UNIT III

Non-destructive Testing Methods

Introduction

 The non-destructive testing (NDT) refers to a method of detecting internal flaws in

engineering materials, machine components, and structures without breaking them.
 These tests are essential to ascertain absolute safety and reliability in engineering
applications: particularly in strategic industries such as atomic energy, missiles, defense,
aeronautics, space etc. The non-destructive testing techniques can be employed on
fabricated components, equipments within a laboratory, or on in-service equipments at
the site.

Various Non-destructive Testing Methods

 Several non-destructive testing methods are available for evaluation of material’s quality
and component’s integrity. Each of these methods is based on a particular physical
principle. Generally the following non-destructive testing methods are widely used.

1. Visual Examination (i) with naked eye (ii) with optical aids

2. Liquid penetrant testing

3. Magnetic particle testing

4. Eddy current testing

5. Ultrasonic testing

6. Radiography

Modern methods: Besides above, some more modern methods are also getting increasing use
for on-line monitoring of plant components: preferably in power plants, petrochemical plants,
chemical and fertilizer plants etc. These methods are

 Acoustic emission testing, and

 Thermo-graphic Details

Visual Inspection

 It is the simplest, cheapest and most widely used amongst all the non-destructive testing
methods. A simple visual test can reveal gross surface defects easily and quickly,
however for detection of finer defects, devices/equipments having high degree of
precision and illumination are required.
 The illumination of test piece is provided by light. An adequate lighting of about 80-100
lux is essential for visual inspection by naked eye.
Equipment used for visual inspection: A visual inspection may be accomplished by naked eye
or with the help of an optical aid. These optical aids are equipped with lighting system and
magnifying devices. Following devices/instruments/ equipments are generally involved in visual
checks.

 Optical microscopes
 Borescope
 Endoscope
 Flexicope
 Telescope
 Holography
 Closed circuit television
 Microprocessors and computers
 Image processing and pattern recognition techniques

The optical microscope having magnifications 10 x to 2000 x are generally used for inspection.

The borescope is used to inspect the inside portion of a hollow chamber, narrow tube, or a bore.
It is a precision built-in system consisting complex arrangement of prisms, lenses, and light
source.

The endoscope is similar to a borescope but incorporates a superior optical system and high-
intensity light source. It also has the facility of viewing at various angles.

Flexicope is a flexible fiber-optic borescope that can view the defects around corners and
`through passages’ having multi-directional changes. Its field of vision is of about 100°.

Telescope is used to examine those surfaces which are inaccessible or whose vision is concealed.
For that purpose, the help is taken of a ‘periscope’ or a ‘closed circuit TV’.

Holography method is used to obtain 3-dimensional image of an object. It involves a

photographic plate and a laser beam to prepare a ‘hologram’ (i.e. image of the entire surface) for
comparison with a defect free standard surface. Holography technique is used for the non-
destructive testing of highly complicated surfaces and precision parts.

The microprocessors and computers assist in a very reliable, quick and easy visual inspection.
The techniques of image processing and pattern recognition are used when a large number of
components are assessed for automatic acceptance or rejection.

Fields of application: Visual inspection method is mainly suitable for checking in the following
applications.

 Leakage in components
 Misalignment of parts
 Cracks and fractures
 Corrosion and erosion
  Minute discontinuities
 Defects in welds

Advantages of visual inspection:

1. Readily used on almost all materials

2. Simple to perform
3. Low in cost
4. Relatively quick
5. Result may be permanently recorded
6. Can be automated
disadvantages:
1. Direct inspections are limited to surfaces only
2. Indirect inspection require greater inspector lnowledge and training
3. Inspector dependent,knowledge of materials ans processing,eye sight.
4. Standards may be difficult to obtain.

Liquid Penetrant Test

 This non-destructive testing method utilizes the ability of a fluorescence liquid that

wets the specimen surface, penetrates through the surface cavity, and forms a uniform
coating that shines very bright under exposure to a visible or ultraviolet (UV) light.
 Since the liquid penetrates into cavities by capillary action, it should be of low viscosity
for easy flow-ability. The advantage of using UV light is that the regions holding greater
amount of fluorescent penetrant (cavities hold greater amount) appear very bright,
whereas the regions clear of the penetrating liquid (non-cavity area) appear black.

