Linux

Notes for Professionals

®

50+ pages
of professional hints and
tricks

GoalKicker.com Free Programming Books

 D
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Contents
About ................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Getting started with GNU/Linux ..................................................................................................... 2
Section 1.1: Useful shortcuts....................................................................................................... 2
Section 1.2: File Management Commands................................................................................3
Section 1.3: Hello World.....................................................................................................................5
Section 1.4: Basic Linux Utilities...........................................................................................................5
Section 1.5: Searching for files by patterns in name/contents.....................................................6
Section 1.6: File Manipulation..................................................................................................... 7
Section 1.7: File/Directory details...........................................................................................8
Chapter 2: Detecting Linux distribution name and version .................................................................. 11
Section 2.1: Detect what debian-based distribution you are working in......................................11
Section 2.2: Detect what systemd-based distribution you are using..........................................11
Section 2.3: Detect what RHEL / CentOS / Fedora distribution you are working in.......................12
Section 2.4: Uname - Print information about the current system.............................................13
Section 2.5: Detect basic information about your distro...........................................................13
Section 2.6: Using GNU coreutils...........................................................................................13
Section 2.7: Find your linux os (both debian & rpm) name and release number..........................14
Chapter 3: Getting information on a running Linux ................................................................... 15
kernel
Section 3.1: Getting details of Linux kernel..........................................................................................15
Chapter 4: ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Shell
Section 4.1: Changing default shell........................................................................................16
Section 4.2: Basic Shell Utilities............................................................................................17
Section 4.3: Create Your Own Command Alias........................................................................18
Section 4.4: Locate a file on your system...............................................................................18
Chapter 5: Check Disk ................................................................................................................................ 19
Space
Section 5.1: Investigate Directories For Disk Usage......................................................................19
Section 5.2: Checking Disk Space.........................................................................................21
Chapter 6: Getting System Information ......................................................................................................... 23
Section 6.1: Statistics about CPU, Memory, Network and Disk (I/O operations).................................23
Section 6.2: Using tools like lscpu and lshw............................................................................23
Section 6.3: List Hardware...................................................................................................24
Section 6.4: Find CPU model/speed information......................................................................25
Section 6.5: Process monitoring and information gathering......................................................26
Chapter 7: ls ........................................................................................................................................... 28
command
Section 7.1: Options for ls command......................................................................................28
Section 7.2: ls command with most used options....................................................................28
Chapter 8: File Compression with 'tar' command ...................................................................................... 30
Section 8.1: Compress a folder..............................................................................................30
Section 8.2: Extract a folder from an archive..........................................................................30
Section 8.3: List contents of an archive.................................................................................30
Section 8.4: List archive content...........................................................................................31
Section 8.5: Compress and exclude one or multiple folder........................................................31
Section 8.6: Strip leading components...................................................................................31
Chapter 9: Services .................................................................................................................................................... 32
Section 9.1: List running service on Ubuntu Section 9.2: Systemd service management
........................................................................................... ............................................................................................................. 32
................... 32
Chapter 10: Managing Services ........................................................................................................................... 33
Section 10.1: Diagnosing a problem with a service...................................................................33
Section 10.2: Starting and Stopping ........................................................................................................... 33
Services Section 10.3: Getting the status ............................................................................................................. 34
of a service
Chapter 11: Modifying .................................................................................................................................. 35
Users
Section 11.1: Setting your own password................................................................................35
Section 11.2: Setting another user's password........................................................................35
Section 11.3: Adding a user.......................................................................................................35
Section 11.4: Removing a user..............................................................................................35
Section 11.5: Removing a user and its home folder..................................................................35
Section 11.6: Listing groups the current user is in...................................................................35
Section 11.7: Listing groups a user is in.......................................................................................35
Chapter 12: LAMP Stack ........................................................................................................................................... 36
Section 12.1: Installing LAMP on Arch Linux.........................................................................................36
Section 12.2: Installing LAMP on Ubuntu................................................................................37
Section 12.3: Installing LAMP stack on CentoOS...........................................................................38
Chapter 13: tee command ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Section 13.1: Write output to stdout, and also to a file.............................................................40
Section 13.2: Write output from the middle of a pipe chain to a file and pass it back to the pipe..........40
Section 13.3: write the output to multiple files.............................................................................40
Section 13.4: Instruct tee command to append to the file..............................................................40
Chapter 14: Secure Shell ............................................................................................................................ 42
(SSH)
Section 14.1: Connecting to a remote server...........................................................................42
Section 14.2: Installing OpenSSH suite..................................................................................42
Section 14.3: Configuring an SSH server to accept connections......................................................43
Section 14.4: Passwordless connection (using a key pair)........................................................43
Section 14.5: Generate public and private key.............................................................................43
Section 14.6: Disable ssh service............................................................................................... 43
Chapter 15: SCP ............................................................................................................................................................ 45
Section 15.1: Secure ............................................................................................................................................ 45
Copy Section 15.2: Basic ........................................................................................................................................... 45
Usage
Chapter 16: GnuPG ........................................................................................................................................ 46
(GPG)
Section 16.1: Exporting your public key...............................................................................................46
Section 16.2: Create and use a GnuPG key quickly.......................................................................46
Chapter 17: Network Configuration .................................................................................................................. 47
Section 17.1: Local DNS resolution.....................................................................................................47
Section 17.2: Configure DNS servers for domain name resolution...................................................47
Section 17.3: See and manipulate routes....................................................................................47
Section 17.4: Configure a hostname for some other system on your network....................................48
Section 17.5: Interface details................................................................................................... 49
Section 17.6: Adding IP to an interface ...................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 18: Midnight Commander ..................................................................................................................... 52
Section 18.1: Midnight Commander function keys in browsing mode..........................................52
Section 18.2: Midnight Commander function keys in file editing mode.......................................52
Chapter 19: Change root (chroot) ...................................................................................................................... 54
 Section 19.1: Requirements......................................................................................................54
Section 19.2: Manually changing root in a directory................................................................54
Section 19.3: Reasons to use chroot .......................................................................................................................... 55
Chapter 20: Package Managers .......................................................................................................................... 56
 Section 20.1: How to update packages with the apt package manager......................................56
Section 20.2: How to install a package with the pacman package ...................................................... 56
manager Section 20.3: How to update packages with the pacman ..................................................... 56
package manager
Section 20.4: How to update packages with yum ..........................................................................57
Chapter 21: Compiling the Linux kernel ........................................................................................................... 58
Section 21.1: Compilation of Linux Kernel on Ubuntu...............................................................58
Credits .............................................................................................................................................................................. 59
You may also ........................................................................................................................................................ 61
like
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om – Linux® Notes for Professionals 1

Chapter 1: Getting started with
GNU/Linux
Section 1.1: Useful shortcuts
Using The Terminal

The examples in this document assume that you are using a POSIX-compliant (such as bash, sh, zsh, ksh)
shell.

Large portions of GNU/Linux functionality are achieved using the terminal. Most distributions of Linux include
terminal emulators that allow users to interact with a shell from their desktop environment. A shell is a
command- line interpreter that executes user inputted commands. Bash (Bourne Again SHell) is a common
default shell among many Linux distributions and is the default shell for macOS.

These shortcuts will work if you are using Bash with the emacs keybindings (set by default):

Open terminal
Ctrl + Alt + T Super + T
or

Cursor
Go to the beginning of the line you are currently typing on.
movement Go to the end of the line you are currently typing on.
Move between the beginning of the line and the current position of the cursor.
Ctrl + XX
Alt ++ FA
Ctrl

Ctrl + E

Move cursor forward one word on the current line.

Move cursor backward one word on the current line.
Alt + B Move cursor forward one character on the current line.
Ctrl + F Move cursor backward one character on the current line.
Ctrl + B
Text manipulation

Ctrl + U Cut the line from the current position to the beginning of the line, adding it to the clipboard. If
you are at the end of the line, cut the entire line.
Ctrl + K Cut the line from the current position to the end of the line, adding it to the clipboard. If
you are at the beginning of the line, cut the entire line.
Ctrl + W Delete the word before the cursor, adding it to the clipboard.
Ctrl + Y Paste the last thing from the clipboard that you cut recently (undo the last delete at the
current cursor position).
Alt + T Swap the last two words before the cursor.
Alt + L Make lowercase from cursor to end of word.
ke uppercase from cursor to end of word.
Alt + U Mapitalize to end of word starting at cursor (whole word if cursor is at the beginning of
Alt + C Caword). lete to end of word starting at cursor (whole word if cursor is at the beginning of
Alt + D Deword). ints the last word written in previous command.
Alt + . PrSwap the last two characters before the cursor.
Ctrl + T
History access

Ctrl + R Lets you search through previously used commands.

Ctrl + Leave
G history searching mode without running a command.
Ctrl + J
Lets you copy current matched command to command line without running it, allowing you to
 make modifications before running the command.
Alt + R Revert any changes to a command you’ve pulled from your history, if you’ve edited it.
Shows last executed command, i.e. walk back through the command history (Similar to up
Ctrl + P
arrow).
Shows next executed command, i.e. walk forward through the command history (Similar to
Ctrl + N
down arrow).

Terminal control Clears the screen, similar to the clear command.

Stop all output to the screen. This is useful when running commands with lots of long output.
Ctrl + L
Ctrl + S
But this doesn't stop the running command.
Ctrl + Q Resume output to the screen after stopping it with
Ctrl + C Ctrl+S. End currently running process and return the
prompt.
Ctrl + D Log out of the current shell session, similar to the exit or logout command. In some commands,
acts as End of File signal to indicate that a file end has been reached.
Ctrl + Z Suspends (pause) currently running foreground process, which returns shell prompt. You
can then use bg command allowing that process to run in the background. To again bring that process to
foreground, use fg command. To view all background processes, use jobs command.
Tab Auto-complete files and directory names.
Tab Tab Shows all possibilities, when typed characters doesn't uniquely match to a file or directory
name.

