Year 12

Chemistry Year 12 Course Content

Year 12 Course Structure and Requirements

Modules Indicative hours Depth studies

Module 5
Equilibrium and Acid
Reactions 60
Year 12
Working
course Module 6
Scientifically *15 hours
Acid/Base Reactions
Skills in Modules 5–8
(120 hours)
Module 7
Organic Chemistry
60
Module 8
Applying Chemical Ideas

*15 hours must be allocated to depth studies within the 120 indicative course hours.

Requirements for Practical Investigations

Scientific investigations include both practical investigations and secondary-sourced investigations. Practical
investigations are an essential part of the Year 12 course and must occupy a minimum of 35 hours of course
time, including time allocated to practical investigations in depth studies.

Practical investigations include:

● undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate digital technologies
● fieldwork.

Secondary-sourced investigations include:

● locating and accessing a wide range of secondary data and/or information using and reorganising
secondary data and/or information.

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 45

 Year 12

Working Scientifically Skills

It is expected that the content of each skill will be addressed by the end of the Stage 6 course.

Questioning and Predicting

Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation CH11/12-1

Content
Students:
● develop and evaluate inquiry questions and hypotheses to identify a concept that can be investigated
scientifically, involving primary and secondary data (ACSCH001, ACSCH061, ACSCH096)
● modify questions and hypotheses to reflect new evidence

Planning Investigations

Outcomes
A student:
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-2

Content
Students:
● assess risks, consider ethical issues and select appropriate materials and technologies when designing
and planning an investigation (ACSCH031, ACSCH097)
● justify and evaluate the use of variables and experimental controls to ensure that a valid procedure is
developed that allows for the reliable collection of data (ACSCH002)
● evaluate and modify an investigation in response to new evidence

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 46

 Year 12

Conducting Investigations

Outcomes
A student:
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-3

Content
Students:
● employ and evaluate safe work practices and manage risks (ACSCH031)
● use appropriate technologies to ensure and evaluate accuracy
● select and extract information from a wide range of reliable secondary sources and acknowledge them
using an accepted referencing style

Processing Data and Information

Outcomes
A student:
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media CH11/12-4

Content
Students:
● select qualitative and quantitative data and information and represent them using a range of formats,
digital technologies and appropriate media (ACSCH004, ACSCH007, ACSCH064, ACSCH101)
● apply quantitative processes where appropriate
● evaluate and improve the quality of data

Analysing Data and Information

Outcomes
A student:
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information CH11/12-5

Content
Students:
● derive trends, patterns and relationships in data and information
● assess error, uncertainty and limitations in data (ACSCH004, ACSCH005, ACSCH033, ACSCH099)
● assess the relevance, accuracy, validity and reliability of primary and secondary data and suggest
improvements to investigations (ACSCH005)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 47

 Year 12

Problem Solving

Outcomes
A student:
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes CH11/12-6

Content
Students:
● use modelling (including mathematical examples) to explain phenomena, make predictions and solve
problems using evidence from primary and secondary sources (ACSCH006, ACSCH010)
● use scientific evidence and critical thinking skills to solve problems

Communicating

Outcomes
A student:
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience
or purpose CH11/12-7

Content
Students:
● select and use suitable forms of digital, visual, written and/or oral communication
● select and apply appropriate scientific notations, nomenclature and scientific language to communicate
in a variety of contexts (ACSCH008, ACSCH036, ACSCH067, ACSCH102)
● construct evidence-based arguments and engage in peer feedback to evaluate an argument or
conclusion (ACSCH034, ACSCH036)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 48

 Year 12

Module 5: Equilibrium and Acid Reactions

Outcomes
A student:
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media CH11/12-4
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information CH11/12-5
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes CH11/12-6
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience
or purpose CH11/12-7
› explains the characteristics of equilibrium systems, and the factors that affect these systems CH12-12

Content Focus
Chemical systems may be open or closed. They include physical changes and chemical reactions that can
result in observable changes to a system. Students study the effects of changes in temperature,
concentration of chemicals and pressure on equilibrium systems, and consider that these can be predicted
by applying Le Chatelier’s principle. Students also analyse the quantitative relationship between products
and reactants in equilibrium reactions to determine an equilibrium constant. From this calculation, they
predict the equilibrium position, either favouring the formation of products or reactants in a chemical reaction.

This module also allows students to understand that scientific knowledge enables scientists to offer valid
explanations and make reliable predictions. Students make reliable predictions by comparing equilibrium
calculations and equilibrium constants to determine whether a combination of two solutions will result in the
formation of a precipitate.

Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on processing data to determine patterns and trends that enable them to
solve problems and communicate scientific understanding of ideas about equilibrium reactions. Students
should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the
course.

Content

Static and Dynamic Equilibrium

Inquiry question: What happens when chemical reactions do not go through to completion?

Students:
● conduct practical investigations to analyse the reversibility of chemical reactions, for example:
– cobalt(II) chloride hydrated and dehydrated
– iron(III) nitrate and potassium thiocyanate
– burning magnesium
– burning steel wool (ACSCH090)
● model static and dynamic equilibrium and analyse the differences between open and closed systems
(ACSCH079, ACSCH091)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 49

 Year 12

● analyse examples of non-equilibrium systems in terms of the effect of entropy and enthalpy, for
example:
– combustion reactions
– photosynthesis
● investigate the relationship between collision theory and reaction rate in order to analyse chemical
equilibrium reactions (ACSCH070, ACSCH094)

Factors that Affect Equilibrium

Inquiry question: What factors affect equilibrium and how?

Students:
● investigate the effects of temperature, concentration, volume and/or pressure on a system at equilibrium
and explain how Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict such effects, for example:
– heating cobalt(II) chloride hydrate
– interaction between nitrogen dioxide and dinitrogen tetroxide
– iron(III) thiocyanate and varying concentration of ions (ACSCH095)
● explain the overall observations about equilibrium in terms of the collision theory (ACSCH094)
● examine how activation energy and heat of reaction affect the position of equilibrium

Calculating the Equilibrium Constant (Keq)

Inquiry question: How can the position of equilibrium be described and what does the equilibrium constant
represent?

Students:
● deduce the equilibrium expression (in terms of Keq) for homogeneous reactions occurring in solution
(ACSCH079, ACSCH096)
● perform calculations to find the value of Keq and concentrations of substances within an equilibrium
system, and use these values to make predictions on the direction in which a reaction may proceed
(ACSCH096)
● qualitatively analyse the effect of temperature on the value of Keq (ACSCH093)
● conduct an investigation to determine Keq of a chemical equilibrium system, for example:
– Keq of the iron(III) thiocyanate equilibrium (ACSCH096)
● explore the use of Keq for different types of chemical reactions, including but not limited to:
– dissociation of ionic solutions
– dissociation of acids and bases (ACSCH098, ACSCH099)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 50

 Year 12

Solution Equilibria
Inquiry question: How does solubility relate to chemical equilibrium?

Students:
● describe and analyse the processes involved in the dissolution of ionic compounds in water
● investigate the use of solubility equilibria by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples when
removing toxicity from foods, for example:
– toxins in cycad fruit
● conduct an investigation to determine solubility rules, and predict and analyse the composition of
substances when two ionic solutions are mixed, for example:
– potassium chloride and silver nitrate
– potassium iodide and lead nitrate
– sodium sulfate and barium nitrate (ACSCH065)
● derive equilibrium expressions for saturated solutions in terms of Ksp and calculate the solubility of an
ionic substance from its Ksp value
● predict the formation of a precipitate given the standard reference values for Ksp

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 51

 Year 12

Module 6: Acid/Base Reactions

Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation CH11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-3
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information CH11/12-5
› describes, explains and quantitatively analyses acids and bases using contemporary models CH12-13

Content Focus
Students analyse how and why the definitions of both an acid and a base have changed over time, and how
the current definitions characterise the many chemical reactions of acids. Acids react in particular ways to a
variety of substances. These reactions follow a pattern that students identify and explore in detail.

Acids and bases, and their reactions, are used extensively in everyday life and in the human body. The
chemistry of acids and bases contributes to industrial contexts and the environment. Therefore, it is essential
that the degree of acidity in these situations is continually monitored. By investigating the qualitative and
quantitative properties of acids and bases, students learn to appreciate the importance of factors such as pH
and indicators.

Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on developing questions and testing hypotheses through designing,
evaluating and conducting investigations to process and analyse data from acid/base reactions. Students
should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the
course.

Content

Properties of Acids and Bases

Inquiry question: What is an acid and what is a base?

