the Mina Lucero, Cabezade Vaca, suchtourmalinecrys-
rare instances where rock flour occurs interstitial to tals changealongtheir length from black prismsto
the brecciafragments,it containsrosettesof tour- bundlesof olive-greenfibers. Prisms of tourmaline
maline. Minor beryl, presentat Mina San Pedro, attaining 2 cm in diameter have been found in some
Cabezade Vaca district,was probablydepositedwith vugswhichlack development of quartzcrystals. Late
 GEOLOGIC,
MINERALOGICAND FLUID INCLUSIONSTUDIES 1035
Table 1. Fluid Inclusion Data
cross-cutting
veinletsof tourmalineand quartz have
beenobservedin somepipes (Fig. 4). Fillin8 I e C Freezing ce•p (-) 8alinit• (equiv.
or ealt dtsal•pear- we. I •aC1)
Prior to the stage of sulfidedeposition,small ance temp. (+)

amountsof cream to colorless,anhedral to euhedral Sample C 63

(Cabeza de Vae• dietrict) 348-352 PS (12) -11'4 15-5 (4)
scheelitewere formed,and on the 100 m level at Mina 338
359
PS
P
(3)
(3) 215ø C 32 (3)
RemolinosNuevo a little orthoclasedepositedat this 359-363
•g
P
P
(4)
(5)
time wasobserved.Arsenopyriteaccompanies schee- 355 P (2)

lite in the Llamucopipes. Sample ½ 16

(½abeza de Vaea district) 342PS (12) -3.6ø C 5'8 (8)
432-440 PS (8) 202ø C 31 (4)
Chalcopyriteand pyrite, the dominantsulfidespe- (-12-4 (16-5 (4)
431-436
P (9) '• -6'9ø C
cies, were depositedin any open spaceswhich re- L -5.4
øC •10-5
8.5(3)
(2)
mainedafter the early filling stages. They commonly Sample C 55
(¾abrico•a. Dis trlct)
277-308 $ (14)

occurin the quartz-linedrugs, and as disseminations S•pl• C 82

in altered rock fragmentsand in the tourmalinece- (San Pedro de Cachlyuyo
District) 442 PS (4) 291ø C 36 (4)
ment. Where the permeabilityof the brecciawas 387-389 PS (12)
359 PS (5)
350 PS (6)
very low the mineralizationtendsto be confinedto 366 PS (8) -1-6 ø C 2.9 (8)
369-373 P (4)
the sheetedcontactzoneand the immediatelyadjacent
Sample C 92 388-391 PS (11)
breccia. This is the case in the Chacritas and Arauco (Ll•aco district) 393-400
PS(15) /-8-3ø C •12.2 (5)
i[-5.0 ø c t 9-0 (4)
pipes, (Yabricoya district) where.the fracturesal-
ß

473 PS (9)

lowed accessof the hydrothermalfluids. Polished 383-391 PS (17)

(190ø
•210 e g
[288 øC C (2)
(2)
sectionstudiesrevealedthe presenceof scarcegrains
of bornire, tennantite,and commonpyrite euhedra * P; PS and S refer to primary, pseudosecondary •nd secondary inclusions.
Numbere in brackets refer to number of lnclusion• •easursd.
within areas of chalcopyrite. Pyrite partially re-
Filling temperatures areaccurate to • 2ø Candsalinitydetaco+-i aquiv.
placedby chalcopyritewas observedin many samples. wt. I NaC1.