Special
Ctrl +
characters H
Ctrl + J Same as Backspace.
Ctrl + M Same as Return (historically Line Feed).
Ctrl + I Same as Return (historically Carriage
Ctrl + G Return). Same as Tab.
Ctrl + @ Bell Character.
Esc Null Character.
Alt
Deadkey equivalent to the modifier.

Close Terminal

Ctrl + Shift + W To close terminal tab.

Ctrl + Shift + Q To close entire
terminal.

Alternatively, you can switch to the vi keybindings in bash using set -o vi. Use set -o emacs to switch back to the
emacs keybindings.

Section 1.2: File Management Commands

Linux uses some conventions for present and parent directories. This can be a little confusing for beginners.

Whenever you are in a terminal in Linux, you will be in what is called the current working directory. Often your
command prompt will display either the full working directory, or just the last part of that directory. Your
prompt could look like one of the following:

user@host ~/somedir $ user@host somedir $

user@host /home/user/somedir $

which says that your current working directory is /home/user/somedir.

In Linux .. represents the parent directory and . represents the current directory.

Therefore, if the current directory is /home/user/somedir, then cd ../somedir will not change the working directory.

The table below lists some of the most used file management commands

Directory navigation
Command Utility
pwd Get the full path of the current working
directory. cd - Navigate to the last directory you were
working in. or just cd Navigate to the current user's home
cd ~ directory.
cd .. Go to the parent directory of current directory (mind the space between cd and ..)
Listing files inside a directory
Command Utility
List the files and directories in the current directory in long (table) format (It is
ls -l recommended to use -l with ls for better readability).
ls -ld dir-name List information about the directory dir-name instead of its contents.
ls -a List all the files including the hidden ones (File names starting with a . are hidden files in Linux).
Appends a symbol at the end of a file name to indicate its type (* means executable, / means
ls -F directory, @ means symbolic link, = means socket, | means named pipe, > means door).
List the files sorted by last modified time with most recently modified files showing at the
ls -lt top (remember -l option provides the long format which has better readability).
ls -lh List the file sizes in human readable format.
ls -lR Shows all subdirectories recursively.
tree Will generate a tree representation of the file system starting from the current directory.
File/directory create, copy and remove
Command Utility
Will copy the file from source to destination. -p stands for preservation. It
cp -p source destination preserves the original attributes of file while copying like file owner,
timestamp, group, permissions etc.

cp -R source_dir Will copy source directory to specified destination recursively.

destination_dir
In Linux there is no rename command as such. Hence mv moves/renames the
mv file1 file2
file1 to file2.
Asks you before every file removal for confirmation. IF YOU ARE A NEW USER
rm -i filename TO LINUX COMMAND LINE, YOU SHOULD ALWAYS USE rm -i. You can specify
multiple files.
rm -R dir-name Will remove the directory dir-name recursively.
Will remove the directory dir recursively, ignoring non-existent files and will
rm -rf dir-name never prompt for anything. BE CAREFUL USING THIS COMMAND! You can
specify multiple directories.
Will remove the directory dir-name, if it's empty. This command can only remove
rmdir dir-name empty directories.
mkdir dir-name Create a directory dir-name.
Create a directory hierarchy. Create parent directories as needed, if they don't
mkdir -p dir-name/dir-name
exist. You can specify multiple directories.
Create a file filename, if it doesn't exist, otherwise change the timestamp of
touch filename the file to current time.
File/directory permissions and groups
Command Utility
 Change the file permissions. Specifications = u user, g group, o other, + add
chmod <specification> filename
permission, - remove, r read, w write,x execute.
chmod -R <specification> dir- name Change the permissions of a directory recursively. To change permission
of a directory and everything within that directory, use this command.
chmod go=+r myfile
Add read permission for the owner and the group.
chmod a +rwx myfile Allow all users to read, write or execute myfile.
chmod go -r myfile Remove read permission from the group and others.
Change ownership of a file to user owner1.
chown owner1 filename Change primary group ownership of file filename to group grp_owner. Change
chgrp grp_owner filename primary group ownership of directory dir-name to group grp_owner
recursively. To change group ownership of a directory and everything within
that directory, use this command.
chgrp -R grp_owner dir-name

Section 1.3: Hello World

Type the following code into your terminal, then press Enter :

echo "Hello World"

This will produce the following output:

Hello World

Section 1.4: Basic Linux Utilities

Linux has a command for almost any tasks and most of them are intuitive and easily interpreted.

Getting Help in Linux

Command Usability
man <name> Read the manual page of <name>.
man <section> <name> Read the manual page of <name>, related to the given section.
man -k <editor> Output all the software whose man pages contain <editor> keyword.
man -K <keyword> Outputs all man pages containing <keyword> within them.
Output all the applications whose one line description matches the word editor.
apropos <editor>
When not able to recall the name of the application, use this command.
help In Bash shell, this will display the list of all available bash commands.
help <name> In Bash shell, this will display the info about the <name> bash
command. info <name> View all the information about <name>.
dpkg -l Output a list of all installed packages on a Debian-based system.
dpkg -L packageName Will list out the files installed and path details for a given package on Debian.
dpkg -l | grep -i <edit> Return all .deb installed packages with <edit> irrespective of cases.
less /var/lib/dpkg/available Return descriptions of all available packages.
whatis vim List a one-line description of vim.
Display usage information about the <tool-name>. Sometimes command -h
<command-name> --help also works, but not for all commands.

User identification and who is who in Linux world

Command Usability
hostname Display hostname of the system.
 hostname -f Displays Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) of the system.
passwd Change password of current user.
whoami Username of the users logged in at the terminal.
who List of all the users currently logged in as a user.
Display current system status, time, duration, list of users currently logged in on system and
w other user information.
last Who recently used the system.
last root When was the last time root logged in as
user. Shows all bad login attempts into the
lastb
system.
chmod Changing permissions - read,write,execute of a file or directory.

Process related information

Command Usability
List all processes sorted by their current system resource usage. Displays a continually
top updated display of processes (By default 3 seconds). Use q key to exit top.
ps List processes currently running on current shell
session List all of the processes and commands root is
ps -u root
running
ps aux List all the processes by all users on the current system

Section 1.5: Searching for files by patterns in name/contents

A common and task of someone using the Linux Command Line (shell) is to search for files/directories with a
certain name or containing certain text. There are 2 commands you should familiarise yourself with in order to
accomplish this:

Find files by name

find /var/www -name '*.css'

This will print out the full path/filename to all files under /var/www that end in .css. Example output:

/var/www/html/text-cursor.css
/var/www/html/style.css

For more info:

man find

Find files containing text

grep font /var/www/html/style.css

This will print all lines containing the pattern font in the specified file. Example output:

font-weight: bold; font-family: monospace;

Another example:

grep font /var/www/html/

This doesn't work as you'd hoped. You get:

grep: /var/www/html/: Is a directory

You need to grep recursively to make it work, using the -R option:

grep -R font /var/www/html/

Hey nice! Check out the output of this one:

/var/www/html/admin/index.php:echo '<font color=red><b>Error: no dice</b></font><br/>';

/var/www/html/admin/index.php:echo '<font color=red><b>Error: try again</b></font><br/>';
/var/www/html/style.css:font-weight: bold;
/var/www/html/style.css:font-family: monospace;

Notice that when grep is matching multiple files, it prefixes the matched lines with the filenames. You can use
the - h option to get rid of that, if you want.

For more info:

man grep

Section 1.6: File Manipulation

Files and directories (another name for folders) are at the heart of Linux, so being able to create, view, move, and
delete them from the command line is very important and quite powerful. These file manipulation commands allow
you to perform the same tasks that a graphical file explorer would perform.

Create an empty text file called myFile:

touch myFile

Rename myFile to myFirstFile:

mv myFile myFirstFile

View the contents of a file:

cat myFirstFile

View the content of a file with pager (one screenful at a time):

less myFirstFile

View the first several lines of a file:

head myFirstFile

View the last several lines of a file:

tail myFirstFile

Edit a file:
 vi myFirstFile

See what files are in your current working directory:

ls

Create an empty directory called myFirstDirectory:

mkdir myFirstDirectory

Create multi path directory: (creates two directories, src and myFirstDirectory)

mkdir -p src/myFirstDirectory

Move the file into the directory:

mv myFirstFile myFirstDirectory/

You can also rename the file:

user@linux-computer:~$ mv myFirstFile secondFileName

Change the current working directory to myFirstDirectory:

cd myFirstDirectory

Delete a file:

rm myFirstFile

Move into the parent directory (which is represented as ..):

cd ..

Delete an empty directory:

rmdir myFirstDirectory

Delete a non-empty directory (i.e. contains files and/or other directories):

rm -rf myFirstDirectory

Make note that when deleting directories, that you delete ./ not / that will wipe your whole filesystem.

Section 1.7: File/Directory details

The ls command has several options that can be used together to show more information.

Details/Rights

The l option shows the file permissions, size, and last modified date. So if the root directory contained a dir called
test and a file someFile the command:
 user@linux-computer:~$ ls -l

Would output something like

-rw-r--r-- 1 user users70 Jul 22 13:36 someFile.txt

drwxrwxrwx 2 user users 4096 Jul 21 07:18 test

The permissions are in format of drwxrwxrwx. The first character represents the file type d if it's a directory -
otherwise. The next three rwx are the permissions the user has over the file, the next three are the permissions
the group has over the file, and the last three are the permissions everyone else has over the file.

The r of rwx stands for if a file can be read, the w represents if the file can be modified, and the x stands for if
the file can be executed. If any permission isn't granted a - will be in place of r, w, or x.

