MULK RAJ ANAND AND STYLE :

SOCIOLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE
 CHAPTER IV

MULK RAJ ANAND AND STYLE:SOCIOLINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE

This chapter brings out a detailed sketch of the

sociolinguistic profile of social situations portrayed in

the novels under study with due analysis. The main aim of
this chapter is to expose the variational use of language

displayed in the novel. Mulk Raj Anand's novels depict the

life of various sections of population of the Indian

society and present profusely the mode of language use of

different people. Social variables such as caste,

education, age etc., show a definite impact over the

variational use of language in the Indian multicultural,

multi-ethinic context. Therefore, heterogeneity in

language use arises and this is correlatable with various

situations, events, context etc.. The change in the style

of language use is observed due to various factors. Socio-

psychological elements figuring in Mulk Raj Anand's novels

are presented under various headings like pathos, humour,

sarcasm etc.. Linguistic techniques involving the use of

simile, and metaphors, derogatory expressions reflecting
negative and positive meanings etc., are identified and

analysed.

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4.1. PATHOS

Since most of the novels of Mulk Raj Anand

portray the suffering and misery of the Indian people due

to factors like religion, social and cultural imbalance,

poverty, politics etc., of the people we find pathetic

scenes abundantly. In novels like 'Untouchable' and

'Coolie', human pathos receives a dominant role. The novel

'Coolie' reveals human misery, in particular it exposes a

heart-rending account of the suffering and misery of the

poor character like Munoo. In the novel 'Untouchable', the

suffering of the downtrodden is brought out clearly through

the character, Bakha.

In the novel 'Coolie', there appears an account

of the suffering and misery of Munoo, in different phases

of his career. The life of the poor and the way in which

the poor are exploited and ill-treated appears in several

places in the novel. The author's style of evoking pathos

by way of using appropriate expressions and his ability to

move the hearts of his readers are apparent in many places

in the novel. In one instance, Munoo, the hero of the

novel first wanders alone and then in the company of Hari

and his family, trying to find a spot where they could rest
for the night. Here the author, with soft and laconic

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strokes, recreates scenes with due accuracy. The careful
selection of phrases by the author evokes pathetic feelings

in the readers.

An emaciated man, the bones of whose

skeleton were locked in a paralytic knot,

dragged himself by the edge of the road,

precariously near the wheels of passing

victorias, begging with a wail, half

metallic from repetition:

0 man, give me a pice!, (C:186).

The above account about human misery which is

arranged in a calculated sequence of utterances starts with

the expression emaciated man. Though this expression itself

is self sufficient to reveal the physical condition of a

man, the author's intention of creating more pathos is

revealed though a series of phrases which are carefully

linked with one another to knit the physical condition and

the environment in which the man lives. This example

invariably picturises the unequivocal disparity maintained

in the society between the poor and the rich. The authors
exploitation of the language through the phrases he selects

and the information he insulates in his phrases can be

presented in the parallel way through the following:

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1) the bones of whose skeleton were locked in a paralytic
knot'

a) extreme poverty

2) dragged himself by the edge of the road'

a) shelterless nature

3) precariously near the wheels of passing'

a) the environment, the victories undoubtedly owned

by the rich

Having explained this, the author exposes to the

reader the so called dwelling place of the poor and the

filthy condition of it.

The bodies of numberless coolies lay

strewn in tattered garbs. Some were curled

up in knots, others lay face downwards on

folded arms, others were flat on their

chests pillowing their heads on their

bundles or boxes, others crouched into

corners talking, others still huddled

together at the doorsteps of closed shops,

or lay on the boards in a sleep which

looked like death, but that it was broken

by deep sighs'(C:188).

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 Here also the pathetic condition of the poor is

exposed through a series of phrases neglecting the physical

state of the poor in metaphorical form.

Physical state of the poor coolies is revealed

through the expressions such as,

i) Coolies lay strewn in tattered garbs

ii) curled up in knots

iii) lay face downwards on folded arms

iv) flat on their chests

v) pillowing their heads on their bundles or boxes

etc.

The author frequently uses similes and metaphors

while he intents to evoke pathos. That is, the whole scene

is exposed metaphorically : ... lay on the boards in a

sleep which looked like death...' But, further the author

brings indirectly the contradictory concept of living

dead' by giving the expression as ' it was broken by deep

sighs'.

In another scene the author, (C:189) exposes the

overall perception of the society towards the poor and the
sufferings the poor receive from the rich.

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 'Suddenly a heart-rending shriek fell on

his ears. He saw that ten yards ahead a

coolie had fallen with a thud and was

rolling down, kicked from behind by the

caretaker of a house, who presumably

wanted to close the iron door that secured

his master's mansion against thieves'

(C:189).

The above passage exposes the idea that the

neighbouring wealthy people view the poor as thieves. Due

to this perception of the rich the poor are even beaten

inspite of their innocence.

"....kicked from behind by the caretaker

of a house...that secured his master's

mansion against thieves' (C:189).

The author used compound and complex sentences

to explain the agonizing moments of the poor. In other

passages he brings in tranquillity, the ceasure of human

misery through the most unpalatable happening to the human

beings namely death. In order to bring in this notion he

often uses simple sentences. The use of simple sentences

vividly explains every thing in a very simple way but in a
most effective manner.

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 In Coolie, the incident involving Hari, along
with his family and Munoo reaches a place to rest which

surprisingly has not been occupied. As Hari stands

contemplating whether they should occupy it, a half-naked

woman who sat nursing her head in her hands speaks between

smothered sobs:

"My husband died there last night!'

He has attained the release', said Hari.

We will rest in his place' (C-190).

These simple sentences show that the death has

failed to frighten the poor but it continues to threaten

other normal people. They are past fright. For peasants

like Hari, who under went a long suffering of misery and

poverty has come in search of a factory job will not be

frightened of death. It is life that is a threat and for

Hari death is only a release.

