LIC LAB Manual PDF

(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University)
Department of Electrical &

Electronics Engineering
Fourth Semester EEE
LABORATORY MANUAL
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(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University)
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Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering
OP-AMP & LINEAR IC’s LABORATORY

MANUAL
SUBJECT CODE: 15EEL48
Prepared By: Verified By:
Ms. Anzum Dr. R. Prakash

(Asst. Prof.) (HOD, EEE)
Instructions to the Students
1. Students should come with thorough preparation for the experiment to be conducted.
2. Shoes and ID card of the student is mandatory for the lab, otherwise student will not be
permitted to attend the lab and would be considered as absent.
3. Students should come with completed observation book to the lab.
4. Students will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the practical
record fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment conducted in the
previous lab.
5. Experiment should be started only after the staff-in-charge has checked the circuit
diagram.
6. All the calculations should be made in the observation book. Specimen calculations for
one set of readings have to be shown in the practical record.
7. Wherever graphs are to be drawn, A-4 size graphs only should be used and the same
should be firmly attached to the practical record.
8. Practical record should be neatly maintained.
9. The students should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the

observation/manual book after completing each experiment.
10. After the lab session, switch off every supply, disconnect and disintegrate the
experiments.
OP- AMP AND LINEAR ICS LABORATORY
(15EEL48)
Course objectives: The course objectives of this course are:
1. To conduct different experiments using Op-Amps
2. To conduct experiments using linear IC’s
Course outcomes: After completing this course the students will be able to,
1. Describe the characteristic parameters of Op-Amps, adder, subtractor, differentiator and

Integrator, oscillators, filters, timers and voltage regulators.
2. Explain the circuits for characteristic parameters of Op-Amps, adder, subtractor,

differentiator
and integrator, oscillators, filters, timers and voltage regulators.
3. Demonstrate the circuits for characteristic parameters of Op-Amps, adder, subtractor,

differentiator and integrator, oscillators, filters, timers and voltage regulators by
conducting experiments
B.E ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (EEE)
CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM (CBCS)
Subject Code 15EEL48 IA Marks 20
Number of Practical Hours/Week 03 Exam Hours 03
Total Number of Practical Hours 42 Exam Marks 80
Credits – 04
Sl. No Experiments
CYCLE 1
01 Design and verify the operation of op – amp as an (a) Adder (b) Subtractor (c)
Integrator and (d) Differentiator.
02 Design and realize the frequency response of an op – amp amplifier under
inverting and non - inverting configuration for a given gain.
03 Design and realize an op – amp based first order Butterworth (a) low pass (b)
high pass and (c) band pass filters for a given cut off frequency/frequencies to
verify the frequency response characteristic.
04 Designing of Fixed voltage power supply (voltage regulator) using IC regulators
78 series and 79 series.
CYCLE 2
05 Design and realize an op – amp based function generator to generate sine,
square and triangular waves of desired frequency.
06 Design and verify the output waveform of an op – amp RC phase shift oscillator
for a desired frequency.
07 Design and realize Schmitt trigger circuit using an op – amp for desired upper
trip point (UTP) and lower trip point (LTP).
08 Verify the operation of an op – amp as (a) voltage comparator circuit and (b) zero
crossing detector.
CYCLE 3
09 Design and verify a precision full wave rectifier. Determine the performance
parameters.
10 Design and verify an IC 555 timer based pulse generator for the specified pulse.
11 Design and realization of R – 2R ladder DAC.
12 Realization of Two bit Flash ADC.
Revised Bloom’s L3 – Applying, L4 – Analyzing, L5 – Evaluating, L6 – Creating
Taxonomy Level
OP-AMP & LINEAR IC’s LAB MANUAL (15EEL48) IV Semester
STUDY EXPERIMENTS:
Pre Lab Questions:
1. What does operational amplifier refers to?

Operational amplifier refers to an amplifier that performs a mathematical operation. A
typical op-amp is a DC amplifier with a very high voltage gain, very high input impedance
and very low output impedance.
2. What is the maximum voltage that can be given at the inputs?

The operating voltage range for an op-amp can be from 6V to 36V. At the low voltage
extreme this could be ±3V or ±6V. At maximum, ±18V or ±36V.
3. Can an op-amp be operated using single power supply?

Yes, but when doing single supply design it is common to use rail to rail op-amps. These
amplifiers can output voltage very near the power supply voltages (or rails).
4. State the ideal characteristics of Op-amp.

i. Open loop gain, 𝐴𝑜𝑙 = ∞
ii. Input impedance, Ri = ∞
iii. Output Impedance, Ro = 0
iv. Zero Offset voltage, Vo = 0
v. Bandwidth, BW = ∞
vi. CMRR= ∞
vii. Slew Rate, SR = ∞
5. Why differential amplifier is used as an input stage of IC op-amp?

The differential amplifier eliminates the need for an emitter bye-pass capacitor. So,
differential amplifier is used as an input stage in op-amp ICs.
6. What causes slew rate?

The rate at which internal or external capacitance of Op-amp changes causes slew rate.
Also slew rate is caused by current limiting and saturation of internal stages of op-amp
where a high frequency, large – amplitude signal is applied.
7. Define CMRR of an Op-Amp?

It is the ratio b/w Differential mode gain and common mode gain
CMRR= Ad/Ac
8. What is an instrumentation amplifier and the need for?
In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical
quantities is usually done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be
amplified so that it can drive the indicator or display system. This function is performed
by an instrumentation amplifier.
Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 1

STUDY EXPERIMENT NO.1

AIM: To conduct an experiment for basic applications of Op-Amp
i. Op-Amp as inverting amplifier
ii. Op-Amp as non- inverting amplifier
iii. Op-Amp as voltage follower
iv. Op-Amp as instrumentation amplifier
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
SL.NO. PARTICULARS SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1. IC 741 3
2. Resistors 1kΩ, 5 kΩ , 10kΩ 1, 3, 4
4. Signal generator 1
5. Bread board 1
6. DC Voltage Supply 2
7. CRO 1
8. Wires As per requirement
9. Probes 3
THEORY:
Inverting Amplifier: Inverting amplifier is the one in which a signal is applied to the
inverting input terminal. The output voltage is fed back to the inverting input terminal through
feedback resistance 𝑅𝑓 and input resistance 𝑅𝑖 network. The output signal is the amplified form of
input signal with a phase shift of 1800.
Non- Inverting Amplifier: Non inverting amplifier is the one in which a signal is applied to
the non-inverting input terminal and the output voltage is fed back to the inverting input terminal, the
Circuit amplifies without inverting the input signal.
Voltage Follower: Voltage follower is the circuit in which the output voltage follows the
input voltage both in magnitude as well as in phase.
Instrumentation Amplifier: In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the

measurement of physical quantities is usually done with the help of transducers. The output of
transducer has to be amplified so that it can drive the indicator or display system. This function is
performed by an instrumentation amplifier.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
i. Op-Amp as inverting amplifier:
Fig.1: Circuit for Op-Amp as inverting amplifier
Rf
Af = −
R1
Vo = Af × Vin
Model Graph:

ii. Op-Amp as non-inverting amplifier:
Fig.2: Circuit for Op-Amp as non-inverting amplifier
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑓 = (1 + )
𝑅1
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑓 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Model Graph:

iii. Op-Amp as voltage follower:
Fig.3: Circuit for Op-Amp as voltage follower
iv. Op-Amp as instrumentation amplifier:
Fig.4: Circuit for Op-Amp as instrumentation amplifier

2𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑉𝑜 = (1 + ( )) × ( )(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑅𝑔 𝑅2
PROCEDURE:
1. Rig up the above three circuits.
2. Apply the input voltages as mentioned and give V1=1V and V2=3V for
instrumentation amplifier from the signal generator.
3. Observe the output in the multi-meter

STUDY EXPERIMENT NO.2
AIM: To measure the following characteristic parameters of op-amp

1. Input bias current
2. Input offset current
3. Input offset voltage
4. Slew rate
1. IC 741 1
2. Resistors 4.7kΩ, 100kΩ, 1MΩ 1, 1, 1
3. Capacitor 0.01µF 1
5. Bread board 1
7. Multimeter 1
9. Probes 3
THEORY:
Input bias current: The inverting and noninverting terminals of an op-amp are actually two
base terminals of transistors of a differential amplifier. In an ideal op-amp it is supported that no
current flows through these terminals. However, practically a small amount of current flows through
these terminals which is on the order of nA (typical and maximum values are 80 and 1500nA) in
bipolar op-amps and pA for FET op-amps. Input bias current is defined as the average of the currents
entering into the inverting and noninverting terminals of an op-amp. To compensate for bias currents
a compensating resistor Rcomp is used. Value of Rcomp is parallel combination of the resistors
𝐼𝐵1 +𝐼𝐵2
connected to the inverting terminal. Input bias current , where 𝐼𝐵1 and 𝐼𝐵2 are the base bias
2
currents of the op-amp.
Input offset current: The bias currents 𝐼𝐵1 and 𝐼𝐵2 will not be equal in an op-amp. Input
offset current is defined as the algebraic difference between the currents into the inverting and non-
inverting terminals. , 𝐼𝑜𝑠= 𝐼𝐵1 + 𝐼𝐵2 Typical and maximum values of input offset current are 20nA and
200nA.
Input offset voltage: Even if the input voltage is zero, output voltage may not be zero. This
is because of the circuit imbalances inside the op-amp. In order to compensate this, a small voltage
should be applied between the input terminals. Input offset voltage is defined as the voltage that must
be applied between the input terminals of an op-amp to nullify the output voltage. Typical and
maximum values of input offset voltage are 2mV and 6mV.