Test procedure: The liquid penetrant inspection is accomplished in following sequential

operations:

1. Cleaning of the surface by removing scales, grease, oil, paints, dust, dirt, and other chemicals
etc. followed by drying.

2. Application of penetrant liquid by spraying, brushing, or dipping the component in penetrant

liquid bath. A minimum of about 30 minutes should be allowed after penetrant application.

3. Removal of excess penetrant from the entire surface except from the cracks/defects/cavities.
This is essential to get contrast (bright and dark) visibility between defective and non-defective
portions of the surface.

4. Thin coating of developer over the surface to draw the penetrant out of crack so as to
increase its visibility. The developer also covers the surface with a color that increases the visual
contrast to the penetrant.
5. Scanning under ultraviolet or visible light to recognize the defect. It may be done with UV
or laser incident light and evaluation of defect may be accomplished with human eye or
automated optical scanners.

Testing materials: Following materials are generally used to conduct the above test.

Cleaners: Water, oil or chlorine based solvent.

Penetrating liquid: Petroleum-based or water-based carrier fluid + fluorescent red color dye for
visible light or yellow-green color dye for UV light.

Developer: Dry powder, aqueous powder suspension, plastic film.

Fields of application: The liquid penetrant method is very much suitable for detecting the
porosity, cracks, seams, folds, laps etc. on materials surfaces. Detection of these defects is of
utmost important during testing of the following applications:

 Pressure vessels in chemical, petrochemical, fertilizer, and nuclear plants.

 Thin and thick pipes in above industries, power plants, nuclear industry.
 Penstocks in hydro power plants.
 Welded joints in strategic and hazardous equipments
 Fatigue cracks detection during service period of aircraft parts etc.

Advantages :

 This test can be applied to almost any type of metals, nonmetals, magnetic or non
magnetic type.

 Simple to utilize and control.

 Results of test can be interpreted fastly.

 Cost of test is very less as it does not require any instrument or electronic display units.

 Sensitivity is greater than that of magnetic particle testing

Disadvantages :
 Cleaning of components is must before and after testing to avoid
rusting
 Misleading results may be obtained in case of components with surface films and
coatings
 Only surface defects can be detected
 Test is not applicable for powder metallurgical components

Magnetic Particle Testing

 This technique is more suitable for detecting the flaws in highly magnetic materials
(ferromagnetic materials) e.g. Fe, Ni, Co and their alloys which can be easily magnetized.
 This method is capable of detecting flaws/discontinuities that are open to surface and/or
just below the surface.
 The inspection method is based on the principle that “a flaw distorts the magnetic field
that has been impressed upon the sample to be tested”. Wherever a flaw interrupts the
flow of magnetic lines of force, some of these lines exit and re-enter the sample at certain
points.
 These points form the opposite magnetic poles and attract the magnetic particles
sprinkled over the sample surface. The quantity of magnetic particles thus accumulated,
indicates the approximate shape and size of the flaw.
  The magnetic particles are applied in the form of powder or as liquid suspension. The
liquid suspension form is known as ‘magnetic ink’ and is more common in use.
 The color of magnetic particles is chosen to be in contrast with the color of the sample
surface for easy distinguishing and detection.
 For maximum sensitivity, the magnetic flux is oriented at 90° to the direction of
discontinuity; but the flux is induced in different directions when the probable flaw
orientations are not known.

Methods to magnetize a sample: An essential requirement of this test is the application of

magnetic field (i.e. flux flow) of adequate intensity along a known direction of the sample. To
produce magnetic field, various techniques such as given below, are employed.

 Magnetization using a horse-shoe type permanent magnet.

 Magnetization using an electromagnet.
 Magnetization by passing current through a bar.
 Magnetization by threading bar (central cable) in a tubular product.
 Magnetization using a coil: carrying the current.
 Magnetization by induced current flow.