Native gold is presentas small grains in thesesul-

fides,and in somepipes the hypogeneores contain mainedbetweenthe fragments. Minor post-mineral-
1.5 to 2 gin/ten gold. At E1 Chivatogradesof 4 izationfracturingis evidentin somepipes.
gm/ton were mined (Flores, 1942). In someof the
brecciacolumns,laths and rosettesof molybdeniteare Fluid Inclusion Studies
intimately associatedwith the iron and copper-iron
sulfides,which in rare casesare succeededby galena. Crystalline material suitable for fluid inclusion
Geier (1933) reportedsphaleritein the E1 Chivato studies is of lknited occurence in the tourmaline brec-
pipes. cia pipes,but inclusionsin a number of small- and
An anomalousradioactivityaccompaniesthe hy- medium-sizedquartz crystalsobtainedfrom pipesin
drothermal minerals in the Cabeza de Vaca, Los the Yabricoya,San Pedro de Cachiyuyo,Cabezade
Azules, Sierra Gorda, La Tigre (Yabricoya) and Vaca and Llamuco districts have been studied using
Campanani (Lluta) pipes (Bowes et al., 1966; standardheating and freezing techniques. Suitable
Knowles et al., 1964), but no radioactivemineral has inclusionsfor study are not uniformly presentin the
been identified. In the Rosario de Rengo district, samples,but by careful selectionof material over
however, brannerite has been reported (Knowles 150 inclusionswere measuredfor filling temperature,
et al., 1962). and salinity determinationsmade on approximately
The final stageof mineralizationinvolvedthe dep- 50 inclusions(Table 1).
ositionof minorbariice, dolomite,sideriteandcalcite, The salinity data have been obtainedin part by
which occur very locally in the pipes as crystalline observingsolutionof sodiumchloridedaughtermin-
erals in indusions,and in part by freezing methods
rug-fillings and cross-cuttingveinlets. At the Los
(Reedder, 1963).
Bronces (Disputada) mine, lavender-coloredanhy- The highertemperaturefluid inclusionassemblages
drite is presentwith bariteas a late-stagerug-filling, contain intimate admixtures of two basic inclusion
as in the Cactuspipe in the San Franciscodistrict, types: A high densitytype with high fluid to vapor
Utah (Butler, 1913).2 The dolomitein the Chacritas ratio and in most casessalt daughterminerals (Fig.
pipe is interstitial to a late generation of euhedral 10a and 10c), and low densitytype with low fluid to
pyrite. After the terminationof mineral deposition, vapor ratio. Dual fluid inclusionassemblages of this
rugs attaininga maximum of 40 cm in diameterre- type are not uncommonin postmagmatic epigenetic
ore deposits(cf. Reedder, 1971, Kelly and Turne-
2 This is in contrast to the occurrence of lavender-colored
anhydrite in porphyry copperdeposits,where it is commonly
aure, 1970, Sawkins and Rye, 1970). Such dual
a componentof the early potassicalteration facies (Meyer assemblages, when intimatelyadmixed,indicate"boil-
and Hemley, 1967; Gullbert and Lowell, 1968). ing" of the rising hydrothermalsolutions,and, under
1036 R. H. SILLITOE AND F. J. SAWKINS