Slew rate: Slew rate is the rate of rise of output voltage. It is the measure of fastness of op-
amp. It is expressed in V/μsec. If the slope requirements of the output voltage of the op-amp are
greater than the slew rate, distortion occurs. Slew rate is measured by applying a step input voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1. To measure input bias current:
Fig 1. Circuit to measure input bias current 𝐼𝐵−
Fig 2. Circuit to measure input bias current 𝐼𝐵+

2. To measure input offset current
Fig 3. Circuit to measure input offset current

3. To measure input offset voltage:
Fig 4. Circuit to measure input offset voltage

4. To measure slew rate:
Fig 5. Circuit to measure slew rate

PROCEDURE:
a) Input Bias Current

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1.
2. Measure the output voltage from which the inverting input bias current can be calculated as
𝐼𝐵− = 𝑉𝑜/𝑅𝑓.
4. Measure the output voltage from which the non-inverting input bias current can be calculated
as 𝐼𝐵+ = 𝑉𝑜/𝑅𝑓.
5. Average of magnitude of both 𝐼𝐵− and 𝐼𝐵+ gives the input bias current.
b) Input Offset Current

2. Measure the output voltage using multimeter.
3. Calculate the offset current as 𝐼𝑜𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜/𝑅𝑓.
c) Input Offset Voltage

2. Measure the output voltage using multimeter.
3. Calculate offset voltage as 𝑉𝑜𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜 / (1 + 𝑅𝑓 / 𝑅1).
d) Slew Rate
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1.5.
2. Give square wave input from the signal generator so that the output is a square wave at 1kHz.
3. Increase the frequency slowly until the output is just barely a triangular wave.
4. Calculate slew rate as 𝑆𝑅 = ( 𝑉 /  𝑡).
Typical values of electrical characteristics of a741:

Input bias current = 80-500nA
Input offset current = 20-200nA
Input offset voltage = 1-5mV
Slew rate = <0.5 V/µsec
RESULT:
The input bias current, input offset current, input offset voltage and slew rate of the op-amp were
determined.
Input offset voltage = ……..mV
Input bias current = ……..A
Input offset current = ...…...A
Slew rate = ……..V/μs.
Signature of Faculty

Post Lab Questions:
1. What is the difference between ordinary amplifier and operational amplifier?

Basic amplifier along with input signal also amplifies any noise present at its input whereas
operational amplifier only amplifies the difference of its input signals rejecting any noise
present at its input terminals.
2. What are the DC, AC Characteristics of Op-Amp?

DC Characteristics: Input Bias Current, Input off set Current, Input offset voltage, Thermal
Drift.
AC Characteristics: Slew Rate, Frequency compensation
3. Define offset voltage and state its significance.

The presence of small output voltage though V1=V2=0 is called an offset voltage. It is zero
for an ideal op-amp. This ensures zero output for zero input signal voltage.
4. What is input bias current?

The average of the currents entering the negative input (𝐼𝐵− ) and positive input (𝐼𝐵+ ) of an op-
𝐼𝐵1 +𝐼𝐵2
amp is called input bias current (𝐼𝐵 ). The equation is .
2
5. Why do we use 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑 resistor?

In a bipolar op-amp circuit, even when the input is zero, the output will not be zero. This is
due to effect of input bias current. This effect can be compensated by using compensation
resistor 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 . 𝑅 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑓 where 𝑅𝑖 is the input resistance and 𝑅𝑓 is the feedback
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝=
𝑅𝑖 +𝑅𝑓
resistance.
6. What is thermal drift?

In an op-amp the bias current, offset current and off set voltage changes with change in
temperature. Offset current drift is measured in nA/ 0C and offset voltage drift is measured in
mV/ 0C. These indicate the change in offset current or voltage for each degree Celsius change
in temperature. Forced air cooling may be used to stabilize the ambient temperature.
7. Why is IC741 op-amp not used for high frequency applications?

Op-amp IC741 has very low slew rate (0.5V/μS) and therefore cannot be used for high
frequency applications.
8. What is unity gain circuit?

Voltage follower is called unity gain circuit. The circuit does not amplify and provides
constant gain of unity.

9. What is the effect of high frequency on its performance?

The open loop gain of op-amp decreases at higher frequencies due to the presence of parasitic
capacitance. The closed loop gain increases at higher frequencies and leads to instability.
10. What is the need for frequency compensation in practical op-amps?

When large bandwidth and lower closed loop gain is desired, to improve the stability
11. What are the features of instrumentation amplifier?

 high gain accuracy
 high CMRR
 high gain stability
 low dc offset
 low output impedance
12. Write the major function of instrumentation amplifier.

The major function of instrumentation amplifier is to amplify the low level output signal so
that it can drive the inductor of display.

EXPERIMENT 1: ADDER, SUBTRACTOR, INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERENTIATOR

USING OP-AMP
Pre-lab Questions:
a. What is linear Op-Amp Circuits?

An Op-Amp circuit which has the output signal with the same shape as that of the input signal
is called linear Op-Amp circuit. The Op-Amp does not go to saturation during its cycle.
b. What is non- linear Op-Amp Circuits?

An Op-Amp circuit which has the output signal with different shape as that of the input signal
is called linear Op-Amp circuit. The Op-Amp goes to saturation during part of its cycle.
c. State some linear and non- linear applications of Op-amp.

Linear: a) Adder b) Subtractor c) Instrumentation amplifier
Non- linear: a) Rectifier b) Peak detector c) Clippers and Clampers.
d. What is a differentiator?
A differentiator is the circuit which performs the mathematical operation of differentiation,
i.e., the output waveform is the derivative of the input waveform. The output voltage is given
by
−𝑹𝒇 𝑪𝟏 𝒅𝒗𝒊
𝑽𝒐 =
𝒅𝒕
Where 𝑹𝒇 is the feedback resistor
𝑪𝟏 is the input capacitance and
𝒗𝒊 is the input voltage
e. What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit?

At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillations, the input
impedance decreases with increase in frequency.
f. What are the limitations of the basic Integrator circuit?

At low frequency, an integrator may become unstable and break into oscillations, the input
impedance decreases with decrees in frequency.

AIM: Design and verify the operation of op – amp as an

a) Adder
b) Subtractor
c) Integrator and
d) Differentiator.
SL.NO. PARTICULARS RANGE QUANTITY

1. IC 741 1
2. Resistors 1kΩ,1.5kΩ, 100Ω 4, 1, 1
5. Bread board 1
7. CRO 1
9. Probes 3
THEORY:
Summing Amplifier: Op-amp may be used to perform summing operation of several input
signals in inverting and non-inverting mode. The input signals to be summed up are given to inverting
terminal or non-inverting terminal through the input resistance to perform inverting and non-inverting
summing operations respectively.
Subtractor: The basic difference amplifier can be used as a subtractor. The signals to be
subtracted are connected to opposite polarity inputs i.e. in inverting or noninverting terminals of the
op-amp.
Integrator: Integrator is used to integrate the input waveform. i.e., 𝑉𝑜 = ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡. Here in
the inverting amplifier configuration, the feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 is replaced by capacitor 𝐶𝑓 . Integrators
are commonly used in wave shaping networks, signal generators etc. For proper wave integration, T
>> RC. Gain and linearity of the output are two advantages of op-amp integrators. Linearity is due
to linear charging of capacitor. Its limitation is for 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0 and for low frequencies, 𝑋𝐶𝑓 = ∞ or the
capacitor 𝐶𝑓 acts as an open circuit. Therefore the op-amp integrator works as an open loop amplifier
and the gain becomes infinity or very high.
Differentiator: Here the output waveform is the derivative of the input waveform. In a basic
inverting amplifier, if 𝑅1 is replaced by 𝐶1 , we get the differentiator. But at high frequencies, the gain
𝑅𝑓
of the circuit (𝑋 ) increases with increase in frequency at the rate of 20dB/decade. This makes the
𝐶𝑓
circuit unstable. Also 𝑋𝐶1 decreases when frequency increases.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
1. ADDER CIRCUIT:
Fig. 1
DESIGN:
For an inverting amplifier,
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑣𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑓
Where 𝐴𝑣 = − 𝑅
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑅𝑓
Therefor 𝑉𝑜 = −( 𝑅 )(𝑉1 + 𝑉2)
Let 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅 = 1𝑘, 𝑉1 = 1𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 2𝑉
Hence, 𝑉𝑜 = −1(1 + 2) = −3𝑉
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig.1.