Magnetization may be done using a direct current source or an alternating current source, or by
half-wave rectification. For this purpose portable type, stationary type, heavy duty type, DC and
AC type equipments are available.

The simplest way of magnetizing a sample (test piece) is to use a permanent magnet. The
direction of flux flow lines are shown therein.

The intensity of flux can be varied by selecting either (i) a strong or weak magnet, or (ii) by
introducing a gap in the flux path with the help of a non- magnetic material.

Test procedure: Testing of the sample is conducted in the following sequence.

1. The sample is cleaned of the grease, paint, scales etc. from its surface.

2. An appropriate magnetic field is applied to the sample.

3. The magnetic particles are sprinkled on the sample either in dry form or in liquid-suspension
form. In liquid form, the concentration of particles is about 2% by volume. These particles are
red or black in color and are fluorescent. Spherical and columnar particles of about 6 µm mean
size yield the best results.

4. The distribution of powder (dense or loose, oriented or distorted) is viewed under proper
illumination of daylight or black-light source. The level of illumination is generally kept up to
500 lux at the sample surface.

5. All the relevant indications are marked after draining the magnetic ink. For maintaining a
permanent record, the sample area under inspection is photographed. Alternatively, it may be
covered with a transparent adhesive film which when taken off, presents the indication of the
sample area based on magnetic particles adhered to it.

6. The ferromagnetic sample is demagnetized by either heating above its curie temperature or by
applying the coercive force in opposite direction to the originally induced magnetic field.

ADVANTAGES:

 it is quick and relatively uncomplicated

 It gives immediate indications of defects
 It shows surface and near surface defects, and these are the most serious ones as they
concentrate stresses
 The method can be adapted for site or workshop use
 It is inexpensive compared to radiography
 Large or small objects can be examined
 Elaborate pre-cleaning is not necessary
Disadvantages:
 It is restricted to ferromagnetic materials - usually iron and steel, and cannot be used on
austenitic stainless steel
 Most methods need a supply of electricity
 It is sometimes unclear whether the magnetic field is sufficiently strong to give good
indications
 The method cannot be used if a thick paint coating is present
 Spurious, or non-relevant indications, are probable, and thus interpretation is a skilled
task
 Some of the paints and particle suspension fluids can give a fume or fire problem,
particularly in a confined space
Applications :
This NDT technique is used for the
 inspection of welds,
 castings and forgings
 it is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials.
 
 Eddy Current Method

Principle:  Eddy current refers to such an oscillating (electric) current which is induced in a

conductive material by an alternating magnetic field, owing to electromagnetic induction. The
method of eddy current testing (ECT) is based on the principles of Faraday’s electromagnetic
induction and Oersted’s theory.

According to Faraday’s law, “when a magnetic field cuts a conductor or vice versa, an electric
current will flow through the conductor if, a closed path is provided over which the current can
circulate”.

 And the Oersted’s theory states that “a magnetic flux will exist around a current carrying coil in
proportion to the number of turns in the coil and the current”.

Production of eddy current: Based on the above principles, an alternating current of 1 kHz to 2
MHz frequency is allowed to flow in a coil (also called probe) as shown in Figure. It produces an
alternating magnetic field around it.

This coil induces an eddy current due to electromagnetic induction, in the metallic material to be
inspected, when brought in close proximity of the metallic surface. The eddy current is generally
parallel to the coil winding but its flow gets disturbed in presence of any
flaw/defect/discontinuity in material.

Then it generates an alternating magnetic field in opposite direction which can be detected in the
form of voltage across another coil, or by a change in impedance value of the original coil
Requirement of depth of penetration and frequency: The depth of penetration and frequency
of eddy current is a very important factor for accuracy of the test. If the eddy current does not
penetrate through the material’s thickness, it is likely to overlook the internal defects.

The depth of penetration d and the frequency f are related to each other by

d = 500/( σµrf)1/2

Where d is in mm, f is in Hz, σ is conductivity in (ohm-m)-1, and µr, is relative permeability of

material to be tested.

Applications:  The eddy current method is employed for evaluating the following parameters.