translatesto depths of 1,300 meters assuminglitho-

staticpressure,and depthsof 3,250 meters,assuming
hydrostatic.pressureand an average density of 1
gm/cc of the overlying hydrothermalcolumn. An-
other dual inclusionassemblage(Sample C92) con-
tained inclusionswith 37 wt • Nacl trapped at
413ø C, indicatingan ambientpressureof 230 bars.
This translatesto depthsof 920 meters (lithostatic
pressure)and 2,300 meters (hydrostaticpressure).
Thesetwo pressure-depth indicationsare from dif-
ferent geographicareas, so the following generaliza-
tionsare admittedlytentative. If, however,the pres-
sureon the mineralizingsolutionsin the brecciapipes
is assumedto have been intermediatebetweenhydro-
staticand lithostatic,a depthrange of 1.5-3 km for
mineralization seems reasonable.
Utilizing the estimateof stratigraphicthicknesses
presented by Segerstrom and Parker (1959) and the
moredetailedthicknessdeterminations carriedout by
M. Zentilli (written comm.,Oct., 1970), the Cabeza
de Vaca pluton,hostto the Cabezade Vaca-Zapallar
and Los Azules pipe-groups,was intruded into, and
b solidifiedbeneath,the dominantlyvolcanicHornitos
Formation which possesses a minimum thicknessot
2.25 km in thisarea. This figuresupportsthe depth
approximationmadeabove.
In the pipe-topadjacentto Mina Japonesain the
Cabeza de Vaca district, the local occurrenceof the
assemblage pyrite-arsenopyrite-cosalite-quartz,
imme-
diately precedingthe main stage chalcopyrite,has
beenidentified(A. H. Clark, written comm.,Sept.,
1970). The three sulfidesare presentas euhedral
crystals suggestingcontemporaneity,and perhaps
their crystallizationin equilibrium. In vacuo,(atmo-
spheric)cosalitebreaksdownat 425 ---+ 25ø C (Craig,
1967), whichwouldthereforebe a maximumtemper-
Fro. 10. Fluid inclusions in quartz, sample No. C 76.
ature of formationfor this assemblage.Employing
a). A cube of sodium chloride and at least two other bi- a temperature of 425ø C andthe arsenopyrite compo-
refringent mineral phases. The darker one adjacent to the sition (a S-rich variety, giving dial = 1.6320 and
vapor bubble, is thought to be tourmaline. Magnification
X 550. b). A high vapor to liquid ratio and a small bire- 1.6322---0.0003for two separates),the P-T projec-
fringent daughter mineral. On heating to 450ø C, an increase tion presented by L. A. Clark (1960) canbe utilized
in the volume of the vapor bubble was observed, but no to providean estimateof the totalconfining pressure,
homogenizationoccurred. Magnification X 690. c). A large
cube of sodium chloride with a smaller cube of potassium in this case approximating 300-400 bars (A. H.
chloride (?) just above it. A number of small birefringent Clark, written comm.,Sept., 1970). Both this tem-
daughter minerals are also present. Magnification X 410. perature and the pressureestimateare in reasonable
agreementwith the fluid inclusionand stratigraphic
suchconditionsno correctionof fluid inclusionfilling evidence.
temperaturesis necessary. The data from filling temperaturemeasurements
Thesedual inclusiontype assemblages, oncefilling indicatethat the quartzcrystalsutilizedin the fluid
temperatureand salinityof the high densitytype are inclusionstudywere deposited over the.temperature
known,can provideus with an indicationof the am- rangefrom approximately 440-350ø C. This sug-
bient pressurein the pipesat the time of trapping. geststhat the parageneticallyearlier tourmalineand
Inclusions(Sample C76) containing,-,30 wt • replacementquartz may well havebeendepositedat
Nacl trappedat ,-•440ø C from boilingfluidsindicate temperaturesgreater than 440ø C.
(from the experimentalwork of Sourirajanand Ken- The salinity data are somewhat.limited, but do
nedy, 1962) an ambientpressureof 325 bars. This indicatethatin someinstancesthe hydrothermalsolu-
 GEOLOGIC,MINERALOGIC AND FLUID INCLUSION STUDIES 1037