So from above user can read and modify someFile.txt but the group has only read-only rights.

To change rights you can use the chmod ### fileName command if you have sudo rights. r is represented by a value
of 4, w is represented by 2, and x is represented by a 1. So if only you want to be able to modify the contents to
the test directory

Owner rwx = 4+2+1 = 7

Group r-x = 4+0+1 = 5
Other r-x = 4+0+1 = 5

So the whole command is

chmod 755 test

Now doing a ls -l would show something like

drwxr-xr-x 2 user users 4096 Jul 21 07:20 test

Readable Size

Used in conjunction with the l option the h option shows file sizes that are human readable. Running

user@linux-computer:~$ ls -lh

Would output:

total 4166
-rw-r--r-- 1 user users70 Jul 22 13:36 someFile.txt
drwxrwxrwx 2 user users 4.0K Jul 21 07:18 test

Hidden

To view hidden files use the a option. For example

user@linux-computer:~$ ls -a

Might list
 .profile someFile.txt test

Total Directory Size

To view the size of the current directory use the s option (the h option can also be used to make the size more
readable).

user@linux-computer:~$ ls -s

Outputs

total 4166
someFile.txt test

Recursive View

Lets say test directory had a file anotherFile and you wanted to see it from the root folder, you could use the R
option which would list the recursive tree.

user@linux-computer:~$ ls -R

Outputs

.:
someFile.txt test

./test: anotherFile
Chapter 2: Detecting Linux distribution
name and version
Section 2.1: Detect what debian-based distribution you are
working in
Just execute lsb_release -a.
On Debian:

$ lsb_release -a
No LSB modules are available. Distributor ID: Debian
Description:Debian GNU/Linux testing (stretch)
Release:testing
Codename:stretch

On Ubuntu:

$ lsb_release -a
No LSB modules are available. Distributor ID: Ubuntu Description:Ubuntu 14.04.4 LTS Release:14.04
Codename:trusty

In case when you don't have lsb_release installed you may want to try some guessing, for example, there is a file
/etc/issue that often contains distribution name. For example, on ubuntu:

$ cat /etc/issue
Ubuntu 12.04.5 LTS \n \l

Don't use file /etc/debian_version because its contents do not match distribution name!

Note that this will also work on non-Debian-family distributions like Fedora, RHEL, or openSUSE — but that lsb_release
may not be installed.

Section 2.2: Detect what systemd-based distribution you are

using
This method will work on modern versions of Arch, CentOS, CoreOS, Debian, Fedora, Mageia, openSUSE, Red
Hat Enterprise Linux, SUSE Linux Enterprise Server, Ubuntu, and others. This wide applicability makes it an
ideal as a first approach, with fallback to other methods if you need to also identify older systems.

Look at /etc/os-release. In specific, look at variables NAME, VERSION, ID, VERSION_ID, and PRETTY_NAME.
On Fedora, this file might look like:

NAME=Fedora
VERSION="24 (Workstation Edition)" ID=fedora
VERSION_ID=24
PRETTY_NAME="Fedora 24 (Workstation Edition)" ANSI_COLOR="0;34"
 CPE_NAME="cpe:/o:fedoraproject:fedora:24" HOME_URL="https://fedoraproject.org/" BUG_REPORT_URL="https://bugzilla.redhat.com/" REDHAT_
PRIVACY_POLICY_URL=https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/Legal:PrivacyPolicy VARIANT="Workstation Edition"
VARIANT_ID=workstation

On CentOS, this file might look like this:

S Linux" VERSION="7 (Core)"

LIKE="rhel fedora" VERSION_ID="7"
E="CentOS Linux 7 (Core)" ANSI_COLOR="0;31"
pe:/o:centos:centos:7" HOME_URL= BUG_REPORT_URL="https://bugs.centos.org/"

TISBT_PROJECT="CentOS-7" CENTOS_MANTISBT_PROJECT_VERSION="7" REDHAT_SUPPORT_PRODUCT="centos" REDHAT_SUPPORT_PRODUCT

This file is documented on the freedesktop web site; in principle, it is not systemd specific — but it will exist
on all systemd-based distributions.

From the bash shell, one can source the /etc/os-release file and then use the various variables directly, like this:

$ ( source /etc/os-release && echo "$PRETTY_NAME" )

Fedora 24 (Workstation Edition)

Section 2.3: Detect what RHEL / CentOS / Fedora

distribution you are working in
Look at the contents of /etc/redhat-release

cat /etc/redhat-release

Here is the output from a Fedora 24 machine: Fedora release 24 (Twenty Four)

As mentioned in the debian-based response, you can also use the lsb_release -a command, which outputs this
from a Fedora 24 machine:

LSB Version: :core-4.1-amd64:core-4.1-noarch:cxx-4.1-amd64:cxx-4.1-noarch:desktop-4.1-

amd64:desktop-4.1-noarch:languages-4.1-amd64:languages-4.1-noarch:printing-4.1-amd64:printing-4.1- noarch
Distributor ID:Fedora

Description: Fedora release 24 (Twenty Four)

Release: Codename: 24
TwentyFour
Section 2.4: Uname - Print information about the
current system
Uname is the short name for unix name. Just type uname in console to get information about your operating
system.

uname [OPTION]

If no OPTION is specified, uname assumes the -s option.

-a or --all - Prints all information, omitting -p and -i if the information is unknown.

Example:
> uname -a

SunOS hope 5.7 Generic_106541-08 sun4m sparc SUNW,SPARCstation-10

All the options:

-s, --kernel-name Print the kernel name.

-n, --nodename Print the network node hostname.
-r, --kernel-release Print the kernel release.
-v, --kernel-version Print the kernel version.
-m, --machine Print the machine hardware name.
-p, --processor Print the processor type, or "unknown".
-i, --hardware-platform Print the hardware platform, or "unknown".
-o, --operating-system Print the operating system.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.

Section 2.5: Detect basic information about your distro

just execute uname -a.
On Arch:

$ uname -a
Linux nokia 4.6.4-1-ARCH #1 SMP PREEMPT Mon Jul 11 19:12:32 CEST 2016 x86_64 GNU/Linuxenter
code here

Section 2.6: Using GNU coreutils

So the GNU coreutils should be avaialable on all linux based systems (please correct me if I am wrong here).

If you do not know what system you are using you may not be able to directly jump to one of the examples
above, hence this may be your first port of call.

$ uname -a

On my system this gives me the following...

Linux Scibearspace 3.16.0-4-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 3.16.7-ckt25-2+deb8u3 (2016-07-02) x86_64

GNU/Linux

Here you can see the following :

Scibearspace : the name of my pc

Scibearspace : the name of my pc

3.16.0-4-amd64 : the kernel and architecture
SMP Debian 3.16.7-CKT25-2+deb8u3 : tells me I am running debian with the 3.16
kernel Finaly the last part I am running debian 8 (update 3).

I would welcome any others to add in results for RHEL, and SuSe systems.

Section 2.7: Find your linux os (both debian & rpm) name
and release number
Most of linux distros stores its version info in the /etc/lsb-release (debian) or /etc/redhat-release (RPM
based) file. Using below generic command should get you past most of the Debian and RPM derivatives as Linux
Mint and Cent-Os.

Example on Ubuntu Machine:

cat /etc/*release

DISTRIB_ID=Ubuntu DISTRIB_RELEASE=14.04
DISTRIB_CODENAME=trusty DISTRIB_DESCRIPTION="Ubuntu 14.04 LTS"
Chapter 3: Getting information on
a running Linux kernel
Section 3.1: Getting details of Linux kernel
We can use command uname with various options to get complete details of running kernel.

uname -a

Linux df1-ws-5084 4.4.0-64-generic #85-Ubuntu SMP Mon Feb 20 11:50:30 UTC 2017 x86_64
x86_64 x86_64 GNU/Linux

As per man page here few more options

Usage: uname [OPTION]...

Print certain system information. With no OPTION, same as -s.

-a, --all print all information, in the following order,

except omit -p and -i if unknown:
-s, --kernel-nameprint the kernel name
-n, --nodenameprint the network node hostname
-r, --kernel-releaseprint the kernel release
-v, --kernel-versionprint the kernel version
-m, --machineprint the machine hardware name
-p, --processorprint the processor type (non-portable)
-i, --hardware-platformprint the hardware platform (non-portable)
-o, --operating-systemprint the operating system
--helpdisplay this help and exit
--versionoutput version information and exit
Chapter 4: Shell
The shell executes a program in response to its prompt. When you give a command, the shell searches for the
program, and then executes it. For example, when you give the command ls, the shell searches for the
utility/program named ls, and then runs it in the shell. The arguments and the options that you provide with
the utilities can impact the result that you get. The shell is also known as a CLI, or command line interface.

Section 4.1: Changing default shell

Most modern distributions will come with BASH (Bourne Again SHell) pre-installed and configured as a default

shell. The command (actually an executable binary, an ELF) that is responsible for changing shells in Linux is chsh

(change
shell).

We can first check which shells are already installed and configured on our machine by using the chsh -l
command, which will output a result similar to this:

[user@localhost ~]$ chsh -l

/bin/sh
/bin/bash
/sbin/nologin
/usr/bin/sh
/usr/bin/bash
/usr/sbin/nologin
/usr/bin/fish

In some Linux distributions, chsh -l is invalid. In this case, the list of all available shells can be found at
/etc/shells file. You can show the file contents with cat:

[user@localhost ~]$ cat /etc/shells

# /etc/shells: valid login shells
/bin/sh
/bin/bash
/sbin/nologin
/usr/bin/sh
/usr/bin/bash
/usr/sbin/nologin
/usr/bin/fish

Now we can choose our new default shell, e.g. fish, and configure it by using chsh -s,

[user@localhost ~]$ chsh -s /usr/bin/fish Changing shell for user.