Students:
● investigate the correct IUPAC nomenclature and properties of common inorganic acids and bases
(ACSCH067)
● conduct an investigation to demonstrate the preparation and use of indicators as illustrators of the
characteristics and properties of acids and bases and their reversible reactions (ACSCH101)
● predict the products of acid reactions and write balanced equations to represent:
– acids and bases
– acids and carbonates
– acids and metals (ACSCH067)
● investigate applications of neutralisation reactions in everyday life and industrial processes
● conduct a practical investigation to measure the enthalpy of neutralisation (ACSCH093)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 52

 Year 12

● explore the changes in definitions and models of an acid and a base over time to explain the limitations
of each model, including but not limited to:
– Arrhenius’ theory
– Brønsted–Lowry theory (ACSCH064, ACSCH067)

Using Brønsted–Lowry Theory

Inquiry question: What is the role of water in solutions of acids and bases?

Students:
● conduct a practical investigation to measure the pH of a range of acids and bases
● calculate pH, pOH, hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) and hydroxide ion concentration ([OH–]) for a range
of solutions (ACSCH102)
● conduct an investigation to demonstrate the use of pH to indicate the differences between the strength
of acids and bases (ACSCH102)
● write ionic equations to represent the dissociation of acids and bases in water, conjugate acid/base pairs
in solution and amphiprotic nature of some salts, for example:
– sodium hydrogen carbonate
– potassium dihydrogen phosphate
● construct models and/or animations to communicate the differences between strong, weak,
concentrated and dilute acids and bases (ACSCH099)
● calculate the pH of the resultant solution when solutions of acids and/or bases are diluted or mixed

Quantitative Analysis
Inquiry question: How are solutions of acids and bases analysed?

Students:
● conduct practical investigations to analyse the concentration of an unknown acid or base by titration
● investigate titration curves and conductivity graphs to analyse data to indicate characteristic reaction
profiles, for example:
– strong acid/strong base
– strong acid/weak base
– weak acid/strong base (ACSCH080, ACSCH102)
● model neutralisation of strong and weak acids and bases using a variety of media
 calculate and apply the dissociation constant (Ka) and pKa (pKa = -log10 (Ka)) to determine the difference
between strong and weak acids (ACSCH098)
● explore acid/base analysis techniques that are applied:
– in industries
– by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
– using digital probes and instruments
● conduct a chemical analysis of a common household substance for its acidity or basicity (ACSCH080)
, for example:
– soft drink
– wine
– juice
– medicine
● conduct a practical investigation to prepare a buffer and demonstrate its properties (ACSCH080)
● describe the importance of buffers in natural systems (ACSCH098, ACSCH102)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 53

 Year 12

Module 7: Organic Chemistry

Outcomes
A student:
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information CH11/12-5
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes CH11/12-6
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience
or purpose CH11/12-7
› analyses the structure of, and predicts reactions involving, carbon compounds CH12-14

Content Focus
Students focus on the principles and applications of chemical synthesis in the field of organic chemistry.
Current and future applications of chemistry include techniques to synthesise new substances – including
pharmaceuticals, fuels and polymers – to meet the needs of society.

Each class of organic compounds displays characteristic chemical properties and undergoes specific
reactions based on the functional groups present. These reactions, including acid/base and oxidation
reactions, are used to identify the class of an organic compound. In this module, students investigate the
many classes of organic compounds and their characteristic chemical reactions. By considering the primary,
secondary and tertiary structures of organic materials, students are provided with opportunities to gain an
understanding of the properties of materials – including strength, density and biodegradability – and relate
these to proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers.

Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on collecting, analysing and processing data and information to identify
trends, patterns and relationships to solve problems and communicate scientific understanding of ideas
about organic chemistry. Students should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working
Scientifically skills throughout the course.

Content

Nomenclature
Inquiry question: How do we systematically name organic chemical compounds?

Students:
● investigate the nomenclature of organic chemicals, up to C8, using IUPAC conventions, including simple
methyl and ethyl branched chains, including: (ACSCH127)
– alkanes
– alkenes
– alkynes
– alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary)
– aldehydes and ketones
– carboxylic acids
– amines and amides
– halogenated organic compounds

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 54

 Year 12

● explore and distinguish the different types of structural isomers, including saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, including: (ACSCH035)
– chain isomers
– position isomers
– functional group isomers

Hydrocarbons
Inquiry question: How can hydrocarbons be classified based on their structure and reactivity?