2. Using the DC power supply give the input voltages as 1V and 2V.
3. Using CRO observe the output waveform.
4. Vary the input DC voltage to obtain the different output values.
TABULAR COLUMN:
V1 V2 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = −( )(𝑉1 + 𝑉2)
𝑅

2. DIFFERENCE CIRCUIT:
Fig.2
DESIGN:
Let, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 1𝑘
𝑉𝑜 = (𝑅2/𝑅1)(𝑉2 − 𝑉1)
PROCEDURE:

2. Using the DC power supply give the input voltages as 5V and 2V respectively.
3. Using CRO observe the output waveform.
4. Vary the DC input voltage to obtain the different values of output.
5. For gain > 1 select R2 = 2k and observe the output.
TABULAR COLUMN:
V1 V2 𝑉𝑜 = (𝑅2/𝑅1)(𝑉2 − 𝑉1)

3. INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT:
Fig.3
DESIGN:
Let f = 1 kHz
Let C = 0.1µF
𝑅 = 1.5𝑘Ω
1
𝑉𝑜 = − ∫ 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅𝐶
PROCEDURE:
2. Using signal generator apply a square wave input of 2V amplitude and 1 kHz frequency.
3. Observe the output signal through CRO.
4. Change the input signal into triangle and check the output should be nearly sinusoidal.
5. Plot the graph of input versus output wave.
EXPECTED WAVEFORM:
Fig.4

4. DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT:
Fig.5
DESIGN:
Let f = 1kHz
Let C = 0.1µF
𝑅𝑓 ≥ 1.5𝑘
𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = −(𝑅𝑓 𝐶)
𝑑𝑡
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the components as shown in the fig. 5.

2. Apply a square wave input of 2V and frequency 1kHz to the inverting terminal of op-amp
through 𝑅1 𝐶1.
3. Observe the shape of the output signal for the given input in CRO.
4. Plot the graph of input versus output wave.

EXPECTED WAVEFORM:
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post Lab Questions:
1. Mention the main applications of differentiator.

 Used in wave shaping circuits to detect high frequency components in an input signal.
 Used as rate of change detector in FM modulations.
2. State some applications of integrator.

 Analog computers
 ADC
 Signal wave shaping circuits.
3. List the drawbacks of ideal integrator.

 At low frequencies (dc), gain becomes infinity.
 When the op-amp saturates, ideal integrator behaves like an open circuit.
4. Why is the practical integrator called as lossy integrator?

The gain of the integrator at lower frequencies can be limited to avoid the saturation
problem, if the feedback capacitor 𝐶𝑓 is shunted by a resistor 𝑅𝑓. The parallel
combination of 𝑅𝑓 and 𝐶𝑓 behaves like practical capacitor, which dissipates power,
unlike an ideal capacitor. For this reason, the circuit is called as lossy integrator.

EXPERIMENT 2: FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF OP-AMP

Pre-Lab Questions:
1. What is virtual ground concept?

In electronics, a virtual ground (or virtual earth) is a node of a circuit that is maintained at a
steady reference potential, without being connected directly to the reference potential. In some
cases the reference potential is considered to be that of the surface of the earth, and the
reference node is called "ground" or "earth" as a consequence. The virtual ground concept
aids circuit analysis in operational amplifier and other circuits and provides useful practical
circuit effects that would be difficult to achieve in other ways.
2. What is the difference between ground and virtual ground?

Real ground refers to the reference voltage in any circuit. And Virtual ground concept occurs
in op amp for negative feedback configuration only. It is the concept which suggest that the
both terminal should have same voltage when op amp is in negative feedback configuration.
3. What is the frequency response of an amplifier?

Frequency response is the quantitative measure of the output spectrum of a system or device
in response to a stimulus, and is used to characterize the dynamics of the system. It is a
measure of magnitude and phase of the output as a function of frequency, in comparison to
the input.
4. Define cut off frequency?

The cut off frequency is defined as the frequency at which the ratio of the (input/output) has
a magnitude of 0.707. When this magnitude is changed to decibels –3dB mostly referred to as
the 3dB down point.

AIM: Design and realize to analyse the frequency response of an op – amp amplifier under inverting
and non-inverting configuration for a given gain.

1. IC 741 1
2. Resistors 1kΩ, 10kΩ 1 Each
4. Bread board 1
5. CRO 1
7. Probes 3
THEORY:
An op-Amp can be used for number of application like Amplifier, Adder, Substractor,
Rectifier, Multivibrators, and Analog computer etc. Here we are using 741 as a inverting amplifier.
It is called as inverting amplifier because here input is connected at inverting input i.e. pin no.2 So
we get inverted signal of the input at the output. In this mode of operation the positive input terminal
of the amplifier is grounded and the input signal Vi is applied to the negative input terminal via
resistor R1. The feedback applied through Rf from the input terminal, is negative. This helps to in
maintaining gain stable. The inverting operation performed by circuit is determined by Rf & R1.
In case of non-inverting amplifier the input is applied at pin no.3 i.e. non-inverting input. So
we get o/p signal in phase with input signal. In this case the i/p signal is applied directly to the non-
inverting (+ve) i/p terminal of the amplifier & the feedback resistor ‘Rf’ is connected between the o/p
terminal & negative I/p terminal. The ‘R’ is connected between the inverting terminal & ground. Note
that Vi is not equal to zero in this case, meaning that non-inverting ckt has to virtual ground at one of
its i/p terminals.
INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
Fig.1

DESIGN:
Let the voltage gain (Av) of the inverting
amplifier be 10 i.e., 𝐴𝑣 = 10
Choose R1=1k,
𝑅𝐹
Gain 𝐴𝑣 = − 𝑅 ,
1
Therefore 𝑅𝐹 = 10𝑘Ω
PROCEDURE:
2. Switch on the signal generator and set input voltage to 1V (peak to peak), frequency 1kHz.
3. Measure output signal amplitude and phase from the CRO.
𝑉0 = −𝑉𝑖 × 𝐴𝑣
= −1𝑉 × 10
= −10𝑉
(There is 1800 phase shift between V0 & Vi)
4. Vary the frequency of the input signal from 100Hz to 1MHz in steps.
5. Measure the output signal amplitude and calculate gain using the formula 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑜/𝑉𝑖.
6. Calculate gain in dB using 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐴𝑣 and plot Gain vs. Frequency.
7. From the plot determine bandwidth.
EXPECTED GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN:
SL.NO. Frequency (Hz) Output Voltage (Vo)

Gain = 20 log (V0 /Vin) (dB)
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER:
Fig. 2
DESIGN:
Let the voltage gain (Av) of the inverting amplifier be
10 i.e., 𝐴𝑣 = 10
Choose R1=1k,
𝑅𝐹
Gain 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅 ,
1
Therefore 𝑅𝐹 = 10𝑘Ω
PROCEDURE:
2. Switch on the signal generator and set input voltage to 1V (peak to peak), frequency to 1 kHz.
3. Measure output signal amplitude and phase from the CRO.
𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖 × 𝐴𝑣
= 1𝑉 × 11
= 11𝑉
4. Vary the frequency of the input signal from 100Hz to 1MHz in steps.
5. Measure the output signal amplitude and calculate gain using the formula 𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑜/𝑉𝑖.
6. Calculate gain in dB using 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐴𝑣 and plot Gain vs. Frequency.
7. From the plot determine bandwidth.

EXPECTED GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post-Lab Questions:
1. What is meant by 3dB frequency?

The 3dB point, or 3dB frequency, is the point at which the signal has been attenuated
by 3dB (in a bandpass filter). This is generally considered the point for determining the filter's
bandwidth. The bandwidth is defined as the difference between the upper and
lower 3dB points.
2. What is the pass band gain?

A passband is the range of frequencies or wavelengths that can pass through a filter.
The passband of a receiver is the range of frequencies it can receive. A bandpass-filtered
signal (that is, a signal with energy only in a passband), is known as a bandpass signal, in
contrast to a baseband signal.
3. Why would you use a high pass filter?

A high-pass filter (HPF) is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than
a certain cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff
frequency. The amount of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design.
4. What is meant by all pass filter?

An all-pass filter is a signal processing filter that passes all frequencies equally in gain, but
changes the phase relationship among various frequencies. It does this by varying its phase
shift as a function of frequency.

EXPERIMENT 3: ACTIVE FILTERS

Pre-Lab Questions:
1. What is a filter?
A filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes a specified band of frequencies and blocks
a specified the frequencies outside the band.
2. What is meant by passive and active filters?
Passive Filter Active Filter
Consists of only basic passive elements like Consists of basic passive elements like
resistors, capacitors and inductors. resistors and capacitors along with active
elements like op-amp, transistors etc.
It does not provide gain. It provides gain greater than unity.
Designed using discrete components Fabricated into integrated circuit being

because of the presence of inductor. inductor less.
At higher frequencies the problems of Being inductor less, mutual coupling

mutual coupling dominate. Difficult to problems are not observed. The ideal filter
obtain ideal filter characteristic. characteristics can be obtained easily.
The value of quality factor (Q) is less. The value of quality factor (Q) is higher.
3. State the advantage of active filters over passive?

a) Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility
b) No loading problems
c) Low cost
d) Absence of inductors makes the circuit work for high frequency applications.
4. Define order of a filter?