tions attainedhigh concentrations of sodiumand chlo- have been intruded prior to and during, as wall as
ride ions,and that sharp fluctuationsin the salinity after, pipe formation,the syn- and post-formational
<)f the hydrothermal solutionsprobably occurred. bodiesbeingpreferentiallylocatednearthe pipemar-
This also agreescloselywith comparabledata from gins (as seenin Fig. 3 of Parker, Salas and Perez,
other post-magmaticore deposits(Sawkins, 1964; 1963). This suggests that the brecciapipesactedas
1966; Sawkinsand Rye, 1970). zonesof weaknesswhich facilitatedthe emplacement
Of'particular interestare the complexand variable of the minor intrusions.
assemblagesof daughter minerals present in some Relatedto the groupsof tourmalinebrecciapipes
inclusions. The isotropiccubesof low relative relief are narrow replacement-and fissure-filling veins
dissolve on heating and these are without doubt carryingtourmalineand quartz,with lesserquantities
sodium chloride. In some cases (e.g., Fig. 10c) a of pyrite, chalcopyrke,specularite,argentiferousga-
secondsmallerisotropiccubeis alsopresent. These lena, calcite and barite. These veins exhibit a fair
smallercubicdaughtermineralsexhibit a more rapid degreeof parallelism,as in the San Pedro de Cachi-
solutionresponseto heating and on this basis are yuyo district (Fig. 2). The veinshave a tendency
consideredto be potassiumchloride. In some in- to be peripheralto the brecciapipe groupsin some
stancesthe optical properties of greenish elongate districts. The relativeagesof the veinsand breccia
daughtermineralscouldbe observed. They exhibit pipesare difficultto assess,
but in the Cabezade Vaca
pleochroism, strongbirefringence
and parallelextinc- districta quartz-tourmalinevein can be seento tran-
tion, and are almost certainly iron-rich tourmaline. sectoneof the brecciapipes.
The reddish, translucentflakes present as daughter The Los Bronces(Disputada)pipe is cut by nar-
mineralsin high salinityinclusionsare thoughtto be row pebbledikes (hydrothermalintrusionbreccias)
hematite,whereascolorlessbirefringentlaths that ex- consistingof angular to rounded fragmentsin a
hibit straight extinction may be anhydrite. Other matrix of rock flour. A restrictedpart of the Los
colorless,birefringent crystalsof rhombic habit and Broncesdepositshowsthe effectsof more than one
high relief in the daughtermineral assemblages sug- phaseof brecciation,the later brecciaconsistingof
gest the presence of carbonate. Bundles of pale poorly-cemented, angular fragmentsof mineralized
breccia.
greenishprismatic needlesin some inclusionshave
opticalpropertiesthat correspondto the mineraldaw-
sonite,a daughtermineral phaseof apparentlywide- Comparisonwith Similar Deposits
spread occurrencein postmagmaticore deposits The tourmalinebrecciapipesof Chile are closely
(W. C. Kelly, pers. comm.). In a number of in- comparableto thoseof the CopperBasin, Arizona
stancesopaquedaughterminerals in inclusionswere (Johnstonand Lowell, 1961) and CopperCreek,
observedto partiallyrotatewhena handmagnetwas Arizona (Kuhn, 1941; Simons,1964) districts,.and
-passedback and forth closeto the section. The re- to some of the pipes at Cananea, Sonora, Mexico
sponseof thesegrainswas not strongenoughto indi- (Perry, 1961). They havesimilaritieswith thosein
,catemagnetiteand their characterremainsa puzzle. the San Franciscodistrict, Utah (Butler, 1913).
It is clear, however, from the quantity of daughter These districtspossessgroupsof pipeswith very
mineralsin someinclusionsthat somepulsesof hy- similargeologic,structuraland mineralogicfeatures
drothermal solution attained high solute concentra- to thosedescribedabove. The hostplutonsfor the
tions. For example,someinclusionscanbe estimated CopperBasinand CopperCreek pipeshave been
to contain•35% NaC1, •10% KC1, and •10 or shownby radiometricdatingto be early Tertiary in
•more percent by weight of other daughter mineral age (seeAnderson,1968), like the Chileanexamples.
phases. Pipesof apparentlysimilartype are alsoknownto
occur in Peru and British Columbia.
Post-pipe Magmatic and Hydrothermal Activity
Supergene Mineralogy
The intrusionof dikesand smallbosses
of generally
porphyriticigneousrockscarryingrosettesof tour- A detailedstudyof the mineralogyand local and
maline occurredafter the completionof pipe forma- regionalcontrolsof the supergene
mineralalteration
tion in the immediatevicinity of the breccia struc- of copper depositsin the region between latitudes
tures. At Campanani,in the Lluta group,and in the 26ø and29øSin Chilehasbeencarriedout (Sillitoe,
San Pedrode Cachiyuyodistrict,the post-pipeminor 1969a). In this contextdetailedinvestigation
of the
intrusionsconsistof trachyte, and in the Cabezade RemolinosNuevo pipe in the Cabezade Vaca district
Vaca-Zapallarand Los Azulesgroupsthe intrusions
wasundertaken.The quantitativelymostsignificant
range from andesiteto andesiteporphyry. In the
portionof the supergene
enrichedore, of pre-Upper
•Cabeza'
•leVacadistrict,
andesite
porphyry
seems
to Mioceneage, is due to the replacement of chalco-
1038 R. H. SILLITOE AND F. J. SAWKINS

Clark and Meyer, 1970), and rarer oxidate phases

includingwulfenite,beudantiteand delafossite(Silli-
tPipe
-top
with
sheeting
and toe, 1969b) have been observedin the Remolinos
Nuevo pipe.
The tourmalineand quartz have been essentially

Sheeted
contact
quartz
-serciclte
alteratian, unaffected.by supergeneprocesses,and hypogene
specularitehas undergoneonly minor oxidation to
goethiteat the immediatesurface. Any remaining
Undisplaced
Shatter
breccia. plagioclaseis alteredto a white kaolinitegroupmin-
eral in the oxidized ore; some kaolinite could, how-
ever, have a hypogeneorigin.
Essentially
unaltered Oriented slab-like fragments. Post-Mioceneenrichmentis characterizedby the
gronodiorite depositionof sooty copper sulfides,rarely accom-
host rock
panied by selenite,in the vicinity of historic water
ß
Normal breccio cemented by tables.
tourmaline, quartz end sulfides.