In the novel, Untouchable' the theme evoking

pathos is shifted from poverty to caste and other social

evils. Bakha, the hard working and hefty sweeper boy, is

ill-treated by the high caste Hindus. The portrayal of

injustice and exploitation is full with pathos. Bakha is

mercilessly beaten and abused when he unconsciously touches

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a caste Hindu. It is the most pathetic incident exposed in

the novel and it shows the height of inhuman and irrational

behaviour of the human beings arising due to the existence

of caste system. Bakha could have retaliated for he was

tall and strong like a giant, but servility of centuries

which is ingrained in him paralysis. The subsequent

psychological feelings of Bakha exposed in the novel proves

this. Bakha's reflexion of the incident is explained by

the author in the following way:

His first impulse was to run, just to

shoot across the throng, away, away far

away from the torment. But then he

realised that he was surrounded by a

barrier, not a physical barrier, because

one push from his hefty shoulders would

have been enough to unbalance the

skeleton-like bodies of the onlookers, but

a moral one' (UT:54).

It was the "moral barrier' about which the

author says servility of centuries that made him not to

retaliate but to say.

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 I have erred now, I forgot to call. I

beg your forgiveness. It won't happen

again. I forgot. I beg your forgiveness.

It won't happen again' (UT:55).

The repetitive use of the sentences

I forgot ....

I forgot....
I beg your forgiveness
I beg your forgiveness

add further the extent of servility embedded in the mind of

Bakha. The repetitive shouts of Bakha

'Posh, posh, sweeper coming, posh, posh,

sweeper comming, Posh, posh, sweeper

commingi' (UT:57).

followed by the thought,

’For them I am a sweeper, sweeper-

untouchable ! Untouchable!Untouchable!

That's the word! Untouchable! I am

an Untouchable!' (UT:59).

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establish the inborn nature of servility in the mind of

Bakha. The process of argumentation and gradation of the

thought, process of the victim Bakha from impulse to

practicality which has social and cultural attestation are

vividly revealed by the language style of the author who

intends to reduce the psychological space between the

reader and the social situation being explained.

The author at times explains the uniform and

unchanging nature of human physiology, the desire for sex

and couples it with the socially imposed unethical norm,

'untouchability'. The incident in the novel where Pundit

Kali Nath attempts to molest Bakha's sister, Sohini

explains this very clearly. The Pandit, who practices

untouchability, who thinks about untouchability in each and

every occasion, when he encounters the untouchables meekly

advances towards Sohini, an untouchable without any

reservation. When Sohini screams at the approach of the

Pundit, he immediately shouts that he had been defiled.

So, the ethics of his so called high caste morale and

ideology crumbles here and this is very pathetically
picturised by the author through the confessions of Sohini

to her brother, Bakha.

That man, that man,' she said, that man

made suggestions to me, when I was

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 cleaning the lavatory of his house there.

And when I screamed, he came out

shouting that he had been

defiled'(CU:70).

4.2. Sarcasm

Sarcasm is a mocking remark intended to hurt

other's feelings. The use of sarcasm in the novels cut

across various social and socio-cultural aspects such as

religious beliefs, societal happenings, and cultural norms,

and personal relationships. To be precise, the environment

in which the sarcastic remarks occur in the novels can be

broadly classified into two main categories namely; social

and political environment. The social aspects instigating

sarcasm can be further grouped into three namely persons,

religious affiliations and belief system.

Sarcasm
I
I"------------------------------------------------ ---- 1
Social Political
I
Personal Religious belief
(superstitious)

While trying to explain the wide gap in the belief system

related to religion and the religious practice, a sarcastic

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expression brahminee bull' (UT:60) is used. The author

compares the bull with untouchables by saying that even

though the bull is stinking very badly than the

untouchables, the orthodox well-dressed Hindus worship it

by touching the animal with their forefingers where as,

they treat the human beings (untouchables) very badly. Not

only that, the orthodox brahmin who customarily not eating

even onions often leave their bulls and cows without

feeding them consequently, these animals eat rotten onions

and stink. Inspite of that brahmins worship them. At this

context, the author sarcastically critisises the caste

hierarchy and religious belief by using expressions like

brahminee bull', 'How queer, the Hindus don't feed their

cows, although they call the cow! mother', (UT:61) etc..

Here, the use of diacritic mark of placing the word mother

within inverted .commas plays a context bound role of

sarcasm.

While refering to the end of colonial regime,

the author without refering directly that the Britishers

quit India, mentions sarcastically: Now the holy ghost of

Britain has gone and wiser counsels have prevailed'.

(PL:255) Here, the author's style of critising both the

past and the present regime in a very subte manner is quite

pertinent and appealing. The art of giving factual

information is quite intrigue in nature. In the sentence

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cited above he intends to give two facts, one with positive

meaning, the end of colonial regime' and the other with a

negative meaning and wiser counsels have prevailed'. The

author in the latter part of the sentence sarcastically

uses the comparative degree expression wiser counsels

which gives a negative counter factual meaning, that the

counsels are not wise now.

The dual belief system prevailing in the society

involving adherence to the auspicious time for doing a work

on the one hand and changing the societal belief and norms

according to one's own convenience on the other hand is

sarcastically commented by the author in the following: In

the context when His Highness was waiting for the arrival

of Pandit, Dr Shankar makes a remark that When we know

that Pandit Dhanpat Rai can persuade the stars to get into

an auspicious array any time he likes?' (PL:70). And he

clarifies further by giving his own example in the

following sentence.

I have two horoscopes, based on two

different dates of birth. So the mahurat
which may not be right according to one

may be very auspicious according to the

other', (PL:70).