The number of RC networks employed in filter circuits represents the order of the circuit.
5. What are the types of active filters?

a) Low pass filter
b) High pass filter
c) Band pass filter
d) Band reject filter.
6. What is frequency response?

The variation of gain in decibels with respect to frequency is called frequency response.

AIM: Design and realize an op – amp based first order Butterworth (a) low pass (b) high pass and (c)
band pass filters for a given cut off frequency/frequencies to verify the frequency response
characteristic.
1. IC 741 2
Resistors 1kΩ, 1.5kΩ, 15kΩ, 1, 1,1, 4 Each
2. 10kΩ
4. Decade Capacitance Box 1
6. Bread board 1
7. CRO 1
9. Probes 3
THEORY:
A frequency selective circuit that passes electric signals of desired band of frequencies and
attenuates the other band of frequencies outside the band is called an active filter. At radio
frequencies, inductors become problematic hence RC filters are used. As op-amp is used in non-
inverting mode, it offers high input impedance and low output impedance, this improves the load
driving capacity. The most commonly used filters are low pass filter (LPF), high pass filter (HPF),
band pas filter (BPF), band stop filter (BSF). Low pass filter passes signals whose frequency is less
than cut-off frequency. High pass filter passes signals whose frequency is greater than cut-off
frequency. Depending upon the number of RC networks used in the circuit, filters are classified as
first order filter if the network contains one RC network and as second order if it contains two RC
networks.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
1. First order low pass Butterworth filter:
Fig.1
DESIGN:
Let the upper cut-off frequency, 𝑓𝐻 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧

Choose C = 0.01µF
𝑓𝐻 = 1/2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Therefore R=1.59kΩ, Choose R=1.5kΩ
Let passband gain Av = 2
Choose R1 = 10kΩ
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = 1 +
𝑅1
Therefore, Rf=10kΩ
EXPECTED GRAPH:
TABULAR COLUMN:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

2. First order high pass Butterworth filter:
Fig.2
DESIGN:
Let the lower cut-off frequency, 𝑓𝐿 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧

Choose C = 0.01µF
𝑓𝐻 = 1/2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Therefore R=1.59kΩ, Choose R=1.5kΩ
Let passband gain Av = 2
Choose R1 = 10kΩ
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = 1 +
𝑅1
Therefore, Rf=10kΩ
EXPECTED GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
PROCEDURE: (LPF & HPF):
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Select the corresponding cut-off frequency (higher or lower) and determine the value of C&R.
select the value of R1 & Rf depending on desired passband gain Av..
3. Apply a constant voltage input sinusoidal signal to the non-inverting terminal of op-amp.
4. Tabulate the output voltage Vo with respect to different values of input frequency.
5. Calculate passband gain and plot the graph of frequency versus voltage gain & check the
graph to get approximately the same characteristic as shown in the model graph.
3. BAND-PASS FILTER:
Fig.3
DESIGN:
Let, 𝑓𝐿 = 200𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐻 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧

Band pass gain Av= 4

For low pass: 𝑓𝐻 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧
Let C’= 0.01µF
1
𝑓𝐻 = 2𝜋𝑅′ 𝐶 ′
Therefore, 𝑅 ′ = 1.59𝑘Ω, Choose 𝑹′ = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒌Ω
For high pass: 𝑓𝐿 = 200𝐻𝑧

Let C= 0.05µF
1
𝑓𝐻 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Therefore, 𝑅 = 1.59𝑘Ω, Choose 𝑹 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒌Ω
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Select the corresponding cut-off frequency (higher and lower) and determine the value of C
& R. Also select the value of R1 & Rf depending on desired passband gain Av..
3. Apply a constant voltage input sinusoidal signal to the non-inverting terminal of op-amp.
4. Tabulate the output voltage Vo with respect to different values of input frequency.
5. Calculate passband gain and plot the graph of frequency versus voltage gain & check the graph
to get approximately the same characteristic as shown in the model graph.
EXPECTED GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post- Lab Questions:
1. What do you understand from the frequency response of filter?

The graph of magnitude of transfer function |T(jω)| against the frequency ω is called frequency
response of a filter.
2. Define Bandwidth of a filter.

The range of frequency over which the gain of the filter remains constant is called its
bandwidth.
3. What are the applications of filters?

a) Communication circuits
b) Transmission
4. What is the significance of 3 db line in frequency response?

Rms value of sine wave = 0.707
20 log(0.707) = -3db.
The 3 db line gives the cut off frequency.
5. How to convert a Band Pass Filter to Band Stop Filter?

A band stop filter can be realized using band pass filter and a summing circuit. Output of the
band pass inverting filter is added to the input using a summing circuit.
6. What were the different types of BPF? Explain.

a) Wide Band Pass Filter: It can be realized by simply cascading a high pass filter and a low
pass filter. This filter has Q < 10.
b) Narrow Band Pass Filter: It uses only one op-amp. It has two feedback paths and the op-
amp is in the inverting configuration.

EXPERIMENT 4: VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Pre Lab Questions:
1. What is a voltage regulator?
A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable DC voltage independent of the load
current, temperature and AC line voltage variations.
2. What is the main function of voltage regulator?
The main function of a voltage regulator is to provide a stable DC voltage for processing other
electronic circuits.
3. What are the different types of voltage regulators?

a) Fixed output voltage regulator (positive or negative)
b) Adjustable output voltage regulators (positive or negative)
c) Switching regulators.
d) Special regulators.
4. What are switching regulators?
Regulators which operate the transistor as a high frequency ON/OFF switch, so that the power
transistor does not conduct current continuously is called switching regulator.
5. What are the four main parts of voltage regulators?
a) Reference voltage circuit

b) Error amplifier
c) Series pole transistor
d) Feedback Network.

AIM: Designing of Fixed voltage power supply (voltage regulator) using IC regulators 78 series
and 79 series.

1. Regulated D.C Power supply (0-30) V 1
2. Voltage Regulator 7805, 7905 1 Each
3. Decade Resistance Box 1
4. Capacitor 0.33f, 0.1f 1 Each
5. Bread Board 1
6. CRO 1
7. Connecting Wires As per requirement
8. Probes 2
THEORY:
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components.
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Load regulation
is the change in output voltage for a given change in load current. Line regulation or input regulation
is the degree to which output voltage changes with input (supply) voltage changes - as a ratio of output
to input change. Active regulators employ at least one active (amplifying) component such as a
transistor or operational amplifier. Linear regulator is a voltage regulator based on an active device
(such as a bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor or vacuum tube) operating in its "linear
region"
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig.1: Voltage Regulator 7805

Fig.2: Voltage Regulator 7509
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in Fig.
2. Keeping load resistance RL constant, vary the I/P voltage in steps (From 5 to 30V) and observe
the o/p voltage.
2. Tabulate the readings in the form shown in table1.
3. Keeping I/P voltage Vin constant, vary the load resistance in steps and observe the o/p voltage.
4. Tabulate the readings in the form shown in table2.
TABLE 1: 𝑹𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎𝒌Ω (Constant)
SL.NO. Input Voltage (Vi) in Output Voltage (Vo) in Output Voltage (Vo) in
Volts Volts (7805) Volts (7905)
1. 5
2. 6
3. 7
4. 8
5. 9
6. 10
7. 15
8. 20
9. 25
10. 30
TABLE 2: 𝑽𝒊 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽 (Constant)
SL.NO. Load Resistance (RL) Output Voltage (Vo) in Output Voltage (Vo) in
in Ω Volts (7805) Volts (7905)
1. 10
2. 20

3. 30
4. 40
5. 50
6. 60
7. 70
8. 80
9. 90
10. 100
Result:
Signature of Staff

Post Lab Questions:
1. What are the main advantages of voltage regulators?

a) Short circuit Protection.
b) Output Voltage can be varied.
2. Define line regulation or source regulation.

Line regulation is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a change in the
input voltage. It is usually expressed in millivolts or as percentage of the input voltage.
3. Define Load regulation.

Load regulation is defined as the change in regulated output voltage for a change in load
current. It is usually expressed in millivolts or as a percentage of V0.
4. What are the limitations of 723 regulators?

No built in thermal protection.
It has no short circuit current limits.
5. What is current limiting ability?

Current limiting ability refers to the ability of the regulator to prevent the load current from
increasing above a preset value.
6. List the drawbacks of series regulators.

The drawbacks of series regulators are:
a) The input step down transformer used in bulky and most expensive component.
b) Since it operates at low line frequency, large values of filter capacitors are required.
c) Efficiency is less
d) More power is dissipated in the series pass transistor, which is always in the active
region.
7. Define ripple rejection.

Ripple rejection is a measure of a regulator’s ability to reject ripple voltage. It is expresses in
db.
8. Write the uses of voltage regulator.

Voltage regulators are commonly used for on-card regulation and laboratory type power
switches. Switch type regulators are used as control circuits in pulse width modulation. Push
pull bridge and series type switch mode supplies.

EXPERIMENT 5: SIGNAL GENERATOR
Pre- Lab Questions:
1. What is the basic difference between comparator and Schmitt trigger?