Genetic Aspects of Breccia Pipe Formation

Any hypothesis that seeksto explainthe formation
of this distinctiveand widespreadgroup of Chilean
ore depositsmust take into considerationthe follow-
ing empiricaldata, commonto virtually every pipe
occurrence:
),Heavily replaced lower part of pipe.
1. Similarity of mineral speciesand paragenetic
sequence.
2. Generalangularity of brecciafragments.
3. Dominantly monolithologicnature of breccia
Fro. 11. Interpretive cross-sectionof a typical Chilean fragments.
breccia pipe, illustrating our conception of the vertical 4. Identical compositionof host rock and breccia
changeswhich might be encounteredwithin a pipe.
fragments.
5. General absence of rock flour interstitial to
pyrite and lesseramountsof bornire,pyrite and ga-
brecciafragments.
lenaby massivecoppersulfides,dominantlydjurleite
6. Regular, near-verticalform.
(Sillitoe, MortimerrandClark, 1968; Sillitoe, 1969a).
Post-Miocene oxidation of the earlier enrichment as- 7. Enclosureof pipesby zonesof vertical sheeting.
8. Widespreadoccurrenceof inward-dippingtab-
semblagesin the Cabezade Vaca district and else-
ular fragments.
where in northern Chile resulted initially in the
formation of normal and blaubleibender corellite 9. Porous, apparentlycorroded,nature of some
brecciafragments.
(Sillitoe and Clark, 1969), succeededby native 10. Presence of voids in breccia columns.
copper,cuprite,malaconite,
azurite,malachiteand 11. Widespread occurrenceof the quartz-sericite
complexintergrowthscomposeddominantlyof go-
alterationassemblage.
ethite and malachite. Chrysocolla,copperpitch ore,
12. The upward terminationof a brecciapipe.
dioptaseand chalcedonycharacterizethe uppermost
parts of the orebodies,whereas brochantiteforms Employing these data, a geneticmodel involving
joint- and fracture-coatings
in the zonesoccupiedby localizedsolutionof granitic intrusive rock and the
the oxidesand basiccarbonates of copper. Atacamite consequentdownward settling of the suprajacent
and iron sulfatesare widely distributedin the upper column of this material into the solution void is
parts of the Centinelapipes. The outcropsof min- postulated. Hydrothermaldepositionof quartz,tour-
eralizedpipes are usually devoidof oxidate copper maline and sulfidesoccurredduring and subsequent
minerals,exceptfor minor malachiteand chrysocolla to the solution-induced
slumping.An idealizedcross-
on partings, and are characterizedby variegated sectionof our conceptionof a typicalbrec..cia
pipe is
limohires,consistingessentiallyof goethite; these shown in Figure 11. However, it should perhaps
limonitegossansare enrichedin native gold. be stressedthat our preferred hypothesisdoes not
The oxidationof scheeliteto "cuproscheelite,"an provide a unique explanationof the empirical ob-
intergrowthof scheeliteand a calcium-copper tung- servations.
stateof variablecomposition,hasbeendescribedfrom At the time of pipe emplacement
the plutonichost
the Cabezade Vaca and Los Azules pipes (Sillitoe, rockswere clearly solid and competent. The fluids
 GEOLOGIC, MINERALOGIC AND FLUID INCLUSION STUDIES 1039