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 Through these two sarcastic statements the
author puts forth the social formulations as far as the
belief system is concerned and at the same time points out

that the individuals may or may not accept that belief

system when the time of action comes.'

Another area of sarcasm to which attention is

given by the author is the personalities of Individuals.

While exposing the personality of a Maharaja, in the novel

Private life of an Indian Prince' the author portrays the

Maharaja, as a person who is westernised in his actions and

behaviour. This is because the Maharaja is totally

influenced by the Britishers who ruled the country. But,

the western custom deviates a lot from the Indian cultural

pattern. Being influenced by the western way of living the

Maharaja has decorated his bedroom in European style. In

the instance when Pandit Gobind Das came to meet Maharaja,

the author sarcastically remarks about Pandit's dilemma in

greeting the Prince with a sarcastic expression:

’ For, the European-style bedroom of the

Maharaja demanded a Western courtesy,

whereas the homespun ideology dictated the
conventional Indian approach (PL:270).

Through this narrative expression the author sarcastically

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blames the dual ideologies individual keep in the Indian

scene.
In another situation, while exposing the general
belief that healing will take place if the Guru Granth'

were recited and if kara prashad were distributed,the

author sarcastically makes remarks on the personality of

the priests and their behaviour.

while the priest eagerly partook of the

first share of dedicated food, rubbing his

greasy hands on his beard so as not to

waste even a particle of butter' (SS:160).

Through this particular style of adopting

sarcasm while exposing the belief system, cultural events

and the behaviour of personalities, the author makes

remarks on the easy and casual behaviour of the priests and

contrasts it with the serious and sincere nature of the

devotees.
With regards to politicians, the author
generally criticises the politicians who are not sincere to

their work and who create problems for the poor people by

way of using their power. In one context the author says

that the politicians and the rich stay comfortably in

palaces and are ignorant of what happens in the country

barns. He makes a remark

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 What about these jewels' of the earth,

as they were called in the perorations of

politicians?, (PL:352).

The word "jewels" here is used in the negative

sense. In the expression jewels of the earth, the word

jewel is put within inverted comma's. This type of use is

the exclusive style of the author in certain contexts where

he wants to be more precise in his expression. In other

words, the author wants to make it clear that the point he

wants to make should not be missed by the readers. This

intricate technique of the author makes the readers to have

full comprehension of the negative meaning created through

sarcasm even if the expression is positive in nature.

4.3. Humour

Among the various stylistic strategies Mulk Raj

Anand adopts in his writings humour as an important one.

Mainly humour is brought in by the author to ease tension

in the expressive context or to avoid monotony. In his

novels two kinds of humour could be identified . They are,

i. Humour which is more context sensitive and can

stay close to the context

ii. Farcical Humour

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4.3.1. Humour which is more context sensitive and can

stay close to the context

The author very naturally explains the innocence

of some of the characters and this forms the source for the
first category of humour namely contextual humour.

In the novel Coolie', Munoo's curiosity and his

reactions are displayed in such a way that it evokes

innocent laughter. Here the character, Munoo is depicted

as an innocent boy who was born and brought up in the

village environment. Naturally he was not exposed to the

urban civilization. When he came to the town Sham nagar'

along with his uncle, his young mind could identify the

difference between his own hamlet and the city. To begin

with he could not adjust to the new atmosphere. As a

result he puts lot of innocent questions to his uncle. The

portrayal of this whole context appears to be quite

humourous for the readers but at the same time the style of
the author here is to reveal the young village mind in

particular and the undeveloped nature of the country in

general . For instance, the boy's immediate reaction to

the loud speaker was

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 "where is the cattle which these people

graze and where are the fields they

plough, uncle?' he asked, turning to Daya

Ram (C:16).

They have no cattle and no fields here,'

said the chaprasi, pushing his neck back
to stiff uprightness.'It is only the

rustics in the villages who graze cattle

and plough the land!'

"But how do they get their food, uncle?' Munoo

inquired (C:16 - 17).

"What is that singing? How does a man get

into a box to sing?' he asked (C:17).

In the above passage the author's exclusive

style of imparting message even through humour is quite

intricate. That is, the statement It is only the rustics

in the villages who graze cattle and plough the land?'

gives the message about the perception of urban people,

regarding their village counterpart or rural people.

Moreover the non-verbal behaviour of the chaprasi (pushing

his neck back to stiff uprightness) who uttered this

sentence though appears to be humourous gives the message

about the perception of the urban people regarding the

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villagers. That is, the unmindful nature of the urbanites

about the villagers. The reply of Munoo's uncle that They

have money (C:17) give the feeling that the villagers work

but the urban people enjoy because they have the power of

money.

In another instance involving humour, the author

humourously puts forth the kind of disparity maintained

during the colonial period between the Indians and the

Britishers. That is, the British soldiers seldom get

punishment. Even if they get punishment, the effect of it

will be less intensive. The statement goes like this

Again, it was rumoured that a sahib had

once been court-martialled for shooting a

sepoy, and since he was a white man and

could never be put behind the bars in the

lock-up at the quarter-guard, his hat and

belt and sword has been imprisoned

instead (UT:112).

The above passage is a humourous exposition

because the author very sarcastically states that

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 ....and since he was a white man

.. .his hat and belt and sword had

been imprisoned instead'(UT:12).

4.3.2. Farcical humour

Farcical humour is a pure fun giving rise to

hearty laughter. This type of humour the author adopts in

his writings in order to make his narrative very light and

in such humourous portrayal sometime one can get the

feeling that the childish mind of the writer is coming to

the surface. For instance, in Coolie' Munoo ran and

joined the throng of boys collected near the circus

elephant that is coming out of the entrance of the circus.

Munoo ran and joined the throng of boys.

One of the leaders of the throng mistook

Munoo's caper for an invasion. He lifted

Munoo's strip of a turban and threw it at

the elephant's trunk. Jumbo swallowed it

up after a graceful salute.