Password: Shell changed.

Now all that is left to do is preform a logoff-logon cycle, and enjoy our new default shell.

If you wish to change the default shell for a different user, and you have administrative privileges on the
machine, you'll be able to accomplish this by using chsh as root. So assuming we want to change user_2's default
shell to fish, we will use the same command as before, but with the addition of the other user's username, chsh
-s
/usr/bin/fish user_2.

In order to check what the current default shell is, we can view the $SHELL environment variable, which points
to the path to our default shell, so after our change, we would expect to get a result similar to this,
 ~  echo $SHELL
/usr/bin/fish

chsh options:

-s shell

Sets shell as the login shell.

-l, --list-shells

Print the list of shells listed in /etc/shells and exit.

-h, --help

Print a usage message and exit.

-v, --version

Print version information and exit.

Section 4.2: Basic Shell Utilities

Customizing the Shell prompt

Default command prompt can be changed to look different and short. In case the current directory is long default
command prompt becomes too large. Using PS1 becomes useful in these cases. A short and customized command
pretty and elegant. In the table below PS1 has been used with a number of arguments to show different forms of
shell prompts. Default command prompt looks something like this: user@host ~ $ in my case it looks like this:
bruce@gotham ~ $. It can changed as per the table below:

Command Utility
PS1='\w $ ' ~ $ shell prompt as directory name. In this case root directory is
Root. PS1='\h $ ' gotham $ shell prompt as hostname
PS1='\u $ ' bruce $ shell prompt as username
PS1='\t $ ' 22:37:31 $ shell prompt in 24 hour format
PS1='@ $ ' 10:37 PM shell prompt in 12 hour time format
PS1='! $ ' 732 will show the history number of command in place of shell prompt
PS1='dude $ ' dude $ will show the shell prompt the way you like
Some basic shell commands
Command Utility
cut/kill yank/paste
Ctrl-k
will take cursor to the start of the line will take cursor to the end of
Ctrl-y
Ctrl-a
the line
Ctrl-e
Ctrl-d
will delete the character after/at the cursor
Ctrl-l will clear the screen/terminal
Ctrl-u will clear everything between prompt and the cursor
Ctrl-_ will undo the last thing typed on the command line
Ctrl-c
will interrupt/stop the job/process running in the foreground
Ctrl-r reverse search in history
~/.bash_history stores last 500 commands/events used on the shell
history will show the command history
will show all the commands in history having keyword <key-word> (useful in cases
history | grep <key-word> when you remember part of the command used in the past)

Section 4.3: Create Your Own Command Alias

If you are tired of using long commands in bash you can create your own command alias.

The best way to do this is to modify (or create if it does not exist) a file called .bash_aliases in your home folder. The
general syntax is:

alias command_alias='actual_command'

where actual_command is the command you are renaming and command_alias is the new name you have given it. For
example

alias install='sudo apt-get -y install'

maps the new command alias install to the actual command sudo apt-get -y install. This means that when
you use install in a terminal this is interpreted by bash as sudo apt-get -y install.

Section 4.4: Locate a file on your system

Using bash you can easily locate a file with the locate command. For example say you are looking for the file
mykey.pem:

locate mykey.pem

Sometimes files have strange names for example you might have a file like random7897_mykey_0fidw.pem. Let's say
you're looking for this file but you only remember the mykey and pem parts. You could combine the locate
command with grep using a pipe like this:

locate pem | grep mykey

Which would bring up all results which contain both of these pieces.

Note that not all systems have the locate utility installed, and many that do have not enabled it. locate is fast
and efficient because it periodically scans your system and caches the names and locations for every file on it, but
if that data collection is not enabled then it cannot tell you anything. You can use updatedb to manually initiate
the filesystem scan in order to update the cached info about files on your filesystem.

Should you not have a working locate, you can fall back on the find utility:

find / -name mykey.pem -print

is roughly equivalent to locate mykey.pem but has to scan your filesystem(s) each time you run it for the file in
question, rather than using cached data. This is obviously slower and less efficient, but more real-time. The find
utility can do much more than find files, but a full description of its capabilities is beyond the scope of this
example.
 Chapter 5: Check Disk Space
Section 5.1: Investigate Directories For Disk Usage
Sometimes it may be required to find out which directory consuming how much disk space especially when you are
used df -h and realized your available disk space is low.

du:

du command summarizes disk usage of the set of FILEs, recursively for directories.

It's often uses with -sh option:

-s, --summarize
display only a total for each argument
-h, --human-readable
print sizes in human readable format (e.g., 1K 234M 2G)

For summarizing disk usages of the files in the current directory we use:

du -sh *

Example output:

Downloads
572KMusic Pictures Public Templates Videos
208M
4,0K
724K
4,0K
4,0K
4,0K

We can also include hidden files with using:

du -sh .[!.]* *

Example output:

6,3M.atom
4,0K.bash_history 4,0K.bash_logout
8,0K.bashrc
350M.cache
195M.config
12K.dbus
4,0K.dmrc
44K.gconf
60K.gem
520K.gimp-2.8
28K.gnome
4,0K.ICEauthority 8,3M.local
8,0K.nano
404K.nv
36K.pki
 4,0K.profile
8,0K.ssh
0.sudo_as_admin_successful 4,0K.Xauthority
4,0K.xsession-errors 4,0K.xsession-errors.old 572KDocuments
208MDownloads
4,0KMusic
724KPictures
4,0KPublic
4,0KTemplates
4,0KVideos

Thirdly, you can add total to the output by adding ,-c, option:

du -sch .[!.]* *

Result:

.
.
. 4,0K
4,0K
Templates Videos total
769M

Most importantly using du command properly on the root directory is a life saving action to find out what
application/service or user is consuming your disk space wildly. For example, in case of a ridiculously low level
of disk space availability for a web and mail server, the reason could be a spam attack to your mail service and
you can diagnose it just by using du command.

Investigate root directory for disk usage:

sudo du -sch /.[!.]* /*

Example output:

icns 24K/.VolumeIcon.png 13M/bin

M/lib

s '/proc/18221/task/18221/fd/4': No such file or directory

s '/proc/18221/task/18221/fdinfo/4': No such file or directory du: cannot access '/proc/18221/fd/4': No such fi
 du: cannot access '/proc/18221/fdinfo/4': No such file or directory
0/proc 20K/root
du: cannot access '/run/user/1000/gvfs': Permission denied 9,4M/run
13M/sbin
4,0K/srv
0/sys 72K/tmp
3,5G/usr
639M/var
0/vmlinuz 5,8Gtotal

Lastly, the best method forms when you add a threshold size value for directories to ignore small ones. This
command will only show folders with more than 1GB in size which located under root directory up to the
farthermost branch of the whole directory tree in your file system:

sudo du --threshold=1G -ch /.[!.]* /*

Example output:

1,4G /usr/lib
1,8G /usr/share
3,5G /usr total
5,8G

Section 5.2: Checking Disk Space

It's quite common to want to check the status of the various partitions/drives on your server/computer to see
how full they are. The following command is the one you'll want to run:

df -h

This will produce output similar to the following:

[root@mail ~]# df -h
FilesystemSizeUsed Avail Use% Mounted on
19G 1.6G 16G 9% /
/dev/mapper/VolGroup-lv_root
tmpfs 245M 0 245M 0% /dev/shm
/dev/sda1 485M 47M 413M 11% /boot

In this basic example, we can see that the / partition only has 9% used.

For a more complex example that also covers using df to see various mountpoints, see below:

[root@mail ~]# df -h
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/mapper/VG-root 1.9T 1.7T 89G 95% /
/dev/mapper/VG-var 431G 145G 264G 36% /var
devtmpfs 7.8G 204K 7.8G 1% /dev
tmpfs 7.8G 4.0K 7.8G 1% /dev/shm
/dev/md1 495M 126M 344M 27% /boot
ku.example.com:9421 2.5T 487G 2.0T 20% /mnt/test
tmpfs 500M 86M 415M 18% /var/ngx_pagespeed_cache
In this example, we have a / partition that's 95% full along with an additional /var partition that's only 36% full.

It's got an external network mount of 2T that's mounted on /mnt/test and a ramdisk/tmpfs mount of 500M
mounted on /var/ngx_pagespeed_cache.
 Chapter 6: Getting System Information
Collection of commands to fetch system related information.

Section 6.1: Statistics about CPU, Memory, Network and Disk

(I/O operations)
To get general statistics about main components of Linux family of stat commands are extremely useful

CPU

To get processors related statistics you can use mpstat command but with some options it will provide better
visibility:

$ mpstat 2 10

Memory

We all know command free to show amount of (remaining) RAM but to see all statistic including I/O operations:

$ vmstat 2 10

Disk

To get general information about your disk operations in real time you can utilise iostat.