involved in pipe formation must have risen from The alterationandreplacementstageof mineraliza-
sources belowpresentpipelevel,and are thoughtto tion occurredduringand subsequent to the periodof
have been relatedto the last stageof the earliest brecciationand downwardsettling,and was respon-
Tertiarymagmatic cycle,i.e., the minorporphyritic siblefor fragmentcorrosionin the upperportionsof
intrusionsspatiallyand temporallyassociated with somepipes. Intimate,in situ breakingof fragments
the brecciapipes. Possibly theareaoccupied by each that were replacedby fine-grainedquartz and tour-
brecciapipe group reflectsthe areal extent of the malineoccurredin somepipesandis thoughtto have
roof-zoneof oneof theseunderlying late-stage
magma beenproducedby the actionof chemicalbrecciation
bodies. (Sawkins,1969). At this stage,movementandbrec-
The precisemechanismby which solutionof the ciation within the pipe structuresh•td essentially
granitic hostrock occurredis not known,but we con- ceased, and further mineralization was restricted to
siderthe fieldevidence in supportof fluidcorrosion thepartialor complete
fillingof existingopenspaces.
to be compelling.The effectof this corrosionwasto This interpretivemodel embodiesthe principles
produce openspaces or highlyporousrockincapableof Locke's(1926) mineralization stopingconcept.
of supporting the rockimmediately above,andas a Kents (1964) proposed an explosiveorigin for the
result slumping,probablyover only shortvertical Chileanbrecciapipes,as did Emroohs(1938) for
intervals, occurred. The locus of commencementof the E1 Chivatopipes. This origin is consideredto
collapsemay havebeena fault,a junctionof rock derivelittle supportfrom the observations madedur-
types or any other type of structureat somedistance ing this study. Nor do the data accumulatedfavor
abovethe roofof thelate-stage magmabody,andat the initiationof collapse by underlying
magmapres-
approximately 2-3 km belowthe then-existing sur- surefluctuations
(Perry, 1961). The universalpres-
face. However,thesestructures will notnecessarilyenceof hydrothermal mineralization
withinpipesem-
bepresent or detectableat thepresent levelof erosion. phasizesthe essentialpart playedby mineralizing
Onceinitiated,brecciation and collapse, bounded fluidsin pipe genesis. Furthermore,the mannerin
by verticalsheeting, wouldcontinue until stressequi- whichpipesof apparentlysimilarnaturepinchout
libriumhadbeenre-established. The scarcity of rock in depth(Locke,1926;Joralemon, 1952)wouldseem
flour and the angularityof mostfragmentsin the to negateany hypothesisof brecciaformationinvolv-
brecciassuggests that fragmentattritionor abrasion ing magmapulsation.
duringcollapseplayeda subordinate role. In view We thus envisagethe tourmalinebrecciapipes
of the pipe-topobserved in the San Pedrode Cachi- herein describedto be examplesof "hydrothermal
yuyo district, brecciationis consideredto diminish collapsebreccias"as definedby Bryner (1968). The
progressivelyupwards, finallybeingrepresented
only "hydrothermalintrusionbreccias"(characterizedby
by verticalfracturesboundinga coreof alteredrock the intrusionof rock fragmentsinto the enclosing
(Fig. 11). Such a model is in accordwith the ob- rocksunderthe agencyof hydrothermalfluids), also
servedresultsof block-cavingin mine exploitation categorized
by Bryner,havebeenwidelyrecognized
(Locke, 1926), a gravity-controlled
processanal- in Chile (Sillitoe, unpublished),but are muchmore
ogousto that proposedhere for the genesisof the closelyassociated with porphyrycoppermineraliza-
pipes. Moreover,thata brecciapipecomparable to tion. The minorlate-stagepebbledikescuttingthe
thosedescribedabovecanbegenerated by collapse
is Los Bronces pipeare consideredto be of thistype.
.demonstrated
bytheresultsof nuclearminingexperi- It is suggestedthat the tourmalinebrecciapipe-
ments(Anon., 1967). Sincebrecciaseemsto termi- groupsmay, at leastin somecases,representa deeper
nateupwards,it is unlikelythat anypipesintersected level phenomenon
than that of the porphyrycopper
'thesurface
duringtheirformation.Hence,the up- depositsin Chile. The levelof erosionin centraland
ward disposal
of rockfragmentsduringbrecciafor- northern Chile seemsto becomedeeperwestwards,
'mation could not have occurred. an impressionsuggestedby the increasein both the
Tabular fragmentsare consideredto have formed age of magmatism(Farrar et al., in press) and the
by the intersection
of dosely-spaced
verticalsheeting area occupiedby intrusionsin this direction. There-
andinclinedfractures,
unrelated
to jointsor bedding fore, the relationof the brecciapipesto relatively
'in the host rocks. If the configurationof tabular extensiveplutons which lie west of the generally
fragments(Fig. 6) is at leastpartiallydue to the smallerporphyrycopper-bearing stockssupportsthis
-actionof gravity, as inferred earlier, then their for- contention.The occurrence of the Disputadagroup
'mationprobablyinvolvedflaking-offfrom the sheeted of pipesonly 1.5km westof the Rio Blancoporphyry
contactzones. The productionof the very uncom- copper (Fig. 1), and at virtually the samealtitude,
'monroundedfragments seenin somepipesis thought obviouslyprovidesan exceptionto this generaliza-
to be due to spalling-offof soft,hydrothermally al- tion. We do not consider,however, that the tour-
tered rims dnringcollapse. malinebrecciapipe groupsconstitutethe root-zones
1040 R. H. S'ILLITOE ./1ND F. .1.$./1WKINS