Munoo returned the compliment by snatching

the cap off the boy's head and throwing it

to the elephant.

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 Before he knew where he was Munoo had been

caught by the neck.

He swerved and, planting his leg against

his opponent, flung him lightly into the

ditch.

As the young man struggled out, covered

all over with slime, the urchins behind

roared and screamed with laughter'

(c:164-5).

A similar joke is played by the many handed,

many-armed machine god on Munoo by divesting him to his

shirt. Munoo wanted to take off his shirt because it was

too hot inside the factory.

The soiled, wrinkled, homespun garment

came up to his head and stuck there, as he

had forgotten to unbotton it in the front.

He struggled to pull it off. The tunic

slipped over the left arm and uncovered

his eyes, but still stuck on the right

arm. A great gust of hot wind that flew

by the wheels of the conveyor belt blew

the edge of the cloth and tore it into

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 tatters across the wheel that gyrated at
their usual speed. (C:214)

In this type of farcical humour, the interesting

phenomenon to observe is the language use. The selection of

lexical forms and the structure of the sentence is very

simple and makes the passage easily comprehensible. This

type of sentence structure selection is the conformation

with the content exposed.

4.4. Simile and Metaphor

The common difference between simile and

metaphor is that simile has explicit comparative statements

exposing resemblances between two terms compared and

metaphor has implicit comparative statements exposing the

similarity between two terms. In other words, at the level

of prediction both simile and metaphor differ. That is,

simile shows markers of such as 'like' 'as if' etc.,

comparison but such markers of comparison are absent in

metaphor. Hence metaphor is taken as an elliptical simile.

Subsequently what is implicit in metaphor is explicit in

simile (Black, 1980). While discussing about metaphor and

simile, Terence Hawkes (1972) claims: Metaphor refers to
a particular set of linguistic processes where by aspects

of one object are carried over' or transfered to another

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object, so that the second object is spoken of as if it

were the first. Simile is defined as the one which

proposes the transference, and explains it by means of

terms such as 'like' as if'.

It is not incorrect to say that both simile and

metaphor true to their definitions given above can give

more literal value for any text. In addition to that if

the objects selected for comparison during metaphorical use

representatives of the ecology and the cultural environment

of the society being explained in the novel, it is no doubt

that the comprehensibility of the novel will increase.

Mulk Raj Anand who is aware of this phenomenon not only

uses both metaphors and similies wherever possible, but

also tries to select the comparative objects mostly from

the ecosystem of the native society and culture.

With reference to similes, the author's style of

selection of the objects of comparison is governed by

certain exclusive features:

i. common things available in the ecological set up

which are concrete in nature are selected

ii. things commonly experienced by the people which are

abstract are selected for comparison.

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 The objects generally taken for comparison can

be classified as:

i. human emotions/feelings

ii. human actions and

iii. human appearance

4.4.1. Human emotions/feelings

The author's selection of the aspects for

comparison with reference to human emotions/feelings are

rage, fear, heart beat, lightness of the heart, hunger,

silence, sentimentality etc.. In all the above cases he

selects mostly the concrete objects for comparison. For

instance, fear and silence are compared to the pale white

ghosts (UT:112) and silence of a person is compared to a

ghost (UT:130). In many cases he selects as objects of

comparison concrete objects or experience which are easily

recognizable. For instance, rage' is generally compared

with 'hissing like a snake's (UT:54) The author's

individuality lies in his selection of objects for

metaphorisation. The components the author selects,

generally deviate from the normal objects used in

comparative strategies adopted in the cultural context. To

quote few examples, the unigueness of comparison of the
author can be seen when he compares the fast beating of

the heart' with an athletic runner' (UT:67), the

lightness of the heart' with spirits of the sparrows'

(UT:105). Similarly 'hunger' is portrayed as similar to

the running of the rats around the belly (UT:84) attests

closely with the cultural context of the people about whom

the author writes the untouchables and their poverty.
Moreover this simile effectively picturises the type of

feeling, a restless feeling one could experience when

he/she is hungry. This is naturally compared with the

restless movements of the animal. Another instance

involving ecosystem and the selection of the comparative

components can be observed when he compares the action of

the sentimental women with that of the action of hen at

the cruel indifference of the cock (PL:133).

4.4.2. Human actions

Human actions in different contexts have been

exposed in the form of a simile with due comparisons. While

mentioning the working pattern of a shopkeeper, the author

says a barefooted shopkeeper who was running like a holy

bull from shop to shop' (UT:75). In this context, the

action of the holy bull is taken for comparison and this

appears to be quite natural and sensitive to the cultural

context of the novel. The author at times adopts some
comparative components which are quite uncommon. For
instance, when he tries to explain about a person's

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momentary inactiveness before he exercises his sense of
direction, he comes out with a simile 'walking almost in a

coma' (UT:75).

The author in his way of writing maintains a

distinction between a single abrupt action and a sequence

of actions through the selection of different lexical items

but maintaining the same component for comparison. This

type of stylistic strategy of the author is uniformly found

in his writings. For instance, the simple action of getting

up from his chair in an agitated mood of a Maharaja is

compared to the leaping action of a Maharaja sprang lithely

like a tiger.. (PL:48).

'' He got up and jumped into the yawning

window of the door like a tiger leaping

into the darkness of a cave for fear of

some silent hunter' (C:75).

While explaining the jumping actions of children

the author compares their jumping and hopping with that of

a grass hopper through the following statement; hopped to

and fro like grasshoppers' (UT:128).

A very common stylistic feature of using simile

observed in the writings of Mulk Raj Anand is equating

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frequently the concrete materials like wood' and 'statues'

whenever he refers to human beings who stay idle or stiff.

...past two mounted cavalry sepoys, who

always stood like stone...' statues

(PL:7 2).