$ iostat -kx 2

Network

To be able to see what is happening with your network services you can use netstat

$ netstat -ntlp # open TCP sockets

$ netstat -nulp # open UDP sockets
$ netstat -nxlp # open Unix sockets

But you can find useful monitoring to see network traffic in real time:

$ sudo iftop

Optional

To generate statistics in real time related to I/O operations across all components you can use dstat. That tool
that is a versatile replacement for vmstat, iostat and ifstat

Section 6.2: Using tools like lscpu and lshw

By using tools like lscpu as lscpu is an easy way to get CPU information.

pu Architecture: CPU op-mode(s): Byte Order:

x86_64
32-bit, 64-bit Little Endian
CPU(s): 4
On-line CPU(s) list: 0-3
Thread(s) per core: 1
Core(s) per socket: 4
Socket(s): 1
NUMA node(s): 1
Vendor ID: GenuineIntel
CPU family: 6
Model: 23
Stepping: 10
CPU MHz: 1998.000
BogoMIPS: 5303.14
Virtualization: VT-x
L1d cache: 32K
L1i cache: 32K
L2 cache: 2048K
NUMA node0 CPU(s): 0-3

By using tool lshw

$ lshw | grep cpu

df1-ws-5084
description: Computer width: 64 bits capabilities: vsyscall32
*-core
description: Motherboard physical id: 0
*-memory
description: System memory physical id: 0
size: 5881MiB
*-cpu
product: Intel(R) Pentium(R) CPU G3220 @ 3.00GHz vendor: Intel Corp.
physical id: 1 bus info: cpu@0 size: 3GHz capacity: 3GHz width: 64 bits

Section 6.3: List Hardware

Ubuntu:

lshw is a small tool to extract detailed information on the hardware configuration of the machine. It can report
exact memory configuration, firmware version, mainboard configuration, CPU version and speed, cache
configuration, bus speed, etc.

$ sudo lshw | less (or more)

$ sudo lshw -html > myhardware.html
$ sudo lshw -xml > myhardware.xml

To show PCI info

$ lspci -tv
 To see USB info

$ lsusb -tv

To display BIOS information

$ dmidecode -q | less

To see specific information about disk (disk sda in example) you can use:

$ hdparm -i /dev/sda

Few additional utilities/commands will help gather some extra information:

$ smartctl -A /dev/sda | grep Power_On_Hours # How long has this disk (system) been powered on in total
$ hdparm -tT /dev/sda # Do a read speed test on disk sda
$ badblocks -s /dev/sda # Test for unreadable blocks on disk sda

Section 6.4: Find CPU model/speed information

Ubuntu:

$ cat /proc/cpuinfo

Sample Output:

mily model model name

: 0stepping cpu MHz cache size
id : GenuineIntel
: 6
: 15
: Intel(R) Core(TM)2 Quad CPU
Q6600@ 2.40GHz
: 11
: 1596.000
: 4096 KB
: 0
: 4
: 0
: 4
: 0

initial apicid: 0 fpu: yes

fpu_exception: yes cpuid level: 10

wp flags : yes
: fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8 apic sep mtrr pge mca cmov pat pse36 clflush dts
m constant_tsc arch_perfmon pebs bts rep_good pni dtes64 monitor ds_cpl vmx est tm2 ssse3 cx16 xtpr pdcm lahf_l

power management:
 model model name stepping cpu :MHz
15 cache size
physical id siblings core id : Intel(R) Core(TM)2 Quad CPU
cpu cores apicid : 11
: 1596.000
: 4096 KB
: 0
: 4
: 3
: 4
: 3

initial apicid: 3 fpu: yes

fpu_exception: yes cpuid level: 10

: yeswp flags
: fpu vme de pse tsc msr pae mce cx8
acpi mmx fxsr sse sse2 ss ht tm pbe syscall nx lm constant_tsc arch_perfmon pebs bts rep_good pni dtes64
clflush size: 64 cache_alignment: 64
address sizes: 36 bits physical, 48 bits virtual power management:

count processor (including cores):

$ grep -c processor /proc/cpuinfo

Section 6.5: Process monitoring and information

gathering
Overall you have two ways to monitor processes at linux host

Static monitoring

Most widely used command is ps (i.e., process status) command is used to provide information about the currently
running processes, including their process identification numbers (PIDs).

Here few useful options to gather specific

information. List processes in a hierarchy

$ ps -e -o pid,args --forest

List processes sorted by % cpu usage

$ ps -e -o pcpu,cpu,nice,state,cputime,args --sort pcpu | sed '/^ 0.0 /d'

List processes sorted by mem (KB) usage.

$ ps -e -orss=,args= | sort -b -k1,1n | pr -TW$COLUMNS

List all threads for a particular process ("firefox-bin" process in example )

$ ps -C firefox-bin -L -o pid,tid,pcpu,state

After finding specific process you can gather information related to it using lsof to list paths that process id
has open
 $ lsof -p $$

Or based on path find out list processes that have specified path open

$ lsof ~
Interactive monitoring

Most commonly known tool for dynamic monitoring is:

$ top

That mostly default command that have huge amount options to filter and represent information in real time (in
comparison to ps command.

Still there are more advance options that can be considered and installed as top replacement

$ htop -d 5

or

$ atop

Which has ability to log all the activities into log file (default atop will log all the activity on every 600 seconds)
To this list there are few specialised commands as iotop or iftop

$ sudo iotop
Chapter 7: ls command
Section 7.1: Options for ls command
Full list of options:

ls -a list all files including hidden file starting with '.'

ls --color colored list [=always/never/auto]

ls -d list directories - with ' */'

ls -F add one char of */=>@| to enteries

ls -i list file's inode index number

ls -l list with long format - show

permissions ls -la list long format including

hidden files ls -lh list long format with
readable file size ls -ls list with long format
with file size

ls -r list in reverse order

ls -R list recursively directory tree

ls -s list file size

ls -S sort by file size

ls -t sort by time & date

ls -X sort by extension name

Section 7.2: ls command with most used options

ls shows files and directories in present working directory. (if no arguments are passed.) (It doesn't show
hidden files which starts with . by default.)

user@ubuntu14:/usr$ ls
bingamesincludeliblib32localsbinsharesrc

To see all files (hidden files/folders also). Use ls -a OR ls -all

user@ubuntu14:/usr$ ls -a
...bingamesincludeliblib32localsbinsharesrc

To differentiate between files and folders and symbolic links and other, use ls -F OR ls --classify

user@ubuntu14:~$ ls -F
bash_profile_coursechat_apps/ Desktop/ Downloads/ foxitsoftware/
Public/test/bin/ClionProjects/Documents/IDE/ Music/
Pictures/Templates/Videos/
Here, ending characters are used to distinguish files and folders.

“/” suggest directory.

“*”suggest executables.

“@” suggest symbolic links.

To get more details about the files and directories, use ls -l

user@ubuntu14:~/example$ ls -l total 6464

-rw-r--r-- 1 dave dave 41 Dec 24 12:19 Z.txt

drwxr-xr-x 2 user group 4096 Dec 24 12:00 a_directory
-rw-r--r-- 1 user group 6 Dec 24 12:01 a_file
lrwxrwxrwx 1 user group 6 Dec 24 12:04 a_link -> a_file
-rw-r--r-- 1 user group 6 Dec 24 12:03 a_newer_file
-rw-r----- 1 user group 6586816 Dec 24 12:07 big.zip

In this example, the total size of the contents is 6460KB.

Then there is an entry for each file/directory in alphabetical order with upper case before lower
case. The first character is the type (e.g. d - directory, l - link).

The next 9 characters show the permissions for the user, group and other.

This is followed by the number of hard links, then the owner's name and group.

The next field is the size in bytes. This can be displayed in a human friendly form by adding the -h option e.g.
6586816 is displayed as 6.3M

There then follows a timestamp (usually the modification time).

The final field is the name. Note: links also show the target of the link.
Chapter 8: File Compression with 'tar'
command
Common Options -
-c --create Create a new archive.
-x --extract Extract files from an archive.
-t --list List the contents of an archive.
-f --file=ARCHIVE Use archive file or dir ARCHIVE.
-v --verbose Verbosely list files processed.
Compression Options -
-a --auto-compress Use archive suffix to determine the compression program.
-j --bzip2 Filter the archive through bzip2.
-J --xz --lzma Filter the archive through xz.
-z --gzip Filter the archive through gzip.

Section 8.1: Compress a folder

This creates a simple archive of a folder :

tar -cf ./my-archive.tar ./my-folder/

Verbose output shows which files and directories are added to the archive, use the -v option:

tar -cvf ./my-archive.tar ./my-folder/

For archiving a folder compressed 'gzip', you have to use the -z option :

tar -czf ./my-archive.tar.gz ./my-folder/

You can instead compress the archive with 'bzip2', by using the -j option:

tar -cjf./my-archive.tar.bz2 ./my-folder/

Or compress with 'xz', by using the -J option:

tar -cJf./my-archive.tar.xz ./my-folder/

Section 8.2: Extract a folder from an archive

There is an example for extract a folder from an archive in the current location :

tar -xf archive-name.tar

If you want to extract a folder from an archive to a specfic destination :

tar -xf archive-name.tar -C ./directory/destination

Section 8.3: List contents of an archive

List the contents of an archive file without extracting it:
 tar -tf archive.tar.gz Folder-In-Archive/ Folder-In-Archive/file1
Folder-In-Archive/Another-Folder/ Folder-In-Archive/Another-Folder/file2

Section 8.4: List archive content

There is an example of listing content :

tar -tvf archive.tar

The option -t is used for the listing. For listing the content of a tar.gz archive, you have to use the -z option
anymore :

tar -tzvf archive.tar.gz

Section 8.5: Compress and exclude one or multiple folder

If you want to extract a folder, but you want to exclude one or several folders during the extraction, you can use the
--exclude option.

tar -cf archive.tar ./my-folder/ --exclude="my-folder/sub1" --exclude="my-folder/sub3"

With this folder tree :

my-folder/ sub1/ sub2/ sub3/

The result will be :

./archive.tar my-folder/
sub2/

Section 8.6: Strip leading components

To strip any number of leading components, use the --strip-components option:

--strip-components=NUMBER
strip NUMBER leading components from file names on extraction

For example to strip the leading folder, use:

tar -xf --strip-components=1 archive-name.tar

Chapter 9: Services
Section 9.1: List running service on Ubuntu
To get a list of the service on your system, you may run:

service --status-all

The output of service --status-all lists the state of services controlled by System V.

