Year 11

Statistical Analysis

MA-S1 Probability and Discrete Probability Distributions

Outcomes
A student:
› uses concepts and techniques from probability to present and interpret data and solve problems
in a variety of contexts, including the use of probability distributions MA11-7
› uses appropriate technology to investigate, organise, model and interpret information in a range
of contexts MA11-8
› provides reasoning to support conclusions which are appropriate to the context MA11-9

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce the concepts of conditional probability and
independence and develop an understanding of discrete random variables and their uses in modelling
random processes involving chance.

Students develop their skills related to probability, its language and visual representations, and use
these skills to solve practical problems. They develop an understanding of probability distributions and
associated statistical analysis methods and their use in modelling binomial events. These concepts
play an important role in later studies of statistics, particularly in beginning to understand the concept
of statistical significance.

Within this subtopic, schools have the opportunity to identify areas of Stage 5 content which may
need to be reviewed to meet the needs of students.

Content
S1.1: Probability and Venn diagrams
Students:
● understand and use the concepts and language associated with theoretical probability, relative
frequency and the probability scale
● solve problems involving simulations or trials of experiments in a variety of contexts AAM
– identify factors that could complicate the simulation of real-world events (ACMEM153)
– use relative frequencies obtained from data as point estimates of probabilities (ACMMM055)
● use arrays and tree diagrams to determine the outcomes and probabilities for multi-stage
experiments (ACMEM156) AAM
● use Venn diagrams, set language and notation for events, including 𝐴̅ (or 𝐴′ or 𝐴𝑐 ) for the
complement of an event 𝐴, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 for ‘𝐴 and 𝐵’, the intersection of events 𝐴 and 𝐵, and 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 for
‘𝐴 or 𝐵’, the union of events 𝐴 and 𝐵, and recognise mutually exclusive events (ACMMM050)
AAM
– use everyday occurrences to illustrate set descriptions and representations of events and set
operations (ACMMM051)
● establish and use the rules: 𝑃(𝐴̅) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴) and 𝑃(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
(ACMMM054) AAM
● understand the notion of conditional probability and recognise and use language that indicates
conditionality (ACMMM056)

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 Year 11

𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
● use the notation 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) and the formula 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = , 𝑃(𝐵) ≠ 0 for conditional probability
𝑃(𝐵)
(ACMMM057) AAM
● understand the notion of independence of an event 𝐴 from an event 𝐵, as defined by
𝑃(𝐴|𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) (ACMMM058)
● use the multiplication law 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴)𝑃(𝐵) for independent events 𝐴 and 𝐵 and recognise
the symmetry of independence in simple probability situations (ACMMM059)

S1.2: Discrete probability distributions

● define and categorise random variables
– know that a random variable describes some aspect in a population from which samples can
be drawn
– know the difference between a discrete random variable and a continuous random variable
● use discrete random variables and associated probabilities to solve practical problems
(ACMMM142) AAM
– use relative frequencies obtained from data to obtain point estimates of probabilities
associated with a discrete random variable (ACMMM137)
– recognise uniform discrete random variables and use them to model random phenomena with
equally likely outcomes (ACMMM138)
– examine simple examples of non-uniform discrete random variables, and recognise that for
any random variable, 𝑋, the sum of the probabilities is 1 (ACMMM139)
– recognise the mean or expected value, 𝐸(𝑋) = 𝜇, of a discrete random variable 𝑋 as a
measure of centre, and evaluate it in simple cases (ACMMM140)
– recognise the variance, Var(𝑋), and standard deviation (𝜎) of a discrete random variable as
measures of spread, and evaluate them in simple cases (ACMMM141)
– use Var(𝑋) = 𝐸((𝑋 − 𝜇)2 ) = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − 𝜇 2 for a random variable and Var(𝑥) = 𝜎 2 for a dataset
● understand that a sample mean, 𝑥̅ , is an estimate of the associated population mean 𝜇, and that
the sample standard deviation, 𝑠, is an estimate of the associated population standard deviation,
𝜎, and that these estimates get better as the sample size increases and when we have
independent observations

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 Year 12

Mathematics Advanced Year 12 Course Content

Year 12 Course Structure and Requirements

The course is organised in topics, with the topics divided into subtopics.

Mathematics Advanced

Topics Subtopics

Functions MA-F2 Graphing Techniques

Trigonometric Functions MA-T3 Trigonometric Functions and

Graphs
Year 12 course
(120 hours) Calculus MA-C2 Differential Calculus
MA-C3 Applications of Differentiation
MA-C4 Integral Calculus

Financial Mathematics MA-M1 Modelling Financial Situations

Statistical Analysis MA-S2 Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate

Data Analysis
MA-S3 Random Variables

● Students should experience content in the course in familiar and routine situations as well as
unfamiliar situations.
● Students should be provided with regular opportunities involving the integration of technology to
enrich the learning experience.

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 Year 12

Topic: Functions

Outcomes
A student:
› uses detailed algebraic and graphical techniques to critically construct, model and evaluate
arguments in a range of familiar and unfamiliar contexts MA12-1
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Topic Focus
The topic Functions involves the use of both algebraic and graphical conventions and terminology to
describe, interpret and model relationships of and between changing quantities.

A knowledge of functions enables students to discover, recognise and generalise connections

between algebraic and graphical representations of the same expression and to describe interactions
between dependent and independent variables.

The study of functions is important in developing students’ ability to find and recognise connections
and patterns, to communicate concisely and precisely, to use algebraic techniques and manipulations
to describe and solve problems, and predict future outcomes in areas such as finance, economics
and weather.

Subtopics
MA-F2 Graphing Techniques

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 Year 12

Functions

MA-F2 Graphing Techniques

Outcomes
A student:
› uses detailed algebraic and graphical techniques to critically construct, model and evaluate
arguments in a range of familiar and unfamiliar contexts MA12-1
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to become more familiar with key features of graphs of
functions, as well as develop an understanding of and use of the effect of basic transformations of
these graphs to explain graphical behaviour.