... his head lifted high and his legs

stiff, as if they were made of wood.'

(UT:124)

4.4.3. Hitman appearance

While writing about the human appearance making

use of similes , the author mainly takes only the body

parts of human beings and compares them with various other

objects. Mostly, in his writings only the appearance of

the females receive wider focus from the appearance of

males. In many places, the black hair of girls is compared

with rain clouds and the face of a girl 'with a face as

brown as ripe wheat' (UT:97). Such type of comparisons

often bring in the author's perception of nature and the

style of the author to create more naturalness in his

writing.
Metaphors generally are the figurative
expressions in a language through the use of which the

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readers are taken from the level of literal meaning to the

level of figurative meaning. The researchers view that the

metaphoric expressions are explained in terms of tenor'

and 'vehicle'. Tenor may be an underlying idea or the

principle subject whereas vehicle' may be the name of the

idea under whose sign the first idea is appended (Richards,

1926:97-100; Nowottny, 1962:63). From linguistic point of

view, metaphors carry literal meaning which is basic and

figurative meaning which is derived.

Mulk Raj Anand in his writings brings in various

metaphoric expressions. Through the metaphoric expressions

of Mulk Raj Anand one can clearly understand the literal

style of the author and the way in which he amalgamates

various concepts he wants to express (here it is tenor)

with the cultural and social experiences he has gained

(here it is vehicle). This knitting of tenor' and

vehicle' brings in the necessary figurative meaning. For

instance, the concepts of continuity in any happenings

expressed figuratively by the author is revealed in the

following context.

In one context an untouchable Bakha enters into

a temple with a good intention of worshipping God. But, on

seeing him, the high castes people, in the temple shouted

with an expression polluted, polluted'. Bakha was

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experiencing'" extreme mental humiliation and the resulting

exhaustion. The narrative part about the incident is the

following:

He was completely unnerved. His eyes

were covered with darkness. He couldn't

see any thing. His tongue and throat were

parched. He wanted to utter a cry, a cry

of fear, but his voice failed him. He

opened his mouth wide to speak. It was no

use. Beads of sweat covered his forehead'

(UT:68).

In the above narration about human humiliation

the sweat was a continuous action due to emotional

disturbance. The author brings in the vehicle' beads as a

figurative expression in order to express the tenor'

sweat. The metaphor makes the readers perceive the identity

of the structure of beads and the continuous sweat'.

Similarly, in another instance Bakha was abused

by his father Lakha for not coming home on time to do his

work and look after his old father. The expression goes on
like this Bakha moved slowly under the rain of abuse

towards the latrines' (UT:132). Here again, like the

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earlier example the continuous abuse is figuratively used

and equated with rain pour.

The solid nature, the depth, heavyness etc.,

are often associated as qualities of human emotion,

feeling, memory, anger etc.. Bakha, a poor untouchable was

heavy in his heart because of his memsahib's anger towards

him. He was thinking about the good nature of his

memsahib'. The very thought made him sick. The author

expresses the mental condition of Bakha in the following:

He walked along, vacantly oppressed by

the weight of his heavy cloud of memories.

He felt a kind of nausea in his

stomach (UT:148).

Here, metaphorically the author associates the

deep memory of Bakha with rain clouds perhaps which are

heavy with water vapour. In another situation while

talking about a deep anger the author brings in another

metaphorical usage:

'.... and the frown of a mem-sahib had the

strange quality of unknown, uncharted seas

of anger behind it (UT:149).

107
 In this incident, the author's figurative

expression is meant to equate the depth of anger with the

fathomless depth of the sea.

The author very often draws his figurative

expressions from nature and things associated with nature.

Even while talking about life and consciousness he tends to

bring in similar type of examples for figurative

expressions. The following two examples from his novel

Private life of an Indian Prince may highlight the point

mentioned above . While explaining about the vexed Prince,

the author says,

For the glow of life remained in him, in

the fast extinguishing coals that burnt in

the smouldering ashes of his being,

silently and unknown even to himself

(PL:300).

In a similar way in another context, while

explaining about the inability of a character in the novel,

Private life of an Indian Prince Dr Shankar in supporting

the convicts says,

108
 Slowly the dying embers of my conscience

smouldered within me, glowing red hot here

and there but covered thickly with the

ashes of my self-contempt and helplessness

(PL:351).

In both the above example, as explained, the

figurative expressions centre around things of nature such

as the fire, the glow, the coal,7 etc.. Both these

expressions are used to reveal two different person's

frustration: The former reveals the frustration of a king,

whereas the latter reveals the frustration and pricking

consciousness of a doctor because he was totally unable to

help the deserving convicts. In the former case the author

says the Prince's life through frustration still lingers

like the flame that 'the glow of life remained in him, in

the fast extinushing coals.. where as in the latter

case, Doctor's conscience is at the verge of dying-but

still his conscience is glowing though covered with the

ashes of self contempt and helplessness.

Style of Metaphor

tenor vehicle derived meaning

109
1. death silence fighting for life
2. curve of his bend over the disruption of his
soul heights (life's) solitude
(thoughts)
3. soft breeze whispering (about) the pain of his soul

4.5. Derogatory use and language choice

Unlike adopting various styles in any writing,

the exposure of verbal dual resulting in the exchange of

various expressions of anger requires the use of special

language skill on the part of any writer. In addition to

the language skill, the writer should have very clear

cultural knowledge in order to adopt the derogatory

expressions in his writings. Also, he must display through

his writings different types of metaphors, taboo

expressions which are suitable to the context he is

explaining. Moreover the writer should also be very clear

about the social hierarchy and status of persons prevalent

in the society especially while exposing characters and the

derogatory expressions of the characters in the context of

conflict. Unless these language and culture specific

features are handled carefully and more naturally the

writing may not be more realistic.