A comparator compares the input signal with reference voltage and gives the output whereas
Schmitt trigger operates between two reference points LTP and UTP.
2. State Barkhausen criterion.

a) Magnitude, |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|= 1
b) Phase, or 3600
3. What is the merit of regenerative comparator?

In regenerative comparator, the feedback enhances the comparator input. The phase difference
is not visualized due to positive feedback.
4. What is an oscillator?
An oscillator is basically a positive feedback circuit where a fraction of output voltage Vo is
fed back to the input end of the basic amplifier, which is in phase with the signal to the basic
amplifier.
5. Design a Wein bridge oscillator for a frequency of 1 kHz.
6. Classify sine-wave oscillator based on the range of frequency.

Sine wave oscillators can be classified according to the range of frequency as
a) RC oscillator for audio frequency
b) LC oscillator for radio frequency

AIM: Design and realize an op – amp based function generator to generate sine, square and
triangular waves of desired frequency.

1. IC 741 2
2. Resistors 1kΩ,1.5kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 10kΩ 1, 2, 1, 2, 1 each
3. Resistance Box 24kΩ 1
6. Bread board 1
8. CRO 1
10. Probes 3
THEORY:
Wien Bridge Oscillator:
Wien bridge oscillator is one of the most commonly used audio frequency oscillator owing to
its simplicity and stability. Wien bridge circuit is connected between the amplifier input terminals
and output terminals. The bridge has a series RC network in one arm and a parallel RC network in
the adjoining arm. In the remaining two arms of the bridge, resistors R1 and Rf are connected. The
phase angle criterion for oscillation is that the total phase shift around the circuit must be 00 .This
conditions occurs only when the bridge is balanced, that is, at resonance. The frequency of oscillation
is exactly the resonant frequency of the balanced Wien Bridge.
Triangular/Rectangular Waveform Generator:
Operational amplifier based triangular wave form generator is simple circuit that is widely
used in function generators. We know that the integrator output waveform will be triangular if the
input to it is a square wave. It means that a triangular wave generator can be formed by simply
cascading an integrator and a square wave generator. This circuit uses two operational amplifiers.
First op amp functions as a comparator and next op amp as an integrator.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
1. SINE WAVE GENERATOR: WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
Fig: 1
DESIGN:
Let the frequency of the generated sine wave be 10 kHz.
Select C= 0.01µF
𝑅 = 1/2𝜋𝑓𝐶
R= 1.59kΩ, Select R= 1.5kΩ
𝑅𝑓 = 2𝑅1
Choose R1= 1kΩ
Therefore, Rf = 2kΩ, Select Rf= 2.2kΩ to have ACL>3

2. SQUARE AND TRIANGULAR GENERATOR: TRIANGULAR/RECTANGULAR

WAVE GENERATOR
Fig: 2
DESIGN:
Let the frequency of the generated square and triangular wave be 6kHz and Vo(p-p)= 10V.
𝑉𝑜(𝑝 − 𝑝) = (2𝑅2/𝑅3)𝑉(𝑠𝑎𝑡)
Therefore, R3 = 2.4R2
Let, R2= 10kΩ
Therefore, R3 = 24kΩ
Let, C1= 0.01µF
Then 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑅3/4𝑅1𝐶1𝑅2
Therefore R1= 10kΩ
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the given frequency of the output waveforms.
2. Connect the circuits as shown in figure 1 and 2.
3. Observe and measure the amplitude and frequency of the output signal from CRO.
4. Plot the graph.
Result:
Signature of Staff

Post-Lab Questions:
1. How can you obtain triangular wave using Schmitt trigger?

The output of Schmitt trigger when connected to integrator yields triangular output.
2. Wein bridge oscillator uses positive and negative feedback. Why?

Negative feedback is used for stability gain positive feedback is used for oscillation
3. What is the function of lead-lag network in Wein bridge oscillator?

The function of lag lead network is to obtain the zero degree phase shift.
4. Write the equation for frequency of oscillations of Wein bridge oscillator.
𝟏
𝒇=
𝟐𝝅√𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

EXPERIMENT 6: RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

Pre- Lab Questions:
1. What is a phase shift oscillator?

Phase shift oscillator is the term given to a particular oscillator circuit topology that uses an
RC network in the feedback loop of a tube, transistor, or op-amp to generate the required
phase shift at a particular frequency to sustain oscillations. They are moderately stable in
frequency and amplitude, and very easy to design and construct.
2. What phase shift does RC phase shift oscillator produce?

RC phase shift oscillator produces a phase shift of 180 degrees between output and input
signal. In the phase-shift oscillator, at least three RC sections are needed to give the required
180-degree phase shift for regenerative feedback. The values of resistance and capacitance
are generally chosen so that each section provides about a 60-degree phase shift.
3. Why we need a phase shift between input and output signal?

To obtain the regenerative feedback in the phase-shift oscillator, we need a phase shift of 180
degrees between the output and the input signal. An RC network consists of three RC sections
which provides the proper feedback and phase inversion to provide this regenerative feedback.
Each section shifts the feedback signal 60 degrees in phase.
4. How is phase angle determined in RC phase shift oscillator?

Since the impedance of an RC network is capacitive, the current flowing through it leads the
applied voltage by a specific phase angle. The phase angle is determined by the amount of
resistance and capacitance of the RC section. If the capacitance is a fixed value, a change in
the resistance value will change the phase angle. If the resistance could be changed to zero,
we could get a maximum phase angle of 90 degrees. But since a voltage cannot be developed
across zero resistance, a 90-degree phase shift is not possible.

AIM: Design and verify the output waveform of an op – amp RC phase shift oscillator for a desired
Frequency.

1. IC 741 01
2. Resistor 33kΩ, 3.3kΩ,1MΩ 2, 3, 1 Each
4. CRO 01
5. Connecting Wires As per requirement
6. Probes 2
THEORY:
An oscillator is a circuit, which generates ac output signal without giving any input ac signal. This
circuit is usually applied for audio frequencies only. The basic requirement for an oscillator is positive
feedback.
An oscillator consists of an amplifier and a feedback network.
1. Active device that is Op-Amp is used as an amplifier.
2. Passive components such as R-C of L-C combinations as used as a feedback network.
To start the oscillation with the constant amplitude, positive feedback is not the only sufficient
condition. Oscillator circuit must satisfy the following two conditions known as Barkhausen
conditions:
 The first condition is that the magnitude of the loop gain (Aβ) = 1.
 Second condition is that the phase shift around the loop must be 360° or 0°.
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR:
Phase-shift oscillator is a simple electronic oscillator. It contains an inverting amplifier, and a

feedback filter which 'shifts' the phase of the amplifier output by 180 degrees at the oscillation
frequency. The filter produces a phase shift that increases with frequency. It must have a maximum
phase shift of considerably greater than 1800 at high frequencies, so that the phase shift at the desired
oscillation frequency is 1800.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DESIGN PROCEDURE:
Design a RC phase shift oscillator to oscillate at 200Hz.

Select fo = 200Hz.
Assume C = 0.1μf & determine R from fo.
1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
R = 3.3 kΩ
To prevent the loading of amp it is necessary that R1>>10R.
Therefore R1=10R=33KΩ.
At this frequency the gain must be atleast 29
Rf / R1 =29.
Therefore Rf = 29R1.
Rf = 29 (33K) = 957KΩ.
Therefore use Rf = 1MΩ.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select the given frequency of oscillation f0 = 200Hz.

2. Assume either R or C to find out the other using formula
1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
3. The gain is selected such that Rf / R1 = 29K. Assume Rf or R1 to find the other.
4. Connect the circuit as per as the circuit diagram.
5. Measure the amplitude and frequency of the output signal from CRO
6. Plot the graph.

TABULAR COLUMN:
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post-Lab Questions:
1. What is the frequency of RC phase shift oscillator?

To find resonant frequency of an RC phase shift oscillator, use the following formula
f=1/2πRC√6
2. Why RC oscillators cannot generate high frequency oscillations?

At high frequencies, resistors look like inductors or capacitors so the equations that govern
oscillation in RC oscillators no longer apply. In other words, because of those parasitic
components, it gets more and more difficult to make a stable RC oscillator as frequencies go
up. At some point it becomes easier and more stable to use other types of oscillators.
3. What are the applications of RC phase shift oscillators?

RC phase shift oscillators are mostly used at audio frequencies. Other than this, electronic
organs makes use of this oscillator such as electronic musical instruments like pianos. Also
used in equipment that emits beeps. Example, many GPS units beeps when they performs
an action. Also used in voice synthesis.
4. How can we get a maximum phase angle of 90 degrees in RC phase shift oscillator?
By changing the resistance to zero, we can get a maximum phase angle of 90 degrees. But
since we cannot develop voltage across zero resistance, so a 90 degree phase shift is not
possible.

EXPERIMENT 7: SCHMITT TRIGGER
Pre-Lab Questions:
1. What are the circuits used to generate square wave?

Schmitt Trigger, Astable Multivibrator, Zero Cross Detector, PLL.
2. Short notes on zero crossing detector?

The zero-crossing is the instantaneous point of the wave form at which the voltage value is
zero. In a sine wave or other simple waveform, this normally occurs twice during
each cycle. Zero cross detector detects this point.
3. Define hysteresis width?