Students develop an understanding of transformations from a graphical and algebraic approach,

including the use of technology, and thus develop a deeper understanding of the properties of
functions. As graphing software becomes more widely accessible, skills in reading scales and
interpreting magnification effects become essential.

Content
Students:
● apply transformations to sketch functions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)) + 𝑐, where 𝑓(𝑥) is a
polynomial, reciprocal, absolute value, exponential or logarithmic function and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑘 are
constants
– examine translations and the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑏) using technology
– examine dilations and the graphs of 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥) using technology
– recognise that the order in which transformations are applied is important in the construction
of the resulting function or graph
● use graphical methods with supporting algebraic working to solve a variety of practical problems
involving any of the functions within the scope of this syllabus, in both real-life and abstract
contexts AAM
– select and use an appropriate method to graph a given function, including finding intercepts,
considering the sign of 𝑓(𝑥) and using symmetry
– determine asymptotes and discontinuities where appropriate (vertical and horizontal
asymptotes only)
– determine the number of solutions of an equation by considering appropriate graphs
– solve linear and quadratic inequalities by sketching appropriate graphs

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 Year 12

Topic: Trigonometric Functions

Outcomes
A student:
› uses detailed algebraic and graphical techniques to critically construct, model and evaluate
arguments in a range of familiar and unfamiliar contexts MA12-1
› applies the concepts and techniques of periodic functions in the solution of problems involving
trigonometric graphs MA12-5
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Topic Focus
The topic Trigonometric Functions involves the study of periodic functions in geometric, algebraic,
numerical and graphical representations.

A knowledge of trigonometric functions enables the solving of practical problems involving the
manipulation of trigonometric expressions to model behaviour of naturally occurring periodic
phenomena such as waves and signals and to predict future outcomes.

Study of trigonometric functions is important in developing students’ understanding of periodic

functions. Utilising the properties of periodic functions, mathematical models have been developed
that describe the behaviour of many naturally occurring periodic phenomena, such as vibrations or
waves, as well as oscillatory behaviour found in pendulums, electric currents and radio signals.

Subtopics
MA-T3 Trigonometric Functions and Graphs

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 Year 12

Trigonometric Functions

MA-T3 Trigonometric Functions and Graphs

Outcomes
A student:
› uses detailed algebraic and graphical techniques to critically construct, model and evaluate
arguments in a range of familiar and unfamiliar contexts MA12-1
› applies the concepts and techniques of periodic functions in the solution of problems involving
trigonometric graphs MA12-5
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to explore the key features of the graphs of trigonometric
functions and to understand and use basic transformations to solve trigonometric equations.

Students develop an understanding of the way that graphs of trigonometric functions change when
the functions are altered in a systematic way. This is important in understanding how mathematical
models of real-world phenomena can be developed.

Content
Students:
● examine and apply transformations to sketch functions of the form 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)) + 𝑐, where
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑘 are constants, in a variety of contexts, where 𝑓(𝑥) is one of sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥 or tan 𝑥,
stating the domain and range when appropriate
– use technology or otherwise to examine the effect on the graphs of changing the amplitude
(where appropriate), 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑓(𝑥), the period, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥), the phase, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑏), and the
vertical shift, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
– use 𝑘, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 to describe transformational shifts and sketch graphs
● solve trigonometric equations involving functions of the form 𝑘𝑓(𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)) + 𝑐, using technology
or otherwise, within a specified domain AAM
● use trigonometric functions of the form 𝑘𝑓(𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑏)) + 𝑐 to model and/or solve practical problems
involving periodic phenomena AAM

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 Year 12

Topic: Calculus

Outcomes
A student:
› applies calculus techniques to model and solve problems MA12-3
› applies appropriate differentiation methods to solve problems MA12-6
› applies the concepts and techniques of indefinite and definite integrals in the solution of problems
MA12-7
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Topic Focus
The topic Calculus involves the study of how things change and provides a framework for developing
quantitative models of change and deducing their consequences. It involves the development of two
key aspects of calculus, namely differentiation and integration.

The study of calculus is important in developing students’ capacity to operate with and model
situations involving change, using algebraic and graphical techniques to describe and solve problems
and to predict outcomes in fields such as biomathematics, economics, engineering and the
construction industry.

Subtopics
MA-C2 Differential Calculus
MA-C3 Applications of Differentiation
MA-C4 Integral Calculus

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 Year 12

Calculus

MA-C2 Differential Calculus

Outcomes
A student:
› applies calculus techniques to model and solve problems MA12-3
› applies appropriate differentiation methods to solve problems MA12-6
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to develop and apply rules for differentiation to a variety of
functions.

Students develop an understanding of the interconnectedness of topics from across the syllabus and
the use of calculus to help solve problems from each topic. These skills are then applied in the
following subtopic on the second derivative in order to investigate applications of the calculus of
trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions.

Content
C2.1: Differentiation of trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions
Students:
𝑑 𝑑
 establish the formulae
𝑑𝑥
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and
𝑑𝑥
(cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 by numerical estimations of the
limits and informal proofs based on geometric constructions (ACMMM102)
 calculate derivatives of trigonometric functions
𝑑
 establish and use the formula
𝑑𝑥
(𝑎 𝑥 ) = (ln 𝑎)𝑎 𝑥
– using graphing software or otherwise, sketch and explore the gradient function for a given
exponential function, recognise it as another exponential function and hence determine the
relationship between exponential functions and their derivatives
𝑑 1
 calculate the derivative of the natural logarithm function (ln 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1
 establish and use the formula (log 𝑎 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎

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 Year 12

C2.2: Rules of differentiation

Students:
 apply the product, quotient and chain rules to differentiate functions of the form
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), and 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are any of the functions covered in the scope of
𝑔(𝑥)
1
this syllabus, for example 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , , 𝑥 sin 𝑥 , 𝑒 −𝑥 sin 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (ACMMM106)
𝑥𝑛
𝑑
– use the composite function rule (chain rule) to establish that {𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) } = 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
– use the composite function rule (chain rule) to establish that {ln 𝑓(𝑥)} =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
– use the logarithmic laws to simplify an expression before differentiating
– use the composite function rule (chain rule) to establish and use the derivatives of sin(𝑓(𝑥)),
cos(𝑓(𝑥)) and tan(𝑓(𝑥))

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 Year 12

Calculus

MA-C3 Applications of Differentiation

Outcomes
A student:
› applies calculus techniques to model and solve problems MA12-3
› applies appropriate differentiation methods to solve problems MA12-6
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce the second derivative, its meanings and
applications to the behaviour of graphs and functions, such as stationary points and the concavity of
the graph.

Students develop an understanding of the interconnectedness of topics from across the syllabus and
the use of calculus to help solve problems such as optimisation, from each topic. The solution of
optimisation problems is an important area of applied Mathematics and involves the location of the
maximum or minimum values of a function.

Content
C3.1: The first and second derivatives
Students:
● use the first derivative to investigate the shape of the graph of a function
– deduce from the sign of the first derivative whether a function is increasing, decreasing or
stationary at a given point or in a given interval
– use the first derivative to find intervals over which a function is increasing or decreasing, and
where its stationary points are located
– use the first derivative to investigate a stationary point of a function over a given domain,
classifying it as a local maximum, local minimum or neither
– determine the greatest or least value of a function over a given domain (if the domain is not
given, the natural domain of the function is assumed) and distinguish between local and global
minima and maxima
● define and interpret the concept of the second derivative as the rate of change of the first
derivative function in a variety of contexts, for example recognise acceleration as the second
derivative of displacement with respect to time (ACMMM108, ACMMM109) AAM
– understand the concepts of concavity and points of inflection and their relationship with the
second derivative (ACMMM110)
– use the second derivative to determine concavity and the nature of stationary points
– understand that when the second derivative is equal to 0 this does not necessarily represent a
point of inflection

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 Year 12

C3.2: Applications of the derivative

Students:
 use any of the functions covered in the scope of this syllabus and their derivatives to solve
practical and abstract problems AAM
● use calculus to determine and verify the nature of stationary points, find local and global maxima
and minima and points of inflection (horizontal or otherwise), examine behaviour of a function as
𝑥 → ∞ and 𝑥 → −∞ and hence sketch the graph of the function (ACMMM095)
● solve optimisation problems for any of the functions covered in the scope of this syllabus, in a
wide variety of contexts including displacement, velocity, acceleration, area, volume, business,
finance and growth and decay AAM
– define variables and construct functions to represent the relationships between variables
related to contexts involving optimisation, sketching diagrams or completing diagrams if
necessary
– use calculus to establish the location of local and global maxima and minima, including
checking endpoints of an interval if required
– evaluate solutions and their reasonableness given the constraints of the domain and formulate
appropriate conclusions to optimisation problems

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 Year 12

Calculus

MA-C4 Integral Calculus

Outcomes
A student:
› applies calculus techniques to model and solve problems MA12-3
› applies the concepts and techniques of indefinite and definite integrals in the solution of problems
MA12-7
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce the anti-derivative or indefinite integral and to
develop and apply methods for finding the area under a curve, including the Trapezoidal rule and the
definite integral, for a range of functions in a variety of contexts.

Students develop their understanding of how integral calculus relates to area under curves and a
further understanding of the interconnectedness of topics from across the syllabus. Geometrical
representation assists in understanding the development of this topic, but careful sequencing of the
ideas is required so that students can see that integration has many applications, not only in
mathematics but also in other fields such as the sciences and engineering.

Content
C4.1: The anti-derivative
Students:
● define anti-differentiation as the reverse of differentiation and use the notation ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 for anti-
derivatives or indefinite integrals (ACMMM114, ACMMM115)
● recognise that any two anti-derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) differ by a constant
1
● establish and use the formula ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 + 𝑐, for 𝑛 ≠ −1 (ACMMM116)
𝑛+1
𝑛 1
● establish and use the formula ∫ 𝑓′(𝑥)[𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1 + 𝑐 where 𝑛 ≠ −1 (the reverse
𝑛+1
chain rule)
● establish and use the formulae for the anti-derivatives of sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), cos (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) and
sec 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
1
● establish and use the formulae ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐 and ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑎
1 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
● establish and use the formulae ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝑐 and ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐 for 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0,
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
respectively
𝑎𝑥
● establish and use the formulae ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
ln 𝑎
● recognise and use linearity of anti-differentiation (ACMMM119)
– examine families of anti-derivatives of a given function graphically
● determine indefinite integrals of the form ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 (ACMMM120)
● determine 𝑓(𝑥), given 𝑓′(𝑥) and an initial condition 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏 in a range of practical and abstract
applications including coordinate geometry, business and science

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C4.2: Areas and the definite integral