 To measure the conductivity of a metal that may vary with material characteristics.
 To determine the hardness and strength of materials, since the change in these properties
also changes the conductivity value.
 To determine the dimensions of thin components and sheets, and thickness of the
coatings. Because difference in conductivity exists between coated and non-coated parts.
 In detecting the discontinuities such as inclusions, cracks etc.
 For online testing of wires, bars, tubes etc., and their automated analysis with the help of
microprocessors.
Advantages :
• Low cost.
• No final cleanup required.
• ECI is very sensitive to small cracks and defects.
• Equipment are portable.
• Minimum part preparation required.
• Applicable to both ferrous and non ferrous metals
Disadvantages:
• Trained operators are generally required.
• Surface finish and roughness may interfere.
• Depth of penetration is limited.
• Only applicable to conductive materials.
Interpretation may be difficult

Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing utilizes the high frequency ultrasonic waves for testing of surfaces and internal
defects/flaws in metals and non- metals. These waves are generated by Piezoelectric
transducers in the frequency range of 1 to 10 MHz.

Velocity of these waves depends on the nature of transmitting medium. It is 300 m/s in air at sea
level but is lower in solid medium. Therefore in common test materials, the acoustic wavelengths
λ (velocity = frequency x wavelength) are of the order of 1 to 10 mm. During the test, a highly
directional sound beam is transmitted to the workpiece, that propagates through the material but
is dissipated or reflected by flaws/defects.  

These flaws are recorded by a set of instruments and display systems using ‘pulse-echo
technique’.

The ultrasonic testing provides information regarding the size, depth and location of flaws/defect
in materials.

 Flaw detection set-up: A typical flaw detection system consists of the following main
units.
 Ultrasonic transducer (or crystal probe)
 Pulse transmitter
 Receiver amplifier
 Cathode ray oscilloscope along with time base generator and a timer (or clock)
 Cables

In this method, the ultrasonic waves are produced by piezoelectric effect within the ultrasonic
transducer. The piezoelectric action is reversible interaction between elastic strain and electric
field.

If the piezoelectric crystal is slightly compressed, it produces an electric signal. Similarly, when
this crystal is excited with an alternating current of ultrasonic frequency, the ultrasonic waves are
produced.  Thus the ultrasonic transducer acts as receiver as well as transmitter.

Crystal probe: The transducer (piezoelectric crystal) may be made of Quartz, Lithium sulfate
(LiSO4), Lead niobate (PbNbO3), Barium titanate (BaTiOO ), Lead zirconate titanate (PZT).  

Amongst these the quartz is most commonly used material due to its excellent piezoelectric
properties, mechanical and dielectric strength, and thermal stability. It can operate at high
temperatures up to about 500°C. This crystal is mounted suitably in a probe before use. The
probe protects the transducer from mechanical damage and also the operator from electric shock.

Testing procedure: While inspecting a work-piece, the transducer is placed on the workpiece
surface as shown in Figure (a). The electric pulse is fed from the transmitter to the probe through
a cable.

1. The piezoelectric transducer in the probe is shock-excited by short but high voltage pulse so
that it vibrates at its own resonant frequency for a few oscillations.

2. It thus radiates an ultrasonic pulse into the work-piece.

3. The ultrasonic echo pulse is picked-up by the same probe which reconverts it into electric
signal.

4. Voltage of this electric signal is much smaller than the transmitted pulse, therefore, it needs to
be amplified.
5. The amplification of echo signal is accomplished in receiver- amplifier. It also filters the
signal to some extent. After amplification, the signals are rectified and fed to deflection plates of
cathode ray tube (CRT).

6. Any flaw/defect in the workpiece, reflects the waves. And this reflection is displayed on the
oscilloscope screen as shown in Figure (b).

7. Since the deflection plates (and hence the screen) are calibrated along x and y axes, therefore
depth of flaws and their location in the workpiece can be readily seen on screen.

Applications: The pulse-echo technique, described above is the most versatile method among
various methods of ultrasonic inspections. It is widely used in the following applications.

 Weld testing in pressure vessels, structures, bridges, aircrafts, marines etc.