When the input is higher than a certain chosen threshold, the output is high; when the input
is below a different (lower) chosen threshold, the output is low; when the input is between
the two, the output retains its value. This dual threshold action is called hysteresis.
4. What are the other names for Schmitt Trigger?

Regenerative Comparator, Squarer Unit.
5. What is a Schmitt Trigger?

Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal input into a square wave
output. The output of Schmitt trigger swings at upper and lower threshold voltages, which
are the reference voltages of the input waveform.
6. Define UTP and LTP.

Upper threshold(Trigger) point, Lower Threshold (Trigger) points – these are the points
where the input signal is compared. The values are UTP = +Vsat . R2 / (R1 + R2) and LTP = -
Vsat . R2 / (R1 + R2)

AIM: Design and realize Schmitt trigger circuit using an op – amp for desired upper trip point
(UTP) and lower trip point (LTP).

1. IC 741 1
2. Resistor 100kΩ, 10kΩ 1, 2
4. Bread board/Spring board 1
5. CRO 1
6. Wires As per required
7. Probes 2
THEORY:
Schmitt trigger is otherwise called regenerative comparator. In this comparator circuit a positive
feedback is added. The input voltage 𝑉𝑖 triggers the output 𝑉𝑜 very time it exceeds certain voltage
levels. These voltages are known as upper threshold voltage (𝑉𝑈𝑇 ) or upper trip point (UTP) and
lower threshold voltage (𝑉𝐿𝑇 ) or lower trip point (LTP).
The difference between the two threshold voltages (𝑉𝑈𝑇 − 𝑉𝐿𝑇 ) gives the hysteresis width.
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 + (𝑅2 / (𝑅1 + 𝑅2) ∗ ( 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 – 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓)

𝑉𝐿𝑇 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 – (𝑅2 / (𝑅1 + 𝑅2) ∗ ( 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 – 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 - applied reference voltage
𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 - saturation voltage of OP-AMP
𝑅1, 𝑅2 - voltage divider resistances
When input voltage is greater than 𝑉𝑈𝑇 , output goes to negative saturation and when input voltage is
less than 𝑉𝐿𝑇 , output goes to positive saturation.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DESIGN:
Let 𝑈𝑇𝑃 = 3𝑉, 𝐿𝑇𝑃 = 3𝑉
𝑅1 = 100𝑘Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 = 10𝑘Ω
𝑅2 𝑅1
Using, 𝑈𝑇𝑃 = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑅1+𝑅2) + 𝑉𝑟(𝑅1+𝑅2)
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐿𝑇𝑃 = −𝑉𝑜 (𝑅1+𝑅2) + 𝑉𝑟(𝑅1+𝑅2)
Therefore Vr = 2.1V
PROCEDURE:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in fig.1.

2. Switch on the supply and adjust the signal generator to say 10V (p-p) with frequency 1kHz.
3. Observe the input and output waveforms and find the value of UTP and LTP from CRO.
4. Trace the input and output waveform.

EXPECTED WAVEFORM:
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post-Lab Questions:
1. What is the duty cycle of the output square wave of the Schmitt Trigger?
50%
2. For what requirements, Schmitt Trigger is used?

When two levels are to be compared there may be oscillation at the border. Having
hysteresis this problem is solved.
3. What is the basic difference between the comparator and Schmitt trigger?
Comparator compares with a fixed reference whereas Schmitt trigger compares at two
different references UTP and LTP.
4. Which type of feedback is used in Schmitt trigger?

Positive feedback.
5. What is the merit of regenerative comparator?

In regenerative comparator, the feedback enhances the comparator input. The phase difference
is not visualized due to positive feedback.

EXPERIMENT 8: COMPARATOR CIRCUITS
AIM: Verify the operation of an op – amp as (a) voltage comparator circuit and (b) zero crossing
detector.

1. IC 741 1
2. Resistor 1kΩ 2
4. Variable DC supply (0-30V) 1
5. Bread board 1
6. CRO 1
8. Probes 2
THEORY:
Voltage Comparator: A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at
one input of an op-amp with output ± Vsat = (Vcc). If the signal is applied to the inverting terminal
of the op-amp it is called inverting comparator and if the signal is applied to non-inverting terminal
of the op-amp it is called non-inverting comparator. In an inverting comparator if input signal is less
than reference voltage, output will be +Vsat. When input signal voltage is greater than reference
voltage output will be –Vsat. The vice-versa takes place in non-inverting comparator.
Zero Crossing Detector: Zero crossing comparator (ZCD) is an application of voltage

comparator. It converts any time varying signal to square of same time period with amplitude ± Vsat.
The reference voltage is set as zero volts. When the polarity of the input signal changes, output square
wave changes polarity.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1. NON-INVERTING VOLTAGE COMPARATOR:
Fig: 1
DESIGN:
Choose R1 = R2 = 1kΩ
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 1.

2. Apply the input voltage of 1kHz frequency and 10V (p-p) from signal generator to the non-
inverting terminal of the op-amp.
3. Give a reference voltage Vr= 2V at the inverting terminal of the op-amp.
4. If 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟, 𝑉𝑜 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
And if 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟, 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
5. Observe the waveform on the CRO and repeat the procedure with Vr = 6V.
2. INVERTING VOLTAGE COMPARATOR:
Fig: 2
DESIGN:
Choose R1 = R2 = 1kΩ
PROCEDURE:

2. Apply the input voltage of 1kHz frequency and 10V (p-p) from signal generator to the
3. Give a reference voltage Vr= 2V at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
4. If 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟, 𝑉𝑜 = +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
And if 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟, 𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡
5. Observe the waveform on the CRO and repeat the procedure with Vr = 6V.
3. NON-INVERTING ZERO DETECTOR:
Fig: 3
PROCEDURE:
2. Apply the input voltage of 1kHz frequency and 10V (p-p) from signal generator to the non-
3. When Vi = 0+ (Positive zero crossing), Vo = +Vcc =+15V and when Vi = 0- (Negative zero
crossing), Vo = -VEE =-15V.
4. Observe and trace the input and output waveform.

INVERTING ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR:
Fig: 4
PROCEDURE:
2. Apply the input voltage of 1kHz frequency and 10V (p-p) from signal generator to the
3. When Vi = 0+ (Negative zero crossing), Vo = -VEE =-15Vand when Vi = 0- (Positive zero
crossing), Vo = +Vcc =+15V.
4. Observe and trace the input and output waveform.
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post- Lab Questions:
1. What is a comparator?
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp
with known reference voltage at other input. It is basically an Op-amp with output Vsat
(»Vcc).
2. What is the difference between a basic comparator and Zero Crossing Detector?
Comparator has only one reference voltage whereas ZCD has zero reference voltage.
3. List some applications of comparator.

a) Window detector
b) Time marker generator
c) Phase meter
d) Zero crossing detector
. 4. What are the characteristics of Comparator?

a) Speed of operation
b) Accuracy
c) Compatibility of the output.
5. Why can’t we use comparator to convert sin wave into square wave?
If noise exist in sinusoidal signal at zero volts unwantedly output varies b/w + Vsat and -Vsat

EXPERIMENT 9: PRECISION FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

AIM: Design and verify a precision full wave rectifier. Determine the performance parameters.

1. IC 741 2
2. Switching diode (1N4007) 2
3. Resistor 1kΩ 5
4. Bread board/Spring board 1
5. Signal Generator 1
6. CRO 1
8. Probes 2
THEORY:
Precision Rectifier name itself suggests that it rectifies even lower input voltages i.e. voltages
less than 0.7V (diode drop). A rectifier is a device, which converts AC voltage to DC voltage.
Precision rectifier converts AC to pulsating DC. Normal rectifiers using transformers cannot rectify
voltages below 0.7V, so we go for precision rectifiers. In this circuit the diodes are placed in such a
way that one diode is forward biased in the positive half cycle and the other in the negative half cycle.
Consider the circuit diagram shown below. Here in the positive half cycle D1 is forward biased and
D2 is reverse biased. The simplified circuit will act as two inverted amplifiers connected in series.
Hence the total gain will be the product of individual gains. During the negative half cycle, D1 is
reverse biased and D2 is forward biased. Hence the simplified circuit is an inverting amplifier
connected in series with a non-inverting amplifiers. Hence the output will be inverted and a DC output
(unidirectional) is obtained .The precision rectifier we are using is a full wave rectifier.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig: 1

DESIGN:
Let the gain be unity, Av = 1
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 1kΩ
Rf= 2R1 = 2kΩ
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply a sine wave input with a peak-peak value of 1V (p-p) and a frequency of 1 kHz.
3. Rectified output is observed on the CRO.
4. A plot of Vo v/s Vi plotted.
EXPECTED WAVEFORM:
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post-Lab Questions:
1. Define a rectifier.
A rectifier is a device which converts alternating current (or voltage) into unidirectional
current (or voltage).
2. Define Precision diode.

Precision diode or super diode is a combination of Op-Amp and diode which is superior
rectifier.
3. What is the difference between an ordinary diode rectifier and a rectifier using
OPAMP?
Precision rectifiers use op amp based circuits whereas ordinary rectifiers use simple diodes.
The advantages of precision rectifiers are:
 No diode voltage drop (usually 0.7) between input and output.