Students:
● know that ‘the area under a curve’ refers to the area between a function and the 𝑥-axis, bounded
by two values of the independent variable and interpret the area under a curve in a variety of
contexts AAM
● determine the approximate area under a curve using a variety of shapes including squares,
rectangles (inner and outer rectangles), triangles or trapezia
– consider functions which cannot be integrated in the scope of this syllabus, for example
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥, and explore the effect of increasing the number of shapes used
𝑏
● use the notation of the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 for the area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑥 =
𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0
● use the Trapezoidal rule to estimate areas under curves AAM
– use geometric arguments (rather than substitution into a given formula) to approximate a
𝑏
definite integral of the form ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0, on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, by dividing
the area into a given number of trapezia with equal widths
– demonstrate understanding of the formula:
𝑏 𝑏−𝑎
∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≈ [𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏) + 2{𝑓(𝑥1 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑥𝑛−1 )}] where 𝑎 = 𝑥0 and 𝑏 = 𝑥𝑛 , and the
2𝑛
values of 𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 are found by dividing the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 into 𝑛 equal sub-
intervals
𝑏
● use geometric ideas to find the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑓(𝑥) is positive throughout an
interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and the shape of 𝑓(𝑥) allows such calculations, for example when 𝑓(𝑥) is a
straight line in the interval or 𝑓(𝑥) is a semicircle in the interval AAM
● understand the relationship of position to signed areas, namely that the signed area above the
horizontal axis is positive and the signed area below the horizontal axis is negative
● using technology or otherwise, investigate the link between the anti-derivative and the area under
a curve
𝑏
– interpret ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 as a sum of signed areas (ACMMM127)
𝑥
– understand the concept of the signed area function 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (ACMMM129)
𝑏
● use the formula ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), where 𝐹(𝑥) is the anti-derivative of 𝑓(𝑥), to calculate
definite integrals (ACMMM131) AAM
𝑑 𝑥
– understand and use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = [∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡] = 𝑓(𝑥) and
𝑑𝑥
illustrate its proof geometrically (ACMMM130)
– use symmetry properties of even and odd functions to simplify calculations of area
– recognise and use the additivity and linearity of definite integrals (ACMMM128)
– calculate total change by integrating instantaneous rate of change
● calculate the area under a curve (ACMMM132)
● calculate areas between curves determined by any functions within the scope of this syllabus
(ACMMM134) AAM
● integrate functions and find indefinite or definite integrals and apply this technique to solving
practical problems AAM

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 Year 12

Topic: Financial Mathematics

Outcomes
A student:
› models and solves problems and makes informed decisions about financial situations using
mathematical reasoning and techniques MA12-2
› applies the concepts and techniques of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series in the
solution of problems MA12-4
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Topic Focus
The topic Financial Mathematics involves sequences and series and their application to financial
situations.

A knowledge of financial mathematics enables analysis and interpretation of different financial

situations, the calculation of the best options for the circumstances, and the solving of financial
problems.

The study of financial mathematics is important in developing students’ ability to make informed
financial decisions, to be aware of the consequences of such decisions, and to manage personal
financial resources prudently.

Subtopics
MA-M1 Modelling Financial Situations

Mathematics Advanced Stage 6 Syllabus (2017) 60

 Year 12

Financial Mathematics

MA-M1 Modelling Financial Situations

Outcomes
A student:
› models and solves problems and makes informed decisions about financial situations using
mathematical reasoning and techniques MA12-2
› applies the concepts and techniques of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series in the
solution of problems MA12-4
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is the meaning and mathematics of annuities, including the
introduction of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series with their application to financial
situations.

Students develop an understanding for the use of series in the borrowing and investing of money,
which are common activities for many adults in contemporary society. Annuities represent financial
plans involving the sum of a geometric series and can be used to model regular savings plans,
including superannuation.

Within this subtopic, schools have the opportunity to identify areas of Stage 5 content which may
need to be reviewed to meet the needs of students.

Content
M1.1: Modelling investments and loans
Students:
● solve compound interest problems involving financial decisions, including a home loan, a savings
account, a car loan or superannuation AAM
– identify an annuity (present or future value) as an investment account with regular, equal
contributions and interest compounding at the end of each period, or a single-sum investment
from which regular, equal withdrawals are made
– use technology to model an annuity as a recurrence relation and investigate (numerically or
graphically) the effect of varying the interest rate or the amount and frequency of each
contribution or a withdrawal on the duration and/or future or present value of the annuity
– use a table of interest factors to perform annuity calculations, eg calculating the present or
future value of an annuity, the contribution amount required to achieve a given future value or
the single sum that would produce the same future value as a given annuity

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 Year 12

M1.2: Arithmetic sequences and series

Students:
● know the difference between a sequence and a series
● recognise and use the recursive definition of an arithmetic sequence: 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛−1 + 𝑑, 𝑇1 = 𝑎 AAM

● establish and use the formula for the 𝑛th term (where 𝑛 is a positive integer) of an arithmetic
sequence: 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1) 𝑑, where 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑑 is the common difference, and
recognise its linear nature AAM
● establish and use the formulae for the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic sequence:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑙) where 𝑙 is the last term in the sequence and 𝑆𝑛 = {2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1) 𝑑} AAM
2 2
● identify and use arithmetic sequences and arithmetic series in contexts involving discrete linear
growth or decay such as simple interest (ACMMM070) AAM

M1.3: Geometric sequences and series

Students:
● recognise and use the recursive definition of a geometric sequence: 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑟𝑇𝑛−1 , 𝑇1 = 𝑎
(ACMMM072) AAM
● establish and use the formula for the 𝑛th term of a geometric sequence: 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , where 𝑎 is the
first term, 𝑟 is the common ratio and 𝑛 is a positive integer, and recognise its exponential nature
(ACMMM073) AAM
● establish and use the formula for the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a geometric sequence:
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛) 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛−1)
𝑆𝑛 = = (ACMMM075) AAM
1−𝑟 𝑟−1
𝑎
● derive and use the formula for the limiting sum of a geometric series with |𝑟| < 1: 𝑆 = AAM
1−𝑟
– understand the limiting behaviour as 𝑛 → ∞ and its application to a geometric series as a
limiting sum
– use the notation lim 𝑟 𝑛 = 0 for |𝑟| < 1
𝑛→∞