In the present study, the author adopts the

following strategies while exposing the verbal duel and

conflicts.

110
 i) creation of a suitable environment

ii) choice of the vocabulary which can suit

the situation
iii) conception of the social and class

hierarchy while relating various retorts.

Following is a table containing various

derogatory expressions used by different interlocutors in

social situations which are displayed in the novels.

It is identified that the author mainly

distinguishes three main categories of conflicting

situations namely peer group conflict, conflict arising

due to the social hierarchy and status and conflict arising

between various kin groups. Among the peer groups one can

observe verbal duel between females and males. Similarly,

under the duelling related to social hierarchy, one can

notice verbal duel between the lower officials with the

higher officials, and vice versa. The verbal duel may occur

between various castes leading to the use of derogatory

expressions between the higher and the lower caste groups.

The other category of use of derogatory expressions can be

observed among the people belonging to various kin
relations. For instance, the verbal duel may arise between

father and son, son and father and members stating various

111
other relationships. In addition to the language choice

while explaining the verbal duel, the author portrays

mainly three methods of verbal duel in which the characters

of his novels are involved. They are

i) Scolding one in one's absence,

ii) Scolding others within oneself,

iil) Scolding directly one in one's presence.

The situation of one person scolding another

person in his absence is generally adopted by the author.

All the interlocutors of the novels do this irrespective of

their status, class, etc., under suitable environment

presented in the novel.

The interlocutors scolding within oneself is

generally portrayed to be adopted while the lower officials

or the persons who are socially backward encounters the

higher officials or socially superior persons decided as

superior on the basis of caste.

The interlocutor's scolding directly is

generally portrayed to be adopted by the superior persons

when they encounter the inferior person who are decided as

inferior on the basis of caste or official hierarchy.

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 4.5.2. Language choice

The type of language expressions used in retort

situation can be classified into five categories namely

i) native lexical items,

ii) native translated lexical items,

iii) non native lexical items,

iv) explanatory expressions which are equivalent to

native abusive terms.

v) explanatory expressions which are equivalent to the

translated native abusive terms.

4.5.1.1. Expressing through the native lexical items

The native lexical items of abuse are shown to

be used by illiterates during their encounter with their

peer groups or with the people who are lower in the social

hierarchy. The terms of abuse are shown to be used by both

males and females. Some examples of such abusive terms are

the following:

i. Bahinchod - A swear word, literally rape-sister,

ii. Batichod - A swear word, literally rape-daughter,

iii. Sala -Brother-in-law ; used as a term of abuse,

iv. Sali - Sister-in-law ; used as a term of abuse.

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 Some illustrative passages carrying the

derogatory expressions mentioned above, drawn from the

novels are the following:

sali, bahinchod!....' Sali! She assi

Deceitful bitch i And the way, she

used..... '(PL:35)

This statement is made by Captain Partap Singh

while initiating the characters of Miss. Bunti Russell, the

daughter of Captain Russell.

Similarly in an another example sala' is used

while Prince Victor is referring retorticaly to Colonel

Jevons.

Who does he think he is! Sala!

Monkey-face! (PL:37)

Many native abusive terms are used in translated

form in many places of the novel. Such expressive

vocabulary items observed are the following:

eater of your masters' (UT:81)

Spolier of my salt!' (UT:81)

We will skin the fellow'. (UT:108)

'Rape-mother!' (SS:179)

114
 'rape-sister'(UT:57)

Tell him to go to his mother's!' (PL:37)

The above first two expressions are used in

a situation where a higher caste lady scolds Bakha who is

an untouchable. The context created by the author was that

the untouchable, Bakha, out of tiredness was sleeping on

the threshold of the closed door that belonged to a high

caste lady. When she opened the door she felt that the
untouchable has defiled the sanctity of her house. As a

result, she was using the above cited abusive expressions.

The style of the author in selecting such native

expressions and translating term into English is very

pertinent to the situation being picturised in the novel.

Vay, eater of your master's', she

shouted ....' (UT:80)

Now I will have to sprinkle holy

water all over the house. Spoiler

of my salt!' (UT:81)

Similar to the above expressions, the

expressions in English which come by way of translating the
native concepts such as 'rape-mother' 'rape-sister', tell

him to go to his mother's etc., are observed as derogatory

115
usages actively used either by equals, highly placed person

to the persons from lower class or high caste person to the

untouchables.

For instance, Raja Parduman Singh while abusing

the Prince uses the language as follows:

'Where is this rape-daughter?' came the

shrill staccato hillman's. The whole praja

is in revolt! And, rape-sister, he is not

ashamed!' (PL:156).

In the following example His Highness Prince

Victor uses the derogatory term against the Chaprasi as

'Rape-mother, get along and see that the

Amrikan Sahib bags the panther tonight,

(PL:184).

Another instance where a shopkeeper scolds an

untouchable is portrayed in the following:

You be sure to shout now, rape-sister!'

said a shopkeeper from one side, if you

have learnt your lesson!' (UT:57).

116
 The author while trying to bring in naturalness

to the events, makes use of very harsh taboo expressions

and shows their occurrence in family domain encounters.

Though in such family domains, such usages may

not carry their literal meaning, the style of the author is

to represent the section of the society where such usages

are commonly observed. For example, when the head of a

family observes his children fighting as he comes home from

the office, he utters the sentence,and this is the reward I

get! bring it down I blow my brains out earning a living

for you all, Rape-mother (SS:229).

When such derogatory expressions are shown as

used by the persons socially ranked low to the persons who

are placed high in the society, the author adopts the

technique of showing that the utterer either scolds within

himself/herself or scolds in a variety of speech not

comprehensible to the hearer. For instance, Buta the

chaprasi when irritated by the action of the guests who are

foreigners scolds them as

'Rape-mothers! Brothers-in-law!' (PL:213)

in a voice that is not audible to them. This statement is

clearly written by the author to avoid the confusion among

117
 the readers and also the author is very careful in not

breaking the societal norms in the use of derogatory terms.