 Testing of ferrous and non-ferrous pipes, rods, bars, sheets etc.
  Testing of rails, rolled steel sections, castings (such as machine bodies) and forgings
(such as crankshafts, connecting rods) etc.
 Detection of fatigue cracks in boilers and welds.
 Finding the dangerous defects caused due to corrosion in critical areas of petroleum
industry components.
 In determining the thickness of components such as pipings, tubings, heat exchanger fins
etc.
 In detection of slag, porosity, inclusions, abnormally large grain structure etc.
Advantages :
 Sensitive to surface & subsurface discontinuities
 Superior depth of penetration for flaw detection
 High accuracy – position, size & shape of defect
 Minimal part preparation
Disadvantages :
• Trained operators are generally required.
• Surface finish and roughness may interfere.
• Depth of penetration is limited.
• Only applicable to conductive materials.
• Interpretation may be difficult.

Radiography

In this test, the X-rays and gamma-rays are used to detect deep seated internal defects. The short
wavelengths of X-rays permit it to penetrate through the opaque materials. The depth of
penetration depends on the intensity of X-rays used. For industrial radiography, the hard X-rays
are used.

These are produced by X-ray generators available in different ranges of voltage and current.
Modern X-ray generators are available in specifications up to 450 kV and 15 mA. They are also
equipped with dual focal and ultra-small focal spots. Radiograph:  During testing, the X-ray
source is applied on one side of the component to be inspected and a photosensitive film is
placed on the other side.

When X-ray beam is passed through the component, the film is exposed and displays the flaws
as light and dark images. Voids appear as dark image while the non-defective areas appear as
non-dark (light) image. The exposed film is called radiograph.

The appearance of a distinguishable image on a radiograph depends on several factors. For

getting the minutest flaws (cracks or voids) radiographed sharply, following care should be taken
during testing.

 The focal spot size should be as small as possible.

 Distance between the source and object should be as large as possible.
  The film should be in close contact of the object.
 Exposure time should be short.
 Scattering of X-rays should be restricted to small angles.
 Radiographs with good contrast, high sensitivity, and finer resolution result in an accurate
detection of flaws.

High Energy X-ray Source: Radiographic examination of much thicker components can be
accomplished by using a high-energy X- ray source. The energy value of such sources may be as
high as 1 MeV or more. X-ray machines like Van De Graff type electrostatic generator,
synchrotron, betatron etc. are used for this purpose. These machines can examine the steel pieces
of up to 300 mm thickness.

Gamma ray radiography:  Gamma rays are the electromagnetic radiations that are emitted
from an unstable nucleus. They emit one or a few discrete wavelengths instead of a broad band
of wavelengths as emitted by X-ray machines (sources).

Therefore, the radiography by gamma- rays is independent of external power, and with simple
apparatus and compact radiation source. This facilitates the inspection of even those assemblies
in which the access to their interior is difficult.

Co-60, Ir-192, Cs-137, Th-170 radio-isotopes are generally used as gamma radiography source.
Amongst these the cobalt-60 is most common due to intense radiation obtained from its tiny
source.

Applications: The radiography method is widely used in the following applications.

 Detecting the change in material composition.

 Thickness measurement.
 Detecting inclusions, segregations, cavities etc., in castings, forgings, and weldments.
 Detecting micro-cracks in micro-miniature electronic components, in mammoth missiles
and huge power plant equipments.

Advantages :

 Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.

 High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.
 The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray sources).
 The process is generally slow.
 Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
 Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
 It requires a two-sided access to the component.

Disadvantages :

 Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.

 High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.
  The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray sources).
 The process is generally slow.
 Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
 Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
 It requires a two-sided access to the component.

THERMOGRAPHIC INSPECTION:

 Thermographic testing, also known as infrared inspection.