M1.4: Financial applications of sequences and series

Students:
● use geometric sequences to model and analyse practical problems involving exponential growth
and decay (ACMMM076) AAM
– calculate the effective annual rate of interest and use results to compare investment returns
and cost of loans when interest is paid or charged daily, monthly, quarterly or six-monthly
(ACMGM095)
– solve problems involving compound interest loans or investments, eg determining the future
value of an investment or loan, the number of compounding periods for an investment to
exceed a given value and/or the interest rate needed for an investment to exceed a given
value (ACMGM096)
– recognise a reducing balance loan as a compound interest loan with periodic repayments,
and solve problems including the amount owing on a reducing balance loan after each
payment is made
● solve problems involving financial decisions, including a home loan, a savings account, a car loan
or superannuation AAM
– calculate the future value or present value of an annuity by developing an expression for the
sum of the calculated compounded values of each contribution and using the formula for the
sum of the first 𝑛 terms of a geometric sequence
– verify entries in tables of future values or annuities by using geometric series

Mathematics Advanced Stage 6 Syllabus (2017) 62

 Year 12

Topic: Statistical Analysis

Outcomes
A student:
› solves problems using appropriate statistical processes MA12-8
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Topic Focus
The topic Statistical Analysis involves the exploration, display, analysis and interpretation of data to
identify and communicate key information.

Knowledge of statistical analysis enables careful interpretation of situations and an awareness of the
contributing factors when presented with information by third parties, including its possible
misrepresentation.

The study of statistical analysis is important in developing students' ability to recognise, describe and
apply statistical techniques in order to analyse current situations or to predict future outcomes. It also
develops an awareness of how conclusions drawn from data can be used to inform decisions made
by groups such as scientific investigators, business people and policy-makers.

Subtopics
MA-S2 Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Data Analysis
MA-S3 Random Variables

Mathematics Advanced Stage 6 Syllabus (2017) 63

 Year 12

Statistical Analysis

MA-S2 Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Data Analysis

Outcomes
A student:
› solves problems using appropriate statistical processes MA12-8
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce students to some methods for identifying, analysing
and describing associations between pairs of variables (bivariate data).

Students develop the ability to display, interpret and analyse statistical relationships within bivariate
data. Statistical results form the basis of many decisions affecting society, and also inform individual
decision-making.

Within this subtopic, schools have the opportunity to identify areas of Stage 5 content which may
need to be reviewed to meet the needs of students.

Content
S2.1: Data (grouped and ungrouped) and summary statistics
Students:
● classify data relating to a single random variable
● organise, interpret and display data into appropriate tabular and/or graphical representations
including Pareto charts, cumulative frequency distribution tables or graphs, parallel box-plots and
two-way tables AAM
– compare the suitability of different methods of data presentation in real-world contexts
(ACMEM048)
● summarise and interpret grouped and ungrouped data through appropriate graphs and summary
statistics AAM
● calculate measures of central tendency and spread and investigate their suitability in real-world
contexts and use to compare large datasets
– investigate real-world examples from the media illustrating appropriate and inappropriate uses
or misuses of measures of central tendency and spread (ACMEM056) AAM
● identify outliers and investigate and describe the effect of outliers on summary statistics
– use different approaches for identifying outliers, for example consideration of the distance
from the mean or median, or the use of below 𝑄1 − 1.5 × 𝐼𝑄𝑅 and above 𝑄3 + 1.5 × 𝐼𝑄𝑅 as
criteria, recognising and justifying when each approach is appropriate
– investigate and recognise the effect of outliers on the mean, median and standard deviation
● describe, compare and interpret the distributions of graphical displays and/or numerical datasets
and report findings in a systematic and concise manner AAM

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 Year 12

S2.2: Bivariate data analysis

Students:
● construct a bivariate scatterplot to identify patterns in the data that suggest the presence of an
association (ACMGM052)
● use bivariate scatterplots (constructing them where needed), to describe the patterns, features
and associations of bivariate datasets, justifying any conclusions AAM
– describe bivariate datasets in terms of form (linear/non-linear) and in the case of linear, also
the direction (positive/negative) and strength of association (strong/moderate/weak)
– identify the dependent and independent variables within bivariate datasets where appropriate
– describe and interpret a variety of bivariate datasets involving two numerical variables using
real-world examples in the media or those freely available from government or business
datasets
● calculate and interpret Pearson’s correlation coefficient (𝑟) using technology to quantify the
strength of a linear association of a sample (ACMGM054)
● model a linear relationship by fitting an appropriate line of best fit to a scatterplot and using it to
describe and quantify associations AAM
– fit a line of best fit to the data by eye and using technology (ACMEM141, ACMEM142)
– fit a least-squares regression line to the data using technology (ACMGM057)
– interpret the intercept and gradient of the fitted line (ACMGM059)
● use the appropriate line of best fit, both found by eye and by applying the equation of the fitted
line, to make predictions by either interpolation or extrapolation AAM
– distinguish between interpolation and extrapolation, recognising the limitations of using the
fitted line to make predictions, and interpolate from plotted data to make predictions where
appropriate
● solve problems that involve identifying, analysing and describing associations between two
numeric variables AAM
● construct, interpret and analyse scatterplots for bivariate numerical data in practical contexts AAM

– demonstrate an awareness of issues of privacy and bias, ethics, and responsiveness to

diverse groups and cultures when collecting and using data

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 Year 12

Statistical Analysis

MA-S3 Random Variables

Outcomes
A student:
› solves problems using appropriate statistical processes MA12-8
› chooses and uses appropriate technology effectively in a range of contexts, models and applies
critical thinking to recognise appropriate times for such use MA12-9
› constructs arguments to prove and justify results and provides reasoning to support conclusions
which are appropriate to the context MA12-10

Subtopic Focus
The principal focus of this subtopic is to introduce students to continuous random variables, the
normal distribution and its use in a variety of contexts.

Students develop understanding of the probability density function, how integration or the area under
the function determines probabilities to solve problems involving random variables, and an
understanding of the normal distribution, its properties and uses. Students make connections between
calculus skills developed earlier in the course and their applications in Statistics, and lay the
foundations for future study in this area.