The + indicates the service is running, - indicates a stopped service. You can see this by running service
SERVICENAME status for a + and - service.

Some services are managed by Upstart. You can check the status of all Upstart services with sudo initctl list.
Any service managed by Upstart will also show in the list provided by service --status-all but will be marked
with a ?.

ref: https://askubuntu.com/questions/407075/how-to-read-service-status-all-results

Section 9.2: Systemd service management

Listing services

systemctl To list running services

systemctl --failed To list failed services

Managing Targets (Similar to Runlevels in SysV)

systemctl get-default To find the default target for your system

systemctl set-default <target-name> To set the default target for your system

Managing services at runtime

systemctl start [service-name] To start a service

systemctl stop [service-name] To stop a service
systemctl restart [service-name] To restart a service
systemctl reload [service-name] To request service to reload its
systemctl status [service-name] To configuration show current status of a
service

Managing autostart of services

systemctl is-enabled [service-name] To show whether a service is enabled on system boot

systemctl is-active [service-name] To show whether a service is currently active(running)
enable a service on system boot
systemctl enable [service-name] To
systemctl disable [service-name] To disable a service on system boot

Masking services

systemctl mask [service-name] To mask a service (Makes it hard to start a service by mistake)
systemctl unmask [service-name] To unmask a service

Restarting systemd

systemctl daemon-reload
Chapter 10: Managing Services
Section 10.1: Diagnosing a problem with a service
On systems using systemd, such as Fedora => 15, Ubuntu (Server and Desktop) >= 15.04, and RHEL/CentOS >= 7:

systemctl status [servicename]

...where [servicename] is the service in question; for example, systemctl status sshd. This will
show basic status information and any recent errors logged.
You can see further errors with journalctl. For example,journalctl -xe will load the last 1000 logged into a
pager (like less), jumping to the end. You can also use journalctl -f, which will follow log messages as they come
in.

To see logs for a particular service, use the -t flag, like this:

journalctl -f -t sshd

Other handy options include -p for priority (-p warnings to see only warnings and above), -b for "since last boot",
and -S for "since" — putting that together, we might do

journalctl -p err -S yesterday

to see all items logged as errors since yesterday.

If journalctl is not available, or if you are following application error logs which do not use the system journal,
the tail command can be used to show the last few lines of a file. A useful flag for tail is -f (for "follow"), which
causes tail continue showing data as it gets appended to the file. To see messages from most services on the
system:

tail -f /var/log/messages

Or, if the service is privileged, and may log sensitive data:

tail -f /var/log/secure

Some services have their own log files, a good example is auditd, the linux auditing daemon, which has its logs
stored in /var/log/audit/. If you do not see output from your service in /var/log/messages try looking for service
specific logs in /var/log/

Section 10.2: Starting and Stopping Services

On systems that use the System-V style init scripts, such as RHEL/CentOS 6:

service <service> start

service <service> stop

On systems using systemd, such as Ubuntu (Server and Desktop) >= 15.04, and RHEL/CentOS >= 7:

systemctl <service> dnsmasq

systemctl <service> dnsmasq

Section 10.3: Getting the status of a service
On systems that use the System-V style init scripts, such as RHEL/CentOS 6:

service <service> status

On systems using systemd, such as Ubuntu (Server and Desktop) >= 15.04, and RHEL/CentOS >= 7.0:

systemctl status <service>

Chapter 11: Modifying Users
Parameter Details
The name of the user. Do not use capital letters, do not use dots, do not end it in dash, it must not
username include colons, no special characters. Cannot start with a number.

Section 11.1: Setting your own password

passwd

Section 11.2: Setting another user's password

Run the following as root:

passwd username

Section 11.3: Adding a user

Run the following as root:

useradd username

Section 11.4: Removing a user

Run the following as root:

userdel username

Section 11.5: Removing a user and its home folder

Run the following as root:

userdel -r username

Section 11.6: Listing groups the current user is in

groups

More detailed information about user and group numerical IDs can be found with the id command.

Section 11.7: Listing groups a user is in

groups username

More detailed information about user and group numerical IDs can be found with id username.
Chapter 12: LAMP Stack
LAMP (Linux Apache MySQL PHP) consists of the Linux operating system as development environment, the
Apache HTTP Server as web server, the MySQL relational database management system (RDBMS) as DB (Data
Base) system, and the PHP programming language as Server side (Back End) programming language.

LAMP is used as a Open Source stack of technologies solution to web development area. Windows version of
this stack is called WAMP (Windows Apache MySQL PHP)

Section 12.1: Installing LAMP on Arch Linux

With this line we will install all the necessary packages in one step, and the last update:

pacman -Syu apache php php-apache mariadb

HTTP

Edit

/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf

Change [email protected] as you need.

The folder of the WEB Pages by default is ServerRoot "/etc/httpd". Directory must be set to the same folder, so
change the line

<Directory "/etc/httpd">

This folder must have read and execution access, so

chmod o+x /etc/httpd

Change AllowOverride from none (default) to All so .htaccess will works.

Now you need the ~/public_html folder for each user. (to get the root page of each user as
http://localhost/~yourusername/. Unremark this line:

Include conf/extra/httpd-userdir.conf

Now as root you need to create the ~/public_html for each user and change the access to (755) of each one.

chmod 755 /home

chmod 755 /home/username
chmod 755 /home/username/public_html

You can comment out this line if you want to use SSL:

LoadModule ssl_module modules/mod_ssl.so

If you need to use virtual domains, uncomment the line:

Include conf/extra/httpd-vhosts.conf

and in /etc/httpd/conf/extra/httpd-vhosts.conf you must to add all the virtual domains. (plus into /etc/hosts
if you want to test those virtuals domains)
Edit /etc/httpd/conf/extra/httpd-default.conf and change ServerSignature to Off and ServerToken to Prod for hiding
critical data

PHP

Edit: /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf

Comment out: LoadModule mpm_event_module modules/mod_mpm_event.so

Uncomment: LoadModule mpm_prefork_module modules/mod_mpm_prefork.so

As last item in the LoadModule list, add LoadModule php7_module modules/libphp7.so

As last item in the include list, add Include conf/extra/php7_module.conf

Edit /etc/php/php.ini

Uncomment extension=mysqli.so and extension=pdo_mysql.so

Change the timezone as you need, for example:

date.timezone = America/Argentina/Buenos_Aires, date.default_latitude = 0.0, date.default_longitude

= 0.0

MySQL

Run as root:

mysql_install_db --user=mysql --basedir=/usr --datadir=/var/lib/mysql

Now you have the root of the MySQL Server.

Start MySQL daemon:

systemctl enable mysqld

systemctl start mysqld

At last, run:

sh /usr/bin/mysql_secure_installation

That all to get a web server ready to be customized as you need.

Section 12.2: Installing LAMP on Ubuntu

Install apache:

sudo apt-get install apache2

Install MySql:

sudo apt-get install mysql-server

Install PHP:
 sudo apt-get install php5 libapache2-mod-php5

Restart system:

sudo systemctl restart apache2

Check PHP installation:

php -r 'echo "\n\nYour PHP installation is working fine.\n\n\n";'

Section 12.3: Installing LAMP stack on CentoOS

Install Apache Web Server

First step is to install web server Apache.

sudo yum -y install httpd

Once it is installed, enable (to run on startup) and start Apache web server service.

sudo systemctl enable --now httpd

Point your browser to:

http://localhost

You will see the default Apache web server page.

Install MariaDB Server

Second step is to install MariaDB:

sudo yum -y install mariadb-server

Then start and enable (on startup) the MariaDB server:

sudo systemctl enable --now mariadb

As needed, use mysql_secure_installation to secure your database.

This script will allow you to do the following:
Change the root user's password
Remove test databases
Disable remote access

Install PHP

sudo yum -y install php php-common

Then restart Apache's httpd service.

sudo systemctl restart httpd

To test PHP, create a file called index.php in /var/www/html.

Then add the following line to the file:
Then point your browser to:

http://localhost/index.php

You should see information related to your server. If you do not, ensure that php is for sure installed correctly
by running the following command:

php --version

If you receive something like:

PHP 5.4.16 (cli) (built: Nov 6 2016 00:29:02) Copyright (c) 1997-2013 The PHP Group

Then PHP is installed correctly. If this is the case, please ensure that you've restarted your web server.
Chapter 13: tee command
Options Description
-a, --append Append to the given FILEs. Do not overwrite.
-i, --ignore-interrupts Ignore interrupt signals.
--help Display a help message, and exit.
--version Display version information, and exit.

tee - read from standard input and write to standard output and files.

The tee command is named after the T-splitter in plumbing, which splits water into two directions and is shaped
like an uppercase T.

tee copies data from standard input to each FILE, and also to standard output. In effect, tee duplicates its
input, routing it to multiple outputs at once.

Section 13.1: Write output to stdout, and also to a file

The following command displays output only on the screen (stdout).

$ ls

The following command writes the output only to the file and not to the screen.

$ ls > file

The following command (with the help of tee command) writes the output both to the screen (stdout) and to
the file.

$ ls | tee file

Section 13.2: Write output from the middle of a pipe chain

to a file and pass it back to the pipe
You can also use tee command to store the output of a command in a file and redirect the same output to another
command.

The following command will write current crontab entries to a file crontab-backup.txt and pass the crontab entries
to sed command, which will do the substituion. After the substitution, it will be added as a new cron job.

$ crontab -l | tee crontab-backup.txt | sed 's/old/new/' | crontab –

Section 13.3: write the output to multiple files

You can pipe your output to multiple files (including your terminal) by using tee like this:

$ ls | tee file1 file2 file3

Section 13.4: Instruct tee command to append to the file

By default tee command overwrites the file. You can instruct tee to append to the file using the –a option as shown
below.