Students:
● construct models, identify the functional group, and write structural and molecular formulae for
homologous series of organic chemical compounds, up to C8 (ACSCH035) :
– alkanes
– alkenes
– alkynes
● conduct an investigation to compare the properties of organic chemical compounds within a homologous
series, and explain these differences in terms of bonding (ACSCH035)
● analyse the shape of molecules formed between carbon atoms when a single, double or triple bond is
formed between them
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alkanes with reference to the
intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● describe the procedures required to safely handle and dispose of organic substances (ACSCH075)
● examine the environmental, economic and sociocultural implications of obtaining and using
hydrocarbons from the Earth

Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons

Inquiry question: What are the products of reactions of hydrocarbons and how do they react?

Students:
● investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of unsaturated
hydrocarbons when added to a range of chemicals, including but not limited to:
– hydrogen (H2)
– halogens (X2)
– hydrogen halides (HX)
– water (H2O) (ACSCH136)
● investigate, write equations and construct models to represent the reactions of saturated hydrocarbons
when substituted with halogens

Alcohols
Inquiry question: How can alcohols be produced and what are their properties?

Students:
● investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
– primary
– secondary
– tertiary alcohols
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of alcohols with reference to the
intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● conduct a practical investigation to measure and reliably compare the enthalpy of combustion for a
range of alcohols

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 55

 Year 12

● write equations, state conditions and predict products to represent the reactions of alcohols, including
but not limited to (ACSCH128, ACSCH136):
– combustion
– dehydration
– substitution with HX
– oxidation
● investigate the production of alcohols, including:
– substitution reactions of halogenated organic compounds
– fermentation
● investigate the products of the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols
● compare and contrast fuels from organic sources to biofuels, including ethanol

Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases

Inquiry question: What are the properties of organic acids and bases?

Students:
● investigate the structural formulae, properties and functional group including:
– primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
– aldehydes and ketones (ACSCH127)
– amines and amides
– carboxylic acids
● explain the properties within and between the homologous series of carboxylic acids amines and amides
with reference to the intermolecular and intramolecular bonding present
● investigate the production, in a school laboratory, of simple esters
● investigate the differences between an organic acid and organic base
● investigate the structure and action of soaps and detergents
● draft and construct flow charts to show reaction pathways for chemical synthesis, including those that
involve more than one step

Polymers
Inquiry question: What are the properties and uses of polymers?

Students:
● model and compare the structure, properties and uses of addition polymers of ethylene and related
monomers, for example:
– polyethylene (PE)
– polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
– polystyrene (PS)
– polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) (ACSCH136)
● model and compare the structure, properties and uses of condensation polymers, for example:
– nylon
– polyesters

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 56

 Year 12

Module 8: Applying Chemical Ideas

Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation CH11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
CH11/12-3
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range of
appropriate media CH11/12-4
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience
or purpose CH11/12-7
› describes and evaluates chemical systems used to design and analyse chemical processes CH12-15

Content Focus
The identification and analysis of chemicals is of immense importance in scientific research, medicine,
environmental management, quality control, mining and many other fields.

Students investigate a range of methods used to identify and measure quantities of chemicals. They
investigate and process data involving the identification and quantification of ions present in aqueous
solutions. This is particularly important because of the impact of adverse water quality on the environment.
Students deduce or confirm the structure and identity of organic compounds by interpreting data from
qualitative tests of chemical reactivity and determining structural information using proton and carbon-13
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Working Scientifically
In this module, students focus on developing and evaluating questions and hypotheses when: designing,
evaluating and conducting investigations; analysing trends, patterns and relationships in data; and
communicating scientific understanding about applying chemical ideas. Students should be provided with
opportunities to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.

Content

Analysis of Inorganic Substances

Inquiry question: How are the ions present in the environment identified and measured?

Students:
● analyse the need for monitoring the environment
● conduct qualitative investigations – using flame tests, precipitation and complexation reactions as
appropriate – to test for the presence in aqueous solution of the following ions:
– cations: barium (Ba2+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), lead(II) (Pb2+), silver ion (Ag+), copper(II)
(Cu2+), iron(II) (Fe2+), iron(III) (Fe3+)
– anions: chloride (Cl–), bromide (Br–), iodide (I–), hydroxide (OH–), acetate (CH3COO–), carbonate
(CO32–), sulfate (SO42–), phosphate (PO43–)

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 57

 Year 12

● conduct investigations and/or process data involving:

– gravimetric analysis
– precipitation titrations
● conduct investigations and/or process data to determine the concentration of coloured species and/or
metal ions in aqueous solution, including but not limited to, the use of:
– colourimetry
– ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry
– atomic absorption spectroscopy

Analysis of Organic Substances

Inquiry question: How is information about the reactivity and structure of organic compounds obtained?