Content
S3.1: Continuous random variables
Students:
● use relative frequencies and histograms obtained from data to estimate probabilities associated
with a continuous random variable (ACMMM164)
● understand and use the concepts of a probability density function of a continuous random variable
AAM
– know the two properties of a probability density function: 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all real 𝑥 and
∞
∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1
– define the probability as the area under the graph of the probability density function using the
𝑟
notation 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 𝑟) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , where 𝑓(𝑥) is the probability density function defined on [𝑎, 𝑏]
– examine simple types of continuous random variables and use them in appropriate contexts

– explore properties of a continuous random variable that is uniformly distributed

– find the mode from a given probability density function
● obtain and analyse a cumulative distribution function with respect to a given probability density
function
– understand the meaning of a cumulative distribution function with respect to a given
probability density function
– use a cumulative distribution function to calculate the median and other percentiles

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 Year 12

S3.2: The normal distribution

Students:
● identify the numerical and graphical properties of data that is normally distributed
● calculate probabilities and quantiles associated with a given normal distribution using technology
and otherwise, and use these to solve practical problems (ACMMM170) AAM
– identify contexts that are suitable for modelling by normal random variables, eg the height of a
group of students (ACMMM168)
– recognise features of the graph of the probability density function of the normal distribution
with mean 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎, and the use of the standard normal distribution
(ACMMM169)
– visually represent probabilities by shading areas under the normal curve, eg identifying the
value above which the top 10% of data lies
● understand and calculate the 𝑧-score (standardised score) corresponding to a particular value in a
dataset AAM
𝑥−𝜇
– use the formula 𝑧 = , where 𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎 is the standard deviation
𝜎
– describe the 𝑧-score as the number of standard deviations a value lies above or below the
mean
● use 𝑧-scores to compare scores from different datasets, for example comparing students’ subject
examination scores AAM
● use collected data to illustrate the empirical rules for normally distributed random variables
– apply the empirical rule to a variety of problems
2
– sketch the graphs of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 and the probability density function for the normal
(𝑥−𝜇)2
1 −
distribution 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝜎2 using technology
𝜎√2𝜋
– verify, using the Trapezoidal rule, the results concerning the areas under the normal curve
● use 𝑧-scores to identify probabilities of events less or more extreme than a given event AAM
– use statistical tables to determine probabilities
– use technology to determine probabilities
● use 𝑧-scores to make judgements related to outcomes of a given event or sets of data AAM

Mathematics Advanced Stage 6 Syllabus (2017) 67

Glossary
Glossary term Elaboration

Aboriginal and Aboriginal Peoples are the first peoples of Australia and are represented by
Torres Strait over 250 language groups each associated with a particular Country or
Islander Peoples territory. Torres Strait Islander Peoples whose island territories to the north
east of Australia were annexed by Queensland in 1879 are also Indigenous
Australians and are represented by five cultural groups.

An Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander person is someone who:

 is of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander descent
 identifies as an Aboriginal person and/or Torres Strait Islander person,
and
 is accepted as such by the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
community in which they live.

absolute value The absolute value |𝑥| of a real number 𝑥 is the magnitude or size of 𝑥
without regard to its sign, ie on a number line, the distance of the number
from the origin. Formally, |𝑥| = 𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0, |𝑥| = −𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0.

ambiguous case in In trigonometry, the ambiguous case refers to using the sine rule to
trigonometry calculate the size of an angle in a triangle where there are two possibilities
for the angle, one obtuse and one acute, leading to two possible triangles.

amplitude The amplitude of a wave function is the height from the horizontal centre
line to the peak (or to the trough) of the graph of the function. Alternatively,
it is half the distance between the maximum and minimum values.

angle of inclination The angle of inclination of a straight line is the angle the line makes with the
positive 𝑥-axis.

annuity An annuity is a compound interest investment from which payments are

made or received on a regular basis for a fixed period of time.

anti-derivative An anti-derivative, primitive or indefinite integral of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is a

function 𝐹(𝑥) whose derivative is 𝑓(𝑥), ie 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

The process of finding the anti-derivative is called integration.

arithmetic sequence An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference
of any two successive members of the sequence is a constant.

arithmetic series An arithmetic series is a sum whose terms form an arithmetic sequence.

array An array is an ordered rectangular collection of objects or numbers

arranged in rows and columns.

asymptote An asymptote is a line.

 A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line whose distance from the
function 𝑓(𝑥) becomes as small as we please for all large values of 𝑥.
 The line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote if the function 𝑓 is not defined at
𝑥 = 𝑎 and values of 𝑓(𝑥) become as large as we please (positive or
negative) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎.

Mathematics Advanced Stage 6 Syllabus (2017) 68

Glossary term Elaboration

break-even point The break-even point is the point at which income and cost of production
are equal.

compass bearing Compass bearings are specified as angles either side of north or south. For
example a compass bearing of N50°E is found by facing north and moving
through an angle of 50° to the east.

composite functions In a composite function, the output of one function becomes the input of a
second function.

More formally, the composite of 𝑓 and 𝑔, acting on 𝑥, can be written as

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), with 𝑔(𝑥) being performed first.

concavity If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is a differentiable function on a given interval, 𝐼, then:

 𝑓(𝑥) is concave up on 𝐼 if and only if 𝑓′(𝑥) is increasing on 𝐼.
Graphically if the tangent at 𝑥 = 𝑎 lies below the curve (locally), then the
function is concave up at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
 𝑓(𝑥) is concave down on 𝐼 if and only if 𝑓′(𝑥) is decreasing on 𝐼.
Graphically if the tangent at 𝑥 = 𝑎 lies above the curve (locally), then
the function is concave down at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