$ ls | tee –a file
Chapter 14: Secure Shell (SSH)
A secure shell is used to remotely access a server from a client over an encrypted connection. OpenSSH is used
as an alternative to Telnet connections that achieve remote shell access but are unencrypted. The OpenSSH
Client is installed on most GNU/Linux distributions by default and is used to connect to a server. These
examples show use how to use the SSH suite to for accept SSH connections and connecting to another host.

Section 14.1: Connecting to a remote server

To connect to a server we must use SSH on the client as follows,

# ssh -p port user@server-address

port - The listening ssh port of the server (default port 22).
user - Must be an existing user on the server with SSH privileges.
server address - The IP/Domain of the server.

For a real world example lets pretend that you're making a website. The company you chose to host your site tells
you that the server is located at web-servers.com on a custom port of 2020 and your account name usr1 has been
chosen to create a user on the server with SSH privileges. In this case the SSH command used would be as such

# ssh -p 2020

If account name on the remote system is the same as the one one the local client you may leave the user name off.
So if you are usr1 on both systems then you my simply use web-servers.com instead of [email protected].

When a server you want to connect to is not directly accessible to you, you can try using ProxyJump switch to
connect to it through another server which is accessible to you and can connect to the desired server.

# ssh -J [email protected]:2020-p 2222

This will let you connect to the server 10.0.0.2 (running ssh on port 2222) through server at 10.0.0.1 (running
ssh on port 2020). You will need to have accounts on both servers of course. Also note that the -J switch is
introduced in OpenSSH version 7.3.

Section 14.2: Installing OpenSSH suite

Both connecting to a remove SSH server and accepting SSH connections require installation of openssh

Debian:

# apt-get install openssh

Arch Linux:

# pacman -S openssh

Yum:

# yum install openssh

Section 14.3: Configuring an SSH server to accept
connections
First we must edit the SSH daemon config file. Though under different Linux distributions this may be located in
different directories, usually it is stored under /etc/ssh/sshd_config

Use your text editor to change the values set in this file, all lines starting with # are commented out and must
have this character removed to take any effect. A list of recommendations follow as such.

Port (chose a number between 0 - 65535, normaly greater than four digits) PasswordAuthentication yes
AllowUsersuser1 user2 ...etc

Note that it is preferable to disable password logins all together and use SSH Keys for improved security as explained in
this document.

Section 14.4: Passwordless connection (using a key pair)

First of all you'll need to have a key pair. If you don't have one yet, take a look at the 'Generate public and
private key topic'.

Your key pair is composed by a private key (id_rsa) and a public key (id_rsa.pub). All you need to do is to copy
the public key to the remote host and add its contents to the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys file.

One simple way to do that is:

ssh <user>@<ssh-server> 'cat >> ~/.ssh/authorized_keys' < id_rsa.pub

Once the public key is properly placed in your user's home directory, you just need to login using the respective
private key:

ssh <user>@<ssh-server> -i id_rsa

Section 14.5: Generate public and private key

To generate keys for SSH client:

ssh-keygen [-t rsa | rsa1 | dsa ] [-C <comment>] [-b bits]

For example:

ssh-keygen -t rsa -b 4096 - C

Default location is ~/.ssh/id_rsa for private and ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub for public key. For
more info, please visit man.openbsd.org

Section 14.6: Disable ssh service

This will disable the SSH server side service, as if needed this will insure that clients cannot connect via ssh

Ubuntu

sudo service ssh stop

 sudo systemctl disable sshd.service

Debian

sudo /etc/init.d/ssh stop

sudo systemctl disable sshd.service

Arch Linux

sudo killall sshd

sudo systemctl disable sshd.service
Chapter 15: SCP
Section 15.1: Secure Copy
scp command is used to securely copy a file to or from a remote destination. If the file is in current working
directly only filename is sufficient else full path is required which included the remote hostname e.g.
remote_user@some_server.org:/path/to/file

Copy local file in your CWD to new directory

scp localfile.txt /home/friend/share/

Copy remote file to you current working directory

scp [email protected]:/home/rocky/game/data.txt ./

Copy file from one remote location to another remote location

scp [email protected]:/beacon/light/bitmap.conf [email protected]:/beacon/night/

To copy directory and sub-directories use '-r' recursive option to scp

scp -r [email protected]:~/project/* ./workspace/

Section 15.2: Basic Usage

# Copy remote file to local dir
scp [email protected]:/remote/path/to/foobar.md /local/dest

# Copy local file to remote dir

scp foobar.md [email protected]:/remote/dest

# Key files can be used (just like ssh)

scp -i my_key.pem foobar.md [email protected]:/remote/dest
Chapter 16: GnuPG (GPG)
GnuPG is a sophisticated key management system which allows for secure signing or encrypting data. GPG is
a command-line tool used to create and manipulate GnuPG keys.

GnuPG is most widely used for having SSH (Secure Shell) connections without password or any means of interactive
authentication, which improves security level significantly.

Following sections describe ways to create, use, and maintain security of GnuPG keys.

Section 16.1: Exporting your public key

In order for your public-private keypair to be of use, you must make your public key freely available to others.
Be sure that you are working with your public key here since you should never share your private key. You can
export your public key with the following command:

gpg —armor —export EMAIL_ADDRESS > public_key.asc

where EMAIL_ADDRESS is the email address associated with the key

Alternately, you can upload your public key to a public key server such as keys.gnupg.net so that others can use
it. To do so, enter the following in a terminal:

gpg —list-keys

Then, search for the 8-digit string (the primary ID) associated with the key you want to export. Then, issue the
command:

gpg —send-keys PRIMARY_ID

where PRIMARY_ID is the actual ID of that key.

Now, the public key has been uploaded to the key server and is publicly available.

Section 16.2: Create and use a GnuPG key quickly

Install haveged (example sudo apt-get install haveged) to speed up the random byte process. Then:

gpg --gen-key
gpg --list-keys

outputs:

pub2048R/NNNNNNNN 2016-01-01
uidName <>
sub2048R/xxxxxxxx 2016-01-01

Then publish:

gpg --keyserver pgp.mit.edu --send-keys NNNNNNNN

Then plan to revoke: https://www.hackdiary.com/2004/01/18/revoking-a-gpg-key/

Chapter 17: Network Configuration
This document covers TCP/IP networking, network administration and system configuration basics. Linux
can support multiple network devices. The device names are numbered and begin at zero and count upwards.
For example, a computer with two NICs will have two devices labeled eth0 and eth1.

Section 17.1: Local DNS resolution

File: /etc/hosts contains a list of hosts that are to be resolved locally(not by DNS)
Sample contents of the file:

127.0.0.1your-node-name.your-domain.comlocalhost.localdomainlocalhost XXX.XXX.XXX.XXXnode-name

The file format for the hosts file is specified by RFC 952

Section 17.2: Configure DNS servers for domain name

resolution
File: /etc/resolv.conf contains a list of DNS servers for domain name resolution
Sample contents of the file:

nameserver 8.8.8.8 # IP address of the primary name server

nameserver 8.8.4.4 # IP address of the secondary name server

In case internal DNS server you can validate if this server resolve DNS names properly using dig command:

$ dig google.com @your.dns.server.com +short

Section 17.3: See and manipulate routes

Manipulate the IP routing table using route

Display routing table

$ route # Displays list or routes and also resolves host names

$ route -n # Displays list of routes without resolving host names for faster results

Add/Delete route

Option Description
add or del Add or delete a route
-host x.x.x.x Add route to a single host identified by the IP address
-net x.x.x.x Add route to a network identified by the network address
gw x.x.x.x Specify the network gateway netmask
x.x.x.x Specify the network netmask default Add
a default route

Examples:
 add route to a host $ route add -host x.x.x.x eth1
add route to a network $ route add -net 2.2.2.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 eth0
Alternatively, you could also use cidr format to add a route to network route add -net 2.2.2.0/24 eth0
add default gateway $ route add default gw 2.2.2.1 eth0
delete a route $ route del -net 2.2.2.0/24

Manipulate the IP routing table using ip

Display routing table

$ ip route show # List routing table

Add/Delete route

Option Description
add or del or change or append
or replace Change a route
show or flush the command displays the contents of the routing tables or remove it
restore restore routing table information from stdin
this command gets a single route to a destination and prints its contents exactly
get as the kernel sees it

Examples:

Set default gateway to 1.2.3.254 $ ip route add default via 1.2.3.254

Adds a default route (for all addresses) via the local gateway 192.168.1.1 that can be reached on device eth0
$ ip route add default via 192.168.1.1 dev eth0

Section 17.4: Configure a hostname for some other system

on your network
You can configure your Linux (or macOS) system in order to tie in an identifier <hostname> to some other
system's IP address in your network. You can configure it:

Systemwide. You should modify the /etc/hosts file. You just have to add to that file a new line containing:

1. the remote system's IP address <ip_rem>,

2. one or more blank spaces, and
3. the identifier <hostname>.
For a single user. You should modify the ~/.hosts file --- you-d have to create it. It is not as simple as for
systemwide. Here you can see an explanation.