 The ability to rectify very small voltages (very much smaller than the diode forward
voltage of 0.7V).
 The rectified output can be amplified if required.
 Low output impedance.
 Precision rectifier is a close approximation of an ideal diode because of absence of
forward voltage drop

EXPERIMENT 10: 555 TIMER

Pre Lab Questions:
1. Give the pin diagram of 555 timer IC.
2. What is multivibrator?
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple twostate systems
such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices
(transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors or capacitors.
3. What is quasi stable state?

Change from one state to another without any external trigger is termed as quasi stable state.
4. What are the various modes of operation of multivibrator? Explain

Astable mode – 2 quasi stable state
Monostable – 1 quasi and on stable state.
Bistable – 2 stable states.
5. What is one-shot multivibrator?

The monostable is also called as one-shot multivibrator as it produces a single pulse of
specified duration in response to each external trigger signal. Only one stable state exists.
When an external trigger signal is applied the output changes its state.
6. Define the term Duty cycle.

A duty cycle is the fraction of one period in which a signal or system is active. Duty cycle is
commonly expressed as a percentage or a ratio. A period is the time it takes for a signal to
complete an on-and-off cycle. As a formula, a duty cycle (%) may be expressed as:
𝑃𝑊
𝐷= × 100%
𝑇
7. Why an Astable multivibrator is called a Free running oscillator?
It is called free-running because it alternates between two different output voltage levels
during the time it is on. The output remains at each voltage level for a definite period of time.
If you looked at this output on an oscilloscope, you would see continuous square or
rectangular waveforms. The astable multivibrator has two outputs, but NO inputs.

AIM: Design and verify an IC 555 timer based pulse generator for the specified pulse.

1. 555 Timer 1
2. Switching diode (1N4007) 1
3. Resistor 3.3kΩ, 6.8kΩ,10kΩ 1, 2, 1
4. Capacitor 0.1µF, 0.01 µF 1, 2
5. Bread board 1
6. CRO 1
8. Probes 2
THEORY:
The IC555 timer is a 8 pin IC that can be connected to external components for astable
operation. The simplified block diagram is drawn. The OP-AMP has threshold and control inputs.
Whenever the threshold voltage exceeds the control voltage, the high output from the OP –AMP will
set the flip-flop. The collector of discharge transistor goes to pin 7. When this pin is connected to an
external trimming capacitor, a high Q output from the flip flop will saturate the transistor and
discharge the capacitor.
When Q is low the transistor opens and the capacitor charges. The complementary signal
out of the flip-flop goes to pin 3 and output. When external reset pin is grounded it inhibits the device.
The on – off feature is useful in many application. The lower OP- AMP inverting terminal input is
called the trigger because of the voltage divider. The non-inverting input has a voltage of +Vcc/3,
the OP-Amp output goes high and resets the flip flop.
The output frequency is, 𝑓 = 1.44/(𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 )𝐶

The duty cycle is, 𝐷 = 𝑅𝐵 / (𝑅𝐴 + 2𝑅𝐵 ) ∗ 100%
The duty cycle is between 50 to 100% depending on 𝑅𝐴 and 𝑅𝐵 .

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR: For Duty Cycle > 50%, 𝒇 = 𝟏𝒌𝑯𝒛
Fig: 1
DESIGN:
Let Duty cycle, %D = 75% and 𝑓 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑇 = 1/𝑓 = 1𝑚𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 =
𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
𝑇𝑜𝑛 = 0.75 × 1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.75𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0.25𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑛 = 0.693𝑅𝐴 𝐶
Let C = 0.1µF
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐴 = 10.8𝑘Ω 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑹𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌Ω
𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 0.693𝑅𝐵 𝐶
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝐵 = 3.6𝑘Ω 𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝑹𝑩 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌Ω
PROCEDURE:
2. As there is no specific input signal for this circuit switch ON the power supply.
3. Note down the reading for output square wave (i.e) time & amplitude and tabulate it.
4. Note down the reading for capacitor voltage & tabulate it.
5. Plot the reading in the graph and compare it with model graph.

2. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR: EQUAL DUTY CYCLE
Fig: 2
DESIGN:
Let Duty cycle = 50% and 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑛 = 0.5 × 1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.5𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
Let C = 0.1µF
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝐴 = 7.2𝑘Ω , 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑹𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝒌Ω
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑹𝑩 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝒌Ω
PROCEDURE:

SPECIMEN GRAPH:
3. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR: For Duty Cycle < 50%
DESIGN:
Let Duty cycle = 25% and 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇𝑜𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑛 = 0.25 × 1𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 0.25𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐
Let C = 0.1µF
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑅𝐴 = 3.6𝑘Ω , 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑹𝑨 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝒌Ω

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑅𝐵 = 10.8𝑘Ω, 𝑪𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝑹𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝒌Ω
PROCEDURE
RESULT:
Signature of Staff

Post Lab Questions:
1. List the basic blocks of IC 555 timer?

 A relaxation oscillator.
 R-S flip-flop
 Two comparators
 Discharge transistors.
2. Give the applications of 555-timer Astable multivibrator.

 Square wave generator
 Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
 FSK Generator
 Schmitt trigger.
3. What is the advantage of 555 IC over op amp?

555 IC generates accurate time delay compared to op amp.
4. List the applications of monostable mode of 555 timer. .

 Missing Pulse detector
 Linear ramp generator
 Frequency divider

EXPERIMENT NO.11: 4-BIT R-2R DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

Pre-Lab Questions:
1. What is a DAC?
A DAC (Digital to Analog Converter) accepts an n-bit input word 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 … … 𝑏𝑛 in binary
and produces an analog signal proportional to it.
2. Define Resolution.
Resolution is defined as the ratio of a change in output voltage resulting from a change in 1
LSB at the digital input. For an n-bit DAC it can be given as
𝑉𝑜𝐹𝑆
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑛
2 −1
Where 𝑉𝑜𝐹𝑆 = full scale output voltage
3. Define Accuracy.
It is a comparison of actual output voltage with expected output. It is expressed in percentage.
𝑉𝑜𝐹𝑆
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 𝑛
(2 − 1)2
4. What does monotonicity mean?
A converter is said to have good monotonicity if it does not miss any step backward when
stepped through its entire range by a counter.
5. Define Conversion time.

It is a time required for conversion of analog signal into its digital equivalent. It is also called
setting time. It depends on the response time of the switches and the output of the amplifier.

AIM: To design 4 bit R-2R ladder DAC using Op-Amp for an output voltage of 5V when the
input is 10 (Binary 1010).

1. IC µA741 1
2. Resistor As per design -
3. Bread board - 1
4. Multi-meter - 1
5. Connecting Wires - As per requirement
6. Digital trainer kit - 1
7. Dual Power Supply (0-30V) 1
THEORY:
There are two techniques used for digital to analog conversion.

 Binary weighted resistor D/A converter
 R/2R ladder D/A converter
R/2R ladder D/A converter:

A ladder is a series/parallel resistor network, a R-2R ladder requires only two resistor value R
and 2R. Nowadays digital systems are used in many applications because of their increasingly
efficient, reliable and economical operation. Since digital systems such as microcomputers use a
binary system of ones and zeros, the data to be put into the microcomputer have to be converted from
analog form to digital form. The circuit that performs this conversion and reverse conversion are
called A/D and D/A converter respectively. D/A converter in its simplest form use an op-amp and
resistors either in the binary weighted form or R-2R form. The figure below shows D/A converter
with resistors connected in R-2R form. It is so called as the resistors used here are R and 2R. The
binary inputs are simulated by switches b0 to b3 and the output is proportional to the binary inputs.
Binary inputs are either in high (+5V) or low (0V) state. The analysis can be carried out with the help
of Thevenin’s theorem.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DESIGN:
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 5𝑉
Let 𝑅 = 1𝑘Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑅 = 2.2𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = × (𝐷𝑜 + 2𝐷1 + 4𝐷2 + 8𝐷3 )
16
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Digital input data is given at D3, D2, D1, D0 and corresponding analog output voltage V0 is
measured.
3. Tabulate the readings & plot the graph between Vo on y-axis Vin on X-axis.
Note:
 D0, D1, D2 & D3 are binary input.
 Vo is the analog output.
 Binary inputs Do, D1, D2 & D3 can take either the value ‘0’ or ‘1’.
 The 4-bits are increased in steps from 0000 to 1111 and at each step output voltage Vo
is measured using multi-meter.
 The readings are tabulated and verified against the theoretical output.
 Graph of digital inputs v/s analog output is plotted.

RESULT:
Decimal Binary Inputs Analog O/P Binary Inputs Analog Binary Inputs Analog
Value Vo(volts) Output Vo(volts) Output Vo(volts)
𝑫𝟑 𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟎 Theoretical values Practical values
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1
10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 0
15 1 1 1 1
Signature of Faculty

Post –lab Questions:
1. What are the various types of DAC circuits?