If 𝑓(𝑥) is doubly differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 then the second derivative can be

used to identify concavity in the following way:
 If 𝑓′′(𝑎) is positive then the curve is concave up at 𝑥 = 𝑎
 If 𝑓′′(𝑎) is negative then the curve is concave down at 𝑥 = 𝑎
 If 𝑓′′(𝑎) is zero then the curve could be concave up, concave down or a
point of inflection and further work is required to determine which one of
these three cases applies at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

conditional The probability that an event 𝐴 occurs can change if it becomes known that
probability another event 𝐵 has occurred. The new probability is known as conditional
probability and is written as 𝑃(𝐴|𝐵). If 𝐵 has occurred, the sample space is
reduced by discarding all outcomes that are not in the event 𝐵.

continuous function A function is continuous when sufficiently small changes in the input result
in arbitrarily small changes in the output. Its graph is an unbroken curve.

continuous random A continuous random variable is a numerical variable that can take any
variable value along a continuum.

cumulative Given a continuous random variable 𝑋, the cumulative distribution function

distribution function 𝐹(𝑥) is the probability that 𝑋 ≤ 𝑥.

cumulative The cumulative frequency is the accumulating total of frequencies within an

frequency ordered dataset.

dilation A dilation stretches or compresses the graph of a function. This could

happen either in the 𝑥 or 𝑦 direction or both.

Mathematics Advanced Stage 6 Syllabus (2017) 69

Glossary term Elaboration

direct variation Two variables are in direct variation if one is a constant multiple of the
other. This can be represented by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥, where 𝑘 is the
constant of variation (or proportion). Also known as direct proportion, it
produces a linear graph through the origin.

discontinuous If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be

function discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

discrete random A discrete random variable is a numerical variable whose values can be
variable listed.

domain The domain of a function is the set of 𝑥 values of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for which the
function is defined. Also known as the ‘input’ of a function.

empirical rule The empirical rule for normally distributed random variables is:
 approximately 68% of data will have 𝑧-scores between -1 and 1
 approximately 95% of data will have 𝑧-scores between -2 and 2
 approximately 99.7% of data will have 𝑧-scores between -3 and 3.

even function Algebraically, a function is even if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), for all values of 𝑥 in the
domain.

An even function has line symmetry about the 𝑦-axis.

expected value In statistics, the expected value 𝐸(𝑋) of a random variable 𝑋 is a measure
of the central tendency of its distribution. Also known as the expectation or
mean. 𝐸(𝑋) is calculated differently depending on whether the random
variable is discrete or continuous.

exponential growth Exponential growth occurs when the rate of change of a mathematical
and decay function is positive and proportional to the function’s current value.
Exponential decay occurs in the same way when the growth rate is
negative.

extrapolation Extrapolation occurs when the fitted model is used to make predictions
using values that are outside the range of the original data upon which the
fitted model was based. Extrapolation far beyond the range of the original
data is not advisable as it can sometimes lead to quite erroneous
predictions.

function A function 𝑓 is a rule that associates each element 𝑥 in a set 𝑆 with a

unique element 𝑓(𝑥) from a set 𝑇.

The set 𝑆 is called the domain of 𝑓 and the set 𝑇 is called the co-domain
of 𝑓. The subset of 𝑇 consisting of those elements of 𝑇 which occur as
values of the function is called the range of 𝑓. The functions most
commonly encountered in elementary mathematics are real functions of a
real variable, for which both the domain and co-domain are subsets of the
real numbers.

If we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then we say that 𝑥 is the independent variable and 𝑦 is

the dependent variable.

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Glossary term Elaboration

future value The future value of an investment or annuity is the total value of the
investment at the end of the term of the investment, including all
contributions and interest earned.

future value interest Future value interest factors are the values of an investment at a specific
factors date. A table of these factors can be used to calculate the future value of
different amounts of money that are invested at a certain interest rate for a
specified period of time.

geometric sequence A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where each term after the
first is found by multiplying the previous one by a fixed number called the
common ratio.

geometric series A geometric series is a sum whose terms form a geometric sequence.

horizontal line test The horizontal line test is a method that can be used to determine whether
a function is a one-to-one function. If any horizontal line intersects the graph
of a function more than once then the function is not a one-to-one function.

identity An identity is a statement involving a variable(s) that is true for all possible
values of the variable(s).

independent events In probability, two events are independent of each other if the occurrence of
(independence) one does not affect the probability of the occurrence of the other.

instantaneous rate The instantaneous rate of change is the rate of change at a particular
of change moment. For a differentiable function, the instantaneous rate of change at a
point is the same as the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point.
This is defined to be the value of the derivative at that particular point.

interpolation Interpolation occurs when a fitted model is used to make predictions using
values that lie within the range of the original data.

interval notation Interval notation is a notation for representing an interval by its endpoints.
Parentheses and/or square brackets are used respectively to show whether
the endpoints are excluded or included.

least-squares Least-squares regression is a method for finding a straight line that best
regression line summarises the relationship between two variables, within the range of the
dataset.

The least-squares regression line is the line that minimises the sum of the
squares of the residuals. Also known as the least-squares line of best fit.

limit The limit of a function at a point 𝑎, if it exists, is the value the function
approaches as the independent variable approaches 𝑎.

The notation used is: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎
This is read as ‘the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is 𝐿’.

line of best fit A line of best fit is a line drawn through a scatterplot of data points that most
closely represents the relationship between two variables.

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Glossary term Elaboration

local and global 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a local maximum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values
maximum and of 𝑥 near 𝑥0 . We say that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a global maximum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if
minimum 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a local minimum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of
𝑥 near 𝑥0 . We say that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is a global minimum of the function 𝑓(𝑥) if
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) for all values of 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

measures of central Measures of central tendency are the values about which the set of data
tendency values for a particular variable are scattered. They are a measure of the
centre or location of the data.

The two most common measures of central tendency are the mean and the
median.

measures of spread Measures of spread describe how similar or varied the set of data values
are for a particular variable.

Common measures of spread include the range, combinations of quantiles

(deciles, quartiles, percentiles), the interquartile range, variance and
standard deviation.

normal distribution The normal distribution is a type of continuous distribution whose graph
looks like this:

The mean, median and mode are equal and the scores are symmetrically
arranged either side of the mean.