 It is a contact-free predictive maintenance method

 It is used to detect connections defects, system overloads, deteriorated insulation, and

other potential problems in electrical components. Infrared thermography is used to find
areas of excess heat

 Infrared thermography is a technique for producing a visible image of invisible infra red
radiations emitted by objects due to their thermal conditions
 When compared with other classical nondestructive testing techniques such as ultrasonic
testing or radiographic testing, thermographic inspection is safe, nonintrusive and
noncontact, allowing the detection of relatively shallow subsurface defects (a few
millimeters in depth) under large surfaces and in a fast manner)

In addition, there are two approaches in thermographic inspection:

(1) Passive, in which the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower temperature
than the background, for example: the surveillance of people on a scene;

(2) Active, in which an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between
the feature of interest and the background, for example: an aircraft part with internal
flaws.

There are three classical active thermography techniques based excitation modes:

1. lock-in (or modulated) thermography and pulsed thermography, which are optical
techniques applied externally;
2. vibrothermography,[14] which uses ultrasonic waves (amplitude modulated or pulses)
to excite internal features.
In vibrothermography, an external mechanical energy source induces a
temperature difference between the defective and non-defective areas of the object.
In this case, the temperature difference is the main factor that causes the emission
of a broad electromagnetic spectrum of infrared radiation, which is not visible to the
human eye.
The locations of the defects can then be detected by infrared cameras through the
process of mapping temperature distribution on the surface of the object
Test equipment

 Hand held portable camera

 Battery powered
 Operating at correct wavelength
 Range….20 to 1500 degree celsius
 Sensitivity 0.1
 Real time display
 Image recording capability

Thermographic camera :

 It is also known as infrared camera or thermal imaging camera.

 It is device that forms a heat zone image using infrared radiation similar to common
camera that forms an image using visible light.
 Instead of 400 -700 nm range of visible light camera,infrared camera operate in
wavelength as long as 14000 nm

Types of thermography

Cooled infrared detectors

 they are contained in vacuum-sealed case

 the cooling is necessary for the operation of semiconductors materials used.

 typical operating temperature range from 4K to just below room temperature.

 Uncooled infrared

 Use a sensor operating at ambient temperature

 Cooling is not necessary.

 Use sensors that work by the change of resistance, voltage or current when heated by
infrared radiation

Principle :

Thermography is a nondestructive testing (NDT) technique based on the principle

that two dissimilar materials, i.e., possessing different thermo physical properties, would
produce two distinctive thermal signatures that can be revealed by an infrared sensor,
such as a thermal camera

Emissivity is a term representing a material's ability to emit thermal radiation

Procedure :

 Thermography measures surface temperatures of electrical components by using

highly specialized infrared visual scanning technology.
 During a scan, a thermal ‘camera’ is used to pick up traces of heat that otherwise
do not appear on the visual light spectrum, allowing inspectors to easily identify
heat anomalies by their color in the thermal image.

Advantages

 It shows a visual picture

 It is capable of catching moving targets in real time

 It is able to find deteriorating

 It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other

methods

 It is a non-destructive test method

 It can be used to find defects

 It can be used to detect objects in dark areas

DISADVANTAGES

 high price range

 Images can be difficult to interpret accurately when based upon certain objects
 Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and
reflections from other surfaces
  Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse
 Only able to directly detect surface temperatures

Applications:

 Aerospace industry including sandwich panels, carbon/epoxy composites and

delamination/impact damage
 Automotive industry including composite structures, spot welds and adhesive bonds
 Power industry including wind turbine blades, coating uniformity and delamination in
composites
 Used for the detection of Corroded connections,Slack / loose connectors ,Connectors
at too high operating temperature,Hot spots

ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUES

• Acoustic Emission is a phenomenon of sound and ultrasound wave radiation in materials

undergo deformation and fracture processes

• The father of modern AE testing was Josef Kaiser of Germany.

• Acoustic Emission is unlike most other nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques in two
regards.

• The first difference pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying energy to the
object under examination, AET simply listens for the energy released by the object.

• the second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes, in a
material. This is particularly meaningful because only active features (e.g. crack growth)
are highlighted. The ability to discern between developing and stagnant defects is
significant

KAISER EFFECT:

1. Material emits minute pulses of elastic energy when placed under stress.

2. Once a given load was applied and the acoustic emission from that noise had ceased, no
further emission would occur until the previous stress level was exceeded, even if the
load was removed and later reapplied

3. The acoustic emission (AE) testing method where the material being inspected generates
signals that warn of impending failure.