 Resistor-string
 N-Bit Binary Weighted Resistor
 R-2R Ladder
2. What are the key parameters you should consider when choosing a DAC?
There are six key parameters you should consider when choosing a DAC.
 Reference Voltage
 Resolution
 Linearity
 Speed
 Settling Time
 Error
3. What are the advantages of R/2R ladder technique over binary weighted resistor
technique?
 Simplest type of DAC
 Requires only two precision resistance value (R and 2R)
 Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values.
4. State some applications of DAC.

DAC Applications
 DAC’s can be found in any device that interfaces digital and analog circuitry
 Analog Displays
 Digital Control Systems
 Digital Audio
 Communications etc.

EXPERIMENT NO. 12: TWO BIT FLASH ADC
Pre-lab Questions:
1. What is the flash ADC?

A flash ADC (also known as a direct-conversion ADC) is a type of analog-to-digital converter
that uses a linear voltage ladder with a comparator at each "rung" of the ladder to compare the
input voltage to successive reference voltages.
2. Which is the fastest type of ADC and why?

The most common types of ADCs are flash, successive approximation, and sigma-delta. The
flash ADC is the fastest type available. A flash ADC uses comparators, one per voltage step,
and a string of resistors. A 4-bit ADC will have 16 comparators, an 8-bit ADC will have 256
comparators.
3. How does successive approximation ADC work?

A successive approximation ADC is a type of analog-to-digital converter that converts a
continuous analog waveform into a discrete digital representation via a binary search through
all possible quantization levels before finally converging upon a digital output for each
conversion.
4. What is dual slope ADC?

Aside from comparators, the most important analog part of a dual slope ADC is an integrator.
The circuit is: Vout is the integral of Vin, or actually. Any time one wants to reset the integral
to 0, one simply shorts the capacitor. Notice the negative sign -- positive input voltages give
negative output voltages.

AIM: To realize two bit Flash ADC.

1. IC µA741 3
2. Resistor 1kΩ 4
3. Bread board - 1
4. Multimeter - 1
5. Wires - As per requirement
6. Digital trainer kit - 1
THEORY:
A flash ADC (also known as a direct-conversion ADC) is a type of analog-to-digital
converter that uses a linear voltage ladder with a comparator at each "rung" of the ladder to compare
the input voltage to successive reference voltages. Often these reference ladders are constructed of
many resistors; however, modern implementations show that capacitive voltage division is also
possible. The output of these comparators is generally fed into a digital encoder, which converts the
inputs into a binary value.
Flash converters are extremely fast compared to many other types of ADCs, which usually
narrow in on the "correct" answer over a series of stages. Compared to these, a flash converter is also
quite simple and, apart from the analog comparators, only requires logic for the final conversion
to binary.
A flash converter requires a huge number of comparators compared to other ADCs, especially
as the precision increases. A flash converter requires 2𝑛 − 1 comparators for an n-bit conversion.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig: Two bit Flash ADC

Truth Table of ADC:
Analog Input C1 C2 C3 Digital Output
B1 Bo
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑐𝑐
4
1 2 0 0 1 0 1
𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑐𝑐
4 4
2 3 0 1 1 1 0
4 4
3 1 1 1 1 1
4
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply the different analog input voltages and note down the output.
RESULT:

Post-Lab Questions:
1. What is ADC converter?

The input to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) consists of a voltage that varies among a
theoretically infinite number of values. Examples are sine waves, the waveforms representing
human speech, and the signals from a conventional television camera. The output of the ADC,
in contrast, has defined levels or states.
2. How many comparators are required in 10 bit flash ADC?

So for an 8-bit conversion 255 comparators are required. However the flash ADC provides a
fast conversion time because of the parallel process. The reference voltage for
each comparator is set by the resistive voltage divider network. The output of
each comparator is connected to an input of the priority encoder.
3. What is meant by voltage to current converter?

Most commonly, DC current signals are used in preference to DC voltage signals,
because current signals are exactly equal in magnitude throughout the series circuit loop
carrying current from the source (measuring device) to the load (indicator, recorder, or
controller), whereas voltage signals in a parallel circuit.

APPENDIX:
PIN DETAILS OF LM741:
LM741 consists of a single op amp which serves as a general purpose amplifier.

Function of the pins:
741 features
 large input voltage range

 no latch-up
 high gain
 short-circuit protection
 no frequency compensation required
741 usage
 summing amplifier
 voltage follower
 integrator
 active filter
 function generator
PIN DETAILS OF 555 TIMER:
Pin
Pin Name Pin Function
Number
1 Ground Pin 1 connects the 555 timer chip to ground.
Pin 2 is the trigger pin. It works like a starter pistol to start the 555
timer running. The trigger is an active low trigger, which means that
2 Trigger the timer starts when voltage on pin 2 drops to below 1/3 of the supply
voltage. When the 555 is triggered via pin 2, the output on pin 3 goes
high.
Pin 3 is the output pin. 555 timer's output is digital in nature. It is
either high or low. The output is either low, which is very close to 0V,
or high, which is close to the supply voltage that's placed on pin 8.
3 Output
The output pin is where you would connect the load that you want the
555 timer to power. This may be an LED, in the case of a 555 timer
LED flasher circuit.
Pin 4 is the reset pin. This pin can be used to restart the 555 timer's
timing operation. This is an active low input, just like the trigger input.
4 Reset Thus, pin 4 must be connected to the supply voltage of the 555 timer
to operate. If it is momentarily grounded, the 555 timer's operation is
interrupted and won't start again until it's triggered again via pin 2.
Pin 5 is the control pin. In most 555 timer circuits, this pin is simply
connected to ground, usually through a small capacitor, about 0.01 µF
capacitor. This capacitor serves to level out any fluctuations in the
5 Control Voltage
power supply voltage that might affect the operation of the timer.
Some circuits (though rare) do use a resistor between the control pin
and Vcc to apply a small voltage to pin 5. This voltage alters the

threshold voltage, which in turn changes the timing interval. Most

circuits do not use this capability, though.
Pin 6 is the threshold pin. The purpose of this pin is to monitor the
voltage across the capacitor that's discharged by pin 7. When this
6 Threshold
voltage reaches 2/3 of the supply voltage (Vcc), the timing cycle ends,
and the output on pin 3 goes low.
Pin 7 is the discharge pin. This pin is used to discharge an external
capacitor that works in conjunction with a resistor to control the
7 Discharge
timing interval. In most circuits, pin 7 is connected to the supply
voltage through a resistor and to ground through a capacitor.
Pin 8 is connected to the positive power supply voltage.
555 timer ICs need DC voltage in order to operate. This is the pin
Power Supply which connects to the DC voltage to power the 555 chip.
8
(Vcc) The voltage must be at least 4.5V and no greater than 15V. It's
common to run 555 timer circuits using 4 AA or AAA batteries for
6V or a single 9V battery.

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(Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University)

Department of Electrical &

"Nurturing Aspirations Supporting Growth"

OP-AMP & LINEAR IC’s LABORATORY

Prepared By: Verified By:

Ms. Anzum Dr. R. Prakash

3. Students should come with completed observation book to the lab.

8. Practical record should be neatly maintained.

9. The students should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the

Course objectives: The course objectives of this course are:

1. To conduct different experiments using Op-Amps

2. To conduct experiments using linear IC’s

1. Describe the characteristic parameters of Op-Amps, adder, subtractor, differentiator and

2. Explain the circuits for characteristic parameters of Op-Amps, adder, subtractor,

3. Demonstrate the circuits for characteristic parameters of Op-Amps, adder, subtractor,

1. What does operational amplifier refers to?

2. What is the maximum voltage that can be given at the inputs?

3. Can an op-amp be operated using single power supply?

4. State the ideal characteristics of Op-amp.

5. Why differential amplifier is used as an input stage of IC op-amp?

6. What causes slew rate?

7. Define CMRR of an Op-Amp?

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 1

STUDY EXPERIMENT NO.1

Instrumentation Amplifier: In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 2

i. Op-Amp as inverting amplifier:

Fig.1: Circuit for Op-Amp as inverting amplifier

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 3

ii. Op-Amp as non-inverting amplifier:

Fig.2: Circuit for Op-Amp as non-inverting amplifier

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 4

iii. Op-Amp as voltage follower:

Fig.3: Circuit for Op-Amp as voltage follower

iv. Op-Amp as instrumentation amplifier:

Fig.4: Circuit for Op-Amp as instrumentation amplifier

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 5

STUDY EXPERIMENT NO.2

AIM: To measure the following characteristic parameters of op-amp

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 6

1. To measure input bias current:

Fig 1. Circuit to measure input bias current 𝐼𝐵−

Fig 2. Circuit to measure input bias current 𝐼𝐵+

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 7

2. To measure input offset current

Fig 3. Circuit to measure input offset current

Fig 4. Circuit to measure input offset voltage

Fig 5. Circuit to measure slew rate

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 8

a) Input Bias Current

b) Input Offset Current

c) Input Offset Voltage

Typical values of electrical characteristics of a741:

Department of EEE, Acharya Institute of Technology Page 9

Post Lab Questions:

1. What is the difference between ordinary amplifier and operational amplifier?

2. What are the DC, AC Characteristics of Op-Amp?

3. Define offset voltage and state its significance.

4. What is input bias current?