The graph of a normal distribution is often called a ‘bell curve’ due to its
shape.

normal random A normal random variable is a variable which varies according to the normal
variable distribution.

normal to a curve In calculus, the normal to a curve at a given point 𝑃 is the straight line that
is perpendicular to the tangent to the curve at that point.

odd function Algebraically, a function is odd if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥), for all values of 𝑥 in the
domain.

An odd function has point symmetry about the origin.

one-to-one function In a one-to-one function, every element in the range of a function

corresponds to exactly one element of the domain.

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Pareto chart A Pareto chart is a type of chart that contains both a bar and a line graph,
where individual values are represented in descending order by the bars
and the cumulative total is represented by the line graph.

Pearson’s Pearson’s correlation coefficient is a statistic that measures the strength of

correlation the linear relationship between a pair of variables or datasets. Its value lies
coefficient between -1 and 1 (inclusive). Also known as simply the correlation
coefficient. For a sample, it is denoted by 𝑟.

period The period of a trigonometric function is the smallest interval for which the
function repeats itself.

phase When a trigonometric function is translated horizontally, the phase (or

phase shift) is the magnitude of this translation.

point of inflection A point of inflection is a point on a curve where the tangent exists and
crosses the curve.

Within these courses, points of inflection can be found by taking the zeros
of the second derivative and checking whether the concavity changes
around the point.

polynomial A polynomial is an expression of the form 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . +𝑎2 𝑥 2 +

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 , where 𝑛 is a non-negative integer.

population The population in statistics is the entire dataset from which a statistical
sample may be drawn.

power function A power function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛 , where 𝑘 and 𝑛 are
real numbers.

present value The present value of an investment or annuity is the single sum of money
(or principal) that could be initially invested to produce a future value over a
given period of time.

quadratic inequality A quadratic inequality is an inequality involving a quadratic expression.

random variable A random variable is a variable whose possible values are outcomes of a
statistical experiment or a random phenomenon.

range (of function) The range of a function is the set of values of the dependent variable for
which the function is defined.

rate of change Δ𝑦
A rate of change of a function, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is where ∆𝑥 is the change in 𝑥
Δ𝑥
and ∆𝑦 is the corresponding change in 𝑦.

real number The set of real numbers consists of the set of all rational and irrational
numbers.

reducing balance A reducing balance loan is a compound interest loan where the loan is
loan repaid by making regular payments and the interest paid is calculated on
the amount still owing (the reducing balance of the loan) after each payment
is made.

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scatterplot A scatterplot is a two-dimensional data plot using Cartesian coordinates to

display the values of two variables in a bivariate dataset. Also known as a
scatter graph.

secant (line) A secant is the straight line passing through two points on the graph of a
function.

second derivative The second derivative is the derivative of the first derivative. It is denoted
𝑑2𝑦
by: 𝑓′′(𝑥) or
𝑑𝑥 2

sequence In mathematics, a sequence is a set of numbers whose terms follow a

prescribed pattern. Mathematical sequences include arithmetic sequences
and geometric sequences.

series A series is the sum of the terms of a particular sequence.

set language and A set is a collection of distinct objects called elements.

notation
The language and notation used in the study of sets includes:
A set is a collection of objects, for example ‘𝐴 is the set of the numbers 1, 3
and 5’ is written as 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5}.

Each object is an element or member of a set, for example ‘1 is an element

of set 𝐴’ is written as 1 ∈ 𝐴.

The number of elements in set 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5} is written as 𝑛(𝐴) = 3, or

|𝐴| = 3.

The empty set is the set with no members and is written as { } or ∅.

The universal set contains all elements involved in a particular problem.

𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 if every member of 𝐵 is a member of 𝐴 and is written as

𝐵 ⊂ 𝐴, ie ‘𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴’. 𝐵 may also be equal to 𝐴 in this scenario, and
we can therefore write 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

The complement of a set 𝐴 is the set of all elements in the universal set that
are not in 𝐴 and is written as 𝐴̅ or 𝐴𝑐 .

The intersection of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of elements which are in both 𝐴
and 𝐵 and is written as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, ie ‘𝐴 intersection 𝐵’.

The union of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set of elements which are in 𝐴 or 𝐵 or both
and is written as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, ie ‘𝐴 union 𝐵’.

sketch A sketch is an approximate representation of a graph, including labelled

axes, intercepts and any other important relevant features. Compared to the
corresponding graph, a sketch should be recognisably similar but does not
need to be precise.

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standard deviation Standard deviation is a measure of the spread of a dataset. It gives an

indication of how far, on average, individual data values are spread from the
mean.

stationary point A stationary point on the graph 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) of a differentiable function is a

point where 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0.

A stationary point could be classified as a local or global maximum or

minimum or a horizontal point of inflection.

tangent The tangent to a curve at a given point 𝑃 can be described intuitively as the
straight line that ‘just touches’ the curve at that point. At 𝑃 the curve has ‘the
same direction’ as the tangent. In this sense it is the best straight-line
approximation to the curve at point 𝑃.

true bearing True bearings are measured in degrees clockwise from true north and are
written with three digits being used to specify the direction.

For example the direction of north is specified 000°, east is specified as

090°, south is specified as 180° and north-west is specified as 315°.

variance In statistics, the variance Var(𝑋) of a random variable 𝑋 is a measure of the

spread of its distribution. Var(𝑋) is calculated differently depending on
whether the random variable is discrete or continuous.

vertical line test The vertical line test determines whether a relation or graph is a function. If
a vertical line intersects or touches a graph at more than one point, then the
graph is not a function.

𝒛-score A 𝑧-score is a statistical measurement of how many standard deviations a

raw score is above or below the mean. A 𝑧-score can be positive or
negative, indicating whether it is above or below the mean, or zero. Also
known as a standardised score.

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