4.5.1.2. Expressing through non-native lexical items

Non-native lexical items used by Mulk Raj Anand

can be classified into three categories. They are

i. derogatory expressions which refer to animals normally

ii. derogatory expressions which refer to birds normally

iii. Other expressions

4.5.1.2. Derogatory terms which refer to animals

Under this category, the terms refering to

animals such as bitch, dog, swine, goat , monkey, viper,

snakes etc., which are normally called as referential

terms are used as abusive terms. These terms are shown to

be used mostly by the persons who are socially ranked high

to the persons belonging to the lower category. To

illustrate, the Prince Victor refer Colonel Jevons as

monkey-face in the following example

'Who does he think he islSala! Monkey-

face!' (PL:37)
Victor, the Prince refers Gangi, his

118
 mistress as ' I won't have you sulking

here, she-pig! If you are annoyed ....'

(PL:99)

In another instance the Master scolds the

students as 'donkeys, seeds of dogs!' (SS:92) victor, the

prince scolds one of his subordinates directly as

The snakes!The vipers!I shall see to it

that that worm Bool Chand is destroyed!

Son of a swine!' (PL:254)

4.5.1.2.2. Derogatory words referring to birds

The words commonly refering to birds such as owl

and cock are used as derogatory words. In the novels these

words are shown to be used mostly by the higher group

people towards the lower people. For example, the high

caste people, while scolding Bakha in order to criticise

his act of touching a Brahmin are shown to have used the

following expression:

cock-eyed son of a bow-legged scorpion!'

(UT:5 3)
Similarly, in the novel Coolie, the master

119
 scolds his servant as, ' Ohe, son of an

owl' (C:32)

In another instance the expression, What

are you looking at, you owl?' (C:39)

is uttered by Chotababu (Master) to his servant. In this

particular context the author makes this expression to have

more affectionate connotation rather than to have a

derogatory connotation. In other words, the author in his

narration clearly distinguishes the relationship between

the interlocutors and their emotions especially while using

the derogatory words. If the relationship is good and

neglects affection and concern, eventhough a derogatory

term is used, it becomes non derogatory and reflects

positive meaning. Whereas, in another context when the

relationship is not smooth the same expression becomes

derogatory and gives negative connotation. The author's

intention in using such expressions is to bring in

naturalness and to attract the minds of the readers.

Generally, the derogatory expressions with positive

connotation is used by the another while explaining the non

conflicting speech situations between father and son,

master and servant or friends.

120
4.5.1.2.3. Other derogatory tens

Under other terms a variety of abusive terms

such as 'whore, prostitute, rogue, rascal, bastard, etc.,

are included. These expressions are used in different range

of situations involving various interlocutors.

For instance,Raja Parduman Singh in the presence

of his relatives uses the following expressions: You

see the rascal The idiot! The lecher!/ (PL:159).

Captain Russel while he was with the doctor has

seen the Prince Victor and scolds him There he is, the

black bastard! He is not resting!'(PL:48).

4.5.1.3. Giving an explanatory phrases which are equivalent

to native abusive expressions

Instead of using the derogatory terms, the

author uses at times explanatory phrases with derogatory

function. The expressions such as,

'Eater of dung and drinker of urine!'

(UT:29).
'scoundrel of a sweeper's son!' (UT:17).

illegally begotten' (PL:158).

121
are found to be used respectively by a washer woman when
she is in a verbal encounter with another woman (UT:29); a

high caste person to a sweeper (UT:17) and an old Raja

refer the Prince Victor as illegally begotten...' (PL:158).

4.5.1.4. Giving an explanatory account of the abusive terms

translated from native usage

The author sometimes tries to translate the

native phrases used for abusing into English and adopts

them while narrating certain events in his novels. The

expressions such as, 'Eater of your husbands' (SS:201) is

used by a lady when she scolds her sister; eater of your

masters' (UT:80) is used by the high caste lady when she

scolds an untouchable who was sleeping outside her front
door; 'Son of a pig!' (C:159) 'Get away from here, lover of

your sister!' (C:159) is used by a policeman when he scolds

a coolie.

As stated above, the adoption of various terms

of abuse prevalent in the society by the author is a

peculiar feature of his expressive style and through which

he achieves his objective of making his narration natural

and impressive.

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4.6. Native expression

In the Indian sociolinguistic scenario which

often exhibit multi-lingual and multi-cultural

characteristics in various communicative situations, often

one can observe language specific and cultural specific

expressions being used. In short, these expressions have

their own cultural and linguistic intricacies.

Consequently, the expressions found in one culture may not

be readily available in the other linguistic and cultural

environment. In the novels under study the author while
trying to express such intricate language specific

expressions drawn from Indian languages in English he gives

one to one translation of the native expressions. As a

result, these expressions may not occur with native English

flavour when we view the English speaking environment and

also the frame work and norm of the normal English usage.

But, when these expressions are seen through the Indian

native context explained in the novel they appear to be

compatible with the language and the thematic context.

The following language specific expressions

commonly observed in Indian context may be taken as

examples for native expressions, translated in total by the

author in English.

123
 The act of nagging is generally expressed as if
the person who is the source of it is eating another

person's head. This concept is translated as such by the

author as Why do you eat my head'?(UT:36).

Similarly the action of a person who becomes

angry instantly is expressed as 'fly into a rage' (UT:131).

Similar different types of native way of expressing the

actions and dispositions of people could be found to be

adopted by the author in many instances of his novels. For

instance, constant abuse is compared to torrential rain'
this concept is given in English as 'rain of abuse'

(UT:132).