For instance, you could add this line using the cat Unix tool. Suppose that you want to make a ping to a PC in
yout local network whose IP address is 192.168.1.44 and you want to refer to that IP address just by remote_pc.
Then you must write on your shell:

$ sudo cat 192.168.1.44 remote_pc

Then you can make that ping just by:

$ ping remote_pc
 Section 17.5: Interface details
Ifconfig

List all the interfaces available on the machine

$ ifconfig -a

List the details of a specific interface

Syntax: $ ifconfig <interface>
Example:

Ethtool - query the network driver and hardware settings

$ ifconfig eth0
cap:EthernetHWaddr
eth0 xx:xx:xx:xx:xx:xx inet addr:x.x.x.xBcast:x.x.x.xMask:x.x.x.x
dr: xxxx::xxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx/64 Scope:Link UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICASTMTU:1500Metric:1
kets:4426618 errors:0 dropped:1124 overruns:0 frame:0 TX packets:189171 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0 collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
es:382611580 (382.6 MB)TX bytes:36923665 (36.9 MB)
t:16 Memory:fb5e0000-fb600000

Syntax: $ ethtool <interface>

Example:

$ ethtool eth0

Settings for eth0:

Supported ports: [ TP ]
Supported link modes:10baseT/Half 10baseT/Full 100baseT/Half 100baseT/Full
1000baseT/Full
Supported pause frame use: No Supports auto-negotiation: Yes
Advertised link modes:10baseT/Half 10baseT/Full 100baseT/Half 100baseT/Full
1000baseT/Full
Advertised pause frame use: No Advertised auto-negotiation: Yes Speed: 1000Mb/s
Duplex: Full
Port: Twisted Pair PHYAD: 1
Transceiver: internal Auto-negotiation: on MDI-X: on (auto) Supports Wake-on: pumbg Wake-on: g
Current message level: 0x00000007 (7) drv probe link
Link detected: yes

ip - show / manipulate routing, devices, policy routing and tunnels

Syntax: $ ip { link | ... | route | macsec } (please see man ip for full list of objects)
Examples

List network interfaces

$ ip link show

Rename interface eth0 to wan

$ ip link set dev eth0 name wan

Bring interface eth0 up (or down)

$ ip link set dev eth0 up

List addresses for interfaces

$ ip addr show

Add (or del) ip and mask (255.255.255.0)

$ ip addr add 1.2.3.4/24 brd + dev eth0

Section 17.6: Adding IP to an interface

An IP address to an interface could be obtained via DHCP or Static assignment

DHCP If you are connected to a network with a DHCP server running, dhclient command can get an IP address for
your interface

$ dhclient <interface>

or alternatively, you could make a change to the /etc/network/interfaces file for the interface to be brought up on
boot and obtain DHCP IP

auto eth0
iface eth0 inet dhcp

Static configuration(Permanent Change) using /etc/network/interfaces file

If you want to statically configure the interface settings(permanent change), you could do so in the
/etc/network/interfaces file.

Example:

auto eth0 # Bring up the interface on boot

iface eth0 inet static address 10.10.70.10
netmask 255.255.0.0
gateway 10.10.1.1
dns-nameservers 10.10.1.20
dns-nameservers 10.10.1.30

These changes persist even after system reboot.

Static configuration(Temporary change) using ifconfig utility

A static IP address could be added to an interface using the ifconfig utility as follows

$ ifconfig <interface> <ip-address>/<mask> up

Example:

$ ifconfig eth0 10.10.50.100/16 up

Chapter 18: Midnight Commander
Midnight Commander or mc is a console file manager. This topic includes the descripton of it's functionalities and
examples and tips of how to use it to it's full potential.

Section 18.1: Midnight Commander function keys in

browsing mode
Here is a list of actions which can be triggered in the Midnight Commander filesystem browsing mode by using
function keys on your keyboard.

F1 Displays help
Opens user menu
F2
F3 Displays the contents of the selected file

F4 Opens the selected file in the internal file editor

F5 Copies the selected file to the directory open in the second

panel Moves the selected file to the directory open in the
F6
second panel Makes a new directory in the directory open in the
F7 current panel Deletes the selected file or directory

F9 Focuses to the main menu on the top of the

F8
screen Exits mc
F10
Section 18.2: Midnight Commander function keys in file editing
mode
Midnight Commander has a built in editor which is started by F4 function key when over the desired file in the
browse mode. It can also be invoked in standalone mode by executing

mcedit <filename>

Here is a list of actions which can be triggered in the edit mode.

F1 Displays help
Saves current file
F2
F3 Marks the start of the text selection. Move cursor any direction to select. Second hit marks the end of
the selection.

F4 Brings up the text search/replace dialog

F5 Copies selected text to the cursor location

(copy/paste) Moves selected text to the cursor
F6
location (cut/paste) Brings up the text search dialog
F7
F8 Deletes selected text

F9 Focuses to the main menu on the top of the screen

Exits the editor
F10
Chapter 19: Change root (chroot)
Change root (chroot) is an operation that changes the apparent root directory for the current running process
and their children. A program that is run in such a modified environment cannot access files and commands
outside that environmental directory tree.

Section 19.1: Requirements

root privileges
another working Linux environment,such as Live CD boot or an existing distribution
matching environment architectures of chroot source and destination (check current environment
architecture with uname -m)
kernel modules which you may need in chroot environment must be loaded (for example, with modprobe)

Section 19.2: Manually changing root in a directory

1. Ensure you met all requirements, as per Requirements
2. Mount the temporary API filesystems:

cd /location/of/new/root mount -t proc proc proc/ mount --rbind /sys sys/ mount --rbind /dev dev/
mount --rbind /run run/ (optionally)

3. If you need to use an internet connection in the chroot environment, copy over the DNS details:

cp /etc/resolv.conf etc/resolv.conf

4. Change root into /location/of/new/root, specifying the shell (/bin/bash in this example):

chroot /location/of/new/root /bin/bash

5. After chrooting it may be necessary to load the local bash configuration:

source /etc/profile source ~/.bashrc

6. Optionally, create a unique prompt to be able to differentiate your chroot environment:

export PS1="(chroot) $PS1"

7. When finished with the chroot, you can exit it via:

exit

8. Unmount the temporary file systems:

cd /
umount --recursive /location/of/new/root
Section 19.3: Reasons to use chroot
Changing root is commonly done for performing system maintenance on systems where booting and/or logging in
is no longer possible.

Common examples are:

reinstalling the bootloader

rebuilding the initramfs image
upgrading or downgrading packages
resetting a forgotten password
building software in a clean root environment
Chapter 20: Package Managers
Section 20.1: How to update packages with the apt
package manager
The Advanced Package Tool, aptly named the 'apt' package manager can handle the installation and removal of
software on the Debian, Slackware, and other Linux Distributions. Below are some simple examples of use:

update
This option retrieves and scans the Packages.gz files, so that information about new and updated packages is
available. To do so, enter the following command:

sudo apt-get update

upgrade
This option is used to install the newest versions of all packages currently installed on the system. Packages
currently installed with new versions available are retrieved and upgraded; under no circumstances are
currently installed packages removed, or packages not already installed retrieved and installed. To upgrade,
enter the following command:

sudo apt-get upgrade

dist-upgrade
In addition to performing the function of upgrade, dist-upgrade also intelligently handles changing
dependencies with new versions of packages. It will attempt to upgrade the most important packages at the
expense of less important ones if necessary. To do so, enter the following command:

sudo apt-get dist-upgrade

Section 20.2: How to install a package with the

pacman package manager
In order to search for packages in the databse, searching both in packages' names and descriptions:

pacman -Ss string1 string2 ...

To install a single package or list of packages (including dependencies), issue the following command:

sudo pacman -S package_name1 package_name2 ...

source

Section 20.3: How to update packages with the

pacman package manager
To update a specific program:

sudo pacman -S <programName>

To update entire the system:

sudo pacman -Syu

Section 20.4: How to update packages with yum
Yellowdog Updater, Modified, one of the last remaining vestiges of Yellow Dog Linux, is the package manager
used by Red Hat, Fedora, and CentOS systems and their derivatives. It can handle the installation and removal of
software packaged as rpms for these Linux distributions. Below are some simple examples of use:

search
This command will attempt to locate software packages in the configured software repositories that match the
given search criteria, and display the name / version / repository location of the matches it finds. To use it, enter
the following command:

yum search <queryString>

install
This command will attempt to locate and install the named software from the configured software repositories,
recursively locating and installing any needed prerequisite software as well. To use it, enter the following command:

sudo yum install <packageName>

update
This option is used to install the newest versions of all packages currently installed on the system. Packages
currently installed with new versions available are retrieved and upgraded; new prerequisites are also retrieved
and installed as necessary, and replaced or obsoleted packages are removed. To upgrade, enter the following
command:

sudo yum update

Unlike apt, most yum commands will also automatically check for updates to repository metadata if a check
has not been done recently (or if forced to do so) and will retrieve and scan updated metadata so that
information about new and updated packages is available before the requested operation is performed.
Chapter 21: Compiling the Linux kernel
Section 21.1: Compilation of Linux Kernel on Ubuntu
Warning: be sure you have at least 15 GB of free disk space.

Compilation in Ubuntu >=13.04

Option A) Use Git

Use git if you want to stay in sync with the latest Ubuntu kernel source. Detailed instructions can be found in
the Kernel Git Guide. The git repository does not include necessary control files, so you must build them by:

fakeroot debian/rules clean

Option B) Download the source archive

Download the source archive - This is for users who want to rebuild the standard Ubuntu packages with additional
patches. Use a follow command to install the build dependencies and extract the source (to the current directory):

1. Install the following packages:

sudo apt-get build-dep linux-image-`uname -r`

Option C) Download the source package and build

This is for users who want to modify, or play around with, the Ubuntu-patched kernel source.
1. Retrieve the latest kernel source from kernel.org.
2. Extract the archive to a directory and cd into it:

tar xf linux-*.tar.xz
cd linux-*

3. Build the ncurses configuration interface:

make menuconfig

4. To accept the default configuration, press → to highlight < Exit > and then Return .
5. Press Return again to save the configuration.
6. Use make to build the kernel:

make

Note that you can use the -jem> flag to compile files in parallel and take advantage of multiple cores.

The compressed kernel image can be found at arch/[arch]/boot/bzImage, where [arch] is equal to uname -a.
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