of now-erodedporphyry copperdeposits,although (1926). Consequently, drilling might locatenormal

this was 'suggested with referenceto the Copper mineralizedbrecciain depth.
Basin pipes,Arizona (Johnstonand Lowell, 1961).
The fluids responsible for pipe mineralizationare Acknowledgments
thoughtto havebeenderived,at leastin major part, The authorswish to expresstheir indebtedness to
from crystallizingfelsicmagma. This hypothesis is Sr. Harry NeumannJ. for hisvaluableassistance and
supportedby the fluid inclusiondata, especiallythe suggestionsduring this study. Thanks are also due
high salinitiesmeasuredin some inclusions. The to Sr. Carlos Ruiz F., Director of the Instituto de
possibilitythat water of nonmagmaticorigin became InvestigacionesGeologicas of Chile, for his support
involvedin pipemineralization,especially
in thelatest and for permissionto publishthis paper,and to Sr.
stages,cannotbe excluded,however, in the absence FranciscoOrtiz J. for directingthe first author's
of stableisotopedata. The extremelyminor develop- attentionto the recentlyexposedpipe-topin the San
ment of potassiumsilicate alteration (Meyer and Pedro de Cachiyuyodistrict. Many mine managers
I-Iemley,1967), as comparedto quartz-sericitealtera- and individualminers,especiallySrs. R. Pinto; N.
tion, even at temperaturesof 440ø C, and possibly Pizarroand C. Woodbridge,gaveunlimitedaccess to
higher,indicatesthat the H+/K+ ratios of the hy- their properties. Sr. M. Tabak assistedwith the
drothermalsolutionsmust have remainedhigh (i.e., X-ray determinations.Dr. LeonidBryner, Dr. Alan
low pH) throughoutthe early period of mineraliza- H. Clark and Sr. CarlosRuiz F. criticallyreviewed
tion (Hemley and 'Jones, 1964), a property which the manuscript. Financial assistancefor field and
probablyfavouredcorrosion. No completestudyof laboratorystudiesfor the secondauthorwasprovided
sulfur isotopesin the pipe sulfideshas been made, by N.S.F. grant no. GA 4355 and is gratefullyac-
but a •S 34value of -0.6 permil was obtainedfrom knowledged.
chalcopyritein the RemolinosNuevo pipe (Sillitoe, R. H. S•LnITOE, ,
1969a). If this is a representative•S 34 value for INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACIONES
GEOLOGICAS•
these sulfides,a deep sourcefor the sulfide sulfur is CASILLA10465, SANT•AaO,CHINE,
indicated.
F. J. SAWK•NS,
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA,
Considerations for Exploration
MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA,
The permeabilityof the brecciapipes at the time December 18, 1970; April 30, 1971
of sulfide depositionwas apparentlythe principal
REFERENCES
factorcontrollingthe degreeof sulfidemineralization
in the pipes. In most cases,the permeabilitywas Alfaro, C. M., 1970, Estudio geologico de la Mina Los
Bronces, Provincia de Santiago: Memoria de Prueba,
providedby the openspaceswhich still remainedbe- Univ. Chile, Santiago, 87 p.
tween the brecciafragmentsafter tourmaline-quartz Anderson, C. A., 1968, Arizona and adjacent New Mexico:
deposition. However, in somepipesthe sulfidesoc- p. 1163-1190, in Ridge, J. D., ed., Ore Deposits in the
United States 1933/1967, Amer. Inst. Min. Metall. Petrol.
cur in the tourmalinecement,disseminated in porous Engrs., New York.
fragments,or restrictedto the sheetedcontactzones. Anon., 1967, Kennecott proposesnuclear mining experiments
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