Other translated forms of native expressions

involving abuse are 'Father of fathers!' (UT:71). The

native expression eating the dung and drinking the urine'

is also being directly translated in English as 'Eater of

dung and drinker of urine!' (UT:29).

It is commonly observed that in Indian

situation monotonous, frustrated and aimless person's

behaviour of looking at different directions without any

specific reason while walking is expressed by way of

translating native expression into English in the following

way:

124
 His face turned now to this side, now to

that, with a half-conscious look'(UT:125).

As stated above almost all the language specific

native expressions may have similar expressions in every

culture. English language situation is also not an

exception to this. Yet the author prefers in his writings

to give the direct translation of the native expressions

rather than giving the English equivalence. This

particular style of the author further reveals that he at

one end gives importance to the gramaticality of the

sentences and the acceptability of the concepts in the

language English that he adopts for narrating the thematic

content of his novels. At the other end, he gives

importance to the culture specific concepts of the

particular language speaking area from which the themes of

the novels are taken for narration. The strategy of

representing the native elements in the English writings is

adopted by the author to make Indians learn the simple

expressive style of English as perceived by the author

through his writings and to portray the Indian social and

cultural scenario to the western readers.

4.7. Idiomatic expressions

Idiomatic expressions are often found in the

daily speech of any speech community for expressing various

125
moods and concepts. Even in novels and other formal speech

occasions the idioms find their way. The use of idioms in a

language in general, are used in a writing situation with

the following objectives:

i. to have precision in expression

ii. to add literary flavour to the writing

iii. to bring more effect on the readers

In order to achieve the above mentioned

objectives the author of the present novels understudy,

uses idiomatic expressions at different stages of his

writings. The author's appropriate selection of the idioms

and the inclusion of them in his novels are quite add

colour to his expression. For instance, as for as the

selection is concerned he often adopts very common

idiomatic expressions which are used by in the English

speaking population. As for as the inclusion of idioms are

concerned, the author is careful in showing that either the

idiomatic usages are uttered by an educated character in

the novel during his interaction with the persons who are

equal to the character or by the author himself when he

speaks as one of the characters of the novels. Most of the

idiomatic expressions used are found in the novels taken

for the present analysis namely the Private life of an

126
Indian Prince and Seven Summers. As stated elsewhere the

Private life of an Indian Prince is a novel exclusively

devoted for portraying mainly a character belonging to the

higher socio economic class a Prince, and other characters

like the members of the Princes' family, his friends, other

political personalities, British army officials etc..

Similarly the novel Seven Summers is almost an autography

of author himself. As a result in both the novels, the

idiomatic expressions are comparatively more in number

rather than in other novels which depict the life of the

people belonging to the lower strata.

Fitting the idiomatic expression appropriately

to the context and bringing forth intended meanings in a

more natural manner are the exclusive stylistic feature of

the author. For instance, in the Private life of an

Indian Prince, when Munshi asks the meaning of

'nymphomaniac', Dr Shankar the narrator of the novel feels

an irresistible impulse to shock him by revealing the truth

that his Highness is a typical nymphomaniac. In this

context the author uses the idiomatic expression 'spilling

the beans' which means telling the truth'. The expression

in another's words goes as follows:

' I felt an irresistible impulse to shock

Munshiji by analysing the behaviour of a

127
 typical nymphomaniac and by spilling the

beans about His Highness' (PL:28).

Another common idiomatic expression that Mulk

Raj Anand used often is 'knew no bounds'. Terms referring

to human emotions are collected with thisidiom and are used

in varies contexts in the novels. For instance, when the

Prince found himself in a critical situation while

explaining about His Highness's anger, the author says,

His Highness's wrath knew no bounds

and he was almost crazy ....'(PL:52).

In an another incident, when the narrator Dr

Shankar observed His Highness's calmness even when he was

in agitation, Dr Shankar was quite amazed. He expresses

his feelings as follows:

My amazement knew no bounds and

became vulgar curiosity....'(PL:68).

Other common idiomatic expressions used in the

novels are tight corner to explain the critical situation

(PL:52) (used in order to explain the critical situation)

add fuel to the fire(PL:66) to express added mental tension

(used to express the added mental tension) break the ice.

128
or rather cool the heat (PL:88) (used to express the
ineffective nature of an action) the two sides of the same

coin (PL:271) (used in order to express the characteristic

feature of power and prestige).

In the novel Seven Summers author himself is the

main character. The novel is an autobiography. The content

of this biographical novel is different from that of the

novel Private Life of an Indian Prince. While writing about

the agony of the author/s mother who was upset because one

of her sons, the author's elder brother, after his marriage

was not taking care of his mother as per the mother's

expectation; the author expresses his mother's agony and

frustration in the following manner with an idiom which can

suitably fit into the context in general and the emotional

state of the mother towards her son in particular.

"it turns my liver to water to think that

he has fallen into his wife's hands in

such a way that he never thinks of us'

(SS:182).

As opposed to the idiomatic expressions which

often go along with the content and the social position and
the educational status of the interlocutors cited above,

129
the author draws a parallelism by way of giving certain

expressions which may not be called as the common idioms,

while writing about untouchables and the other down trodden

people. This stylistic deviation observed in the writings

of Mulk Raj Anand can vividly tell about the author's

minutenes in taking care of the content and the choice of

the expression. The following expression which come in the

novel Coolie may be taken as an example. The expressions

like

'The world is darkening with shame!' (C:59).

is uttered by Bibiji one of the lady characters to her

husband informing him that the servant boy is not willing

to eat the food left in his plate. Through this simple

phrase the author reveals clearly the type of respect

people give to the servants. Moreover, in such a context

where the author portrays people from the middle class and

people with lower educational status, the author is careful

in not giving high sounding idiomatic usage; rather simple

and functional expressions are used.

130