4. Solid materials emit sonic or ultrasonic acoustic emissions when they are mechanically or
thermally stressed to the point where deformation or fracturing occurs.
5. During plastic deformation, dislocations move through the material’s crystal lattice
structure producing low-amplitude AE signals, which can be measured only over short
distances under laboratory conditions.

PRINCIPLE : The class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are generated by
the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material,, or the transient
elastic waves so generated.

• Sources : Crack, Leak, Friction/Wear, Property Changes, Fracture

• Acoustic emission may be defined as a transient elastic waves generated by the rapid
release of energy within a material.

• When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or

temperature), localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves,
which propagate to the surface and are recorded by sensors.

Acoustic Emission Instrumentation:

Typical AE apparatus consist of the following components:

• Sensors used to detect AE events.

• Preamplifiers amplifies initial signal. Typical amplification gain is 40 or 60 dB.

• Cables transfer signals on distances up to 200m to AE devices. Cables are typically of

coaxial type.

• Data acquisition device performs filtration, signals’ parameters evaluation, data analysis
and charting.
 • AE Sensors : Purpose of AE sensors is to detect stress waves motion that cause a local
dynamic material displacement and convert this displacement to an electrical signal.

• AE sensors are typically piezoelectric sensors with elements maid of special ceramic
elements like lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Mechanical strain of a piezo element
generates an electric signals.

• Sensors may have internally installed preamplifier (integral sensors). Other types of
sensors include capacitive transducers, laser interferometers.

Installation of Sensors on Structure : Type of installation and choice of couplant

material is defined by a specifics of application.

• Glue (superglue type) is commonly used for piping inspections.

• Magnets usually used to hold sensors on metal pressure vessels. Grease and oil then used
as a couplant.

• Bands used for mechanical attachment of sensors in long term applications.

• Waveguides (welded or mechanically attached) used in high temperature applications.

• Rolling sensors are used for inspection rotating structures.

• Special Pb blankets used to protect sensors in nuclear industry.

Procedure :

 Acoustic emission testing works by mounting small sensors onto a component under test.
 The sensors convert the stress waves into electrical signals, which are relayed to an
acquisition PC for processing.
 The waves are captured when the component is submitted to an external stimulus, such as
high pressures, loads or temperatures.
 As the damage grows in the component, there is a greater release of energy.
 The rates in which the acoustic emission is detected, the activity, and the intensity of the
acoustic emission, the loudness, are monitored and used for assessing structural integrity
and for health monitoring of components.

Steps in acoustic emission techniques:

 Detection AE
 Processing of AE Signals
 Displaying AEsignals
 Locating AE signals
 d Bottom of Form

source location techniques :

 1. multiple channel location techniques
2. linear location technique
3. zonal location techniques
4. point location
Application

Acoustic emission can be applied to a range of applications and materials. These include:

Structures

 Concrete structures such as bridges and buildings

 Metallic structures such as pressure vessels, pipelines, storage tanks, aircraft structures
and steel cables
 Composite structures such as aircraft structures, motorsport structures and composite
beams

Machines

 Rotating machinery such as detecting early wear in bearings and gearboxes

 Electrical machinery such as detecting partial discharge in transformers and bushings

Processes

 Additive manufacturing for assessing build quality during build

 Leak detection in pipelines and pressure systems
 Particle impacts
 Frictional processes

Advantages :
 High sensitivity.
 Early and rapid detection of defects, flaws, cracks etc.
 Real time monitoring
 Cost Reduction
 Defective area location: only critical defects provide sustainable Acoustic Emission
sources.
 Minimization of plant downtime for inspection, no need for scanning the whole structural
surface.
 Minor disturbance of insulation.
Disadvantages:
• It can be used only for surface of concrete.
• Not applicable to know the voids inside.
• The size of defects cannot be quantified and hence conventional NDT methods, eg
ultrasonics, must be used.
• Overpressurisation of the vessel is required and hence some disruption to normal
operation is necessary, but this is much less than is normally required for conventional
inspection