Students:
● conduct qualitative investigations to test for the presence in organic molecules of the following functional
groups:
– carbon–carbon double bonds
– hydroxyl groups
– carboxylic acids (ACSCH130)
● investigate the processes used to analyse the structure of simple organic compounds addressed in the
course, including but not limited to:
– proton and carbon-13 NMR
– mass spectrometry
– infrared spectroscopy (ACSCH130)

Chemical Synthesis and Design

Inquiry question: What are the implications for society of chemical synthesis and design?

Students:
● evaluate the factors that need to be considered when designing a chemical synthesis process, including
but not limited to:
– availability of reagents
– reaction conditions (ACSCH133)
– yield and purity (ACSCH134)
– industrial uses (eg pharmaceutical, cosmetics, cleaning products, fuels) (ACSCH131)
– environmental, social and economic issues

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 58

Glossary
Glossary term Definition

Aboriginal and Aboriginal Peoples are the first peoples of Australia and are represented by
Torres Strait over 250 language groups each associated with a particular Country or
Islander Peoples territory. Torres Strait Islander Peoples whose island territories to the north
east of Australia were annexed by Queensland in 1879 are also Indigenous
Australians and are represented by five cultural groups.

An Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander person is someone who:

 is of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent
 identifies as an Aboriginal person and/or Torres Strait Islander person,
and
 is accepted as such by the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
community in which they live.

conclusion A judgement based on evidence.

controlled variable A variable that is kept constant (or changed in constant ways) during an
investigation.

Country An area that is traditionally owned and looked after by an Aboriginal

language group or community or certain people within that group. The term
may indicate more than simply a geographical area  it is also a concept
that can encompass the spiritual meanings and feelings of attachment
associated with that area.

dependent variable A variable that changes in response to changes to the independent variable
in an investigation.

digital technologies Systems that handle digital data, including hardware and software, for
specific purposes.

enthalpy A thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system.

entropy The degree of disorder or randomness in the system.

environment All surroundings, both living and non-living.

hypothesis A tentative explanation for an observed phenomenon, expressed as a

precise and unambiguous statement that can be supported or refuted by
investigation.

independent A variable that is changed in an investigation to see what effect it has on the
variable dependent variable.

investigation A scientific process of answering a question, exploring an idea or solving a

problem, which requires activities such as planning a course of action,
collecting data, interpreting data, reaching a conclusion and communicating
these activities. Investigations can include practical and/or secondary-
sourced data or information.

law A statement describing invariable relationships between phenomena in

specified conditions, frequently expressed mathematically.

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 59

Glossary term Definition

model A representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an

explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object,
system or idea.

molar mass The mass of one mole of a substance. It may be represented as M, M(x) or
MM.

Place A space mapped out by physical or intangible boundaries that individuals or

groups of Torres Strait Islander Peoples occupy and regard as their own. It
is a space with varying degrees of spirituality.

plan Decide on a course of action, and make arrangements relating to that

course of action, in advance.

practical An investigation that involves systematic scientific inquiry by planning a

investigation course of action and using equipment to collect data and/or information.
Practical investigations include a range of hands-on activities, and can
include laboratory investigations and fieldwork.

primary Information created by a person or persons directly involved in a study or

sources/primary observing an event.
data

qualitative Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something.

quantitative Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something.

A reaction in which one substance is reduced and another is oxidised or de-

redox oxidised.

reliability An extent to which repeated observations and/or measurements taken

under identical circumstances will yield similar results.

secondary-sourced An investigation that involves systematic scientific inquiry by planning a

investigation course of action and sourcing data and/or information from other people,
including written information, reports, graphs, tables, diagrams and images.

technology All types of human-made systems, tools, machines and processes that can
help solve human problems or satisfy needs or wants, including
computational and communication devices.

theory A set of concepts, claims and/or laws that can be used to explain and
predict a wide range of related observed phenomena. Theories are typically
founded on clearly identified assumptions, are testable, produce
reproducible results and have explanatory power.

validity An extent to which tests measure what was intended or to which data,
inferences and actions produced from tests and other processes are
accurate.

variable In an investigation, a factor that can be changed, kept the same or

measured – eg time, distance, light, temperature.

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 60

Glossary term Definition

vector A quantity which possesses both magnitude and direction. Two such
quantities acting on a point may be represented by the two sides of a
parallelogram, so that their resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram.

Chemistry Stage 6 Syllabus 61