Electrical Quantities

SPECIFIC OJECTIVES

1.1. use the equations Q = It and Q = ±Ne (N refers to number of charges) to solve problems.
Quantities can be classified as either being a scalar or a vector.

1.2. define the 'Coulomb'

1.3. define potential difference and the 'Volt'.

1.4. use the equation V = W/Q to solve problems.

1.5. use the equation V = IR to solve problems.

1.6. use the equations P = IV, P = I2R, P = V2/R to solve problems.

l
1.7. use the formula R =  to determine resistivity; Definition of resistivity. Determine the
A
resistance of wire at varying points and plot a graph of resistance versus length.
Electric current and charge

• An electric current is the rate of flow of charge. The SI unit of electric current is the ampere
(A).

• The equation of electrical is Q = I t  Q – charge /C I – current /A t – time /s.

Charged particles can have either a negative or a positive charge. The faster the charged particles move
the greater the electric current.

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C). An electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10‒19C.

• 1 coulomb is the quantity of charge that passes through any section of a conductor in 1 second
when a current of 1 ampere is flowing. (1 C = 1 As).

cell

Figure 1.1.1 Diagram showing the direction of electron flow in a metal

Figure 1.1.2 Measuring an electric current

Example:

1. In a cathode ray tube, there is a current of 160 A in the vacuum between the anode and
cathode.

Calculate:
 (a) the time taken for a charge of 2.5 C to be transferred between the cathode and anode

(b) the number of electrons emitted per second from the cathode.
(Charge on one electron e = ‒1.6 × 10‒19C)

Solution:

1. i = 160 A = 160× 10‒6A, Q = 2.5 C

(a) Q = I×t  (Q = It)

Q
t =
I
2.5 C
=
160× 10−6 A
= 1.56 × 10 4 s  ( note that 1 C = 1 As ,  C A‒1 = s )

(b) Q = N×e  ( Q = ±N e )
Q
N =  (N refers to number of charges)
e
160 ×10−6 C
=
1.6× 10−19 C
= 1015 electrons

Exercise:

1. Find the (steady) current in a circuit when

(a) a charge of 40 C passes in 50.0 s.

(b) when a charge of 20 C passes in 50.0 ms.

2. A battery circulates a charge around a circuit of one (1) minute. If the current in the circuit is
five (5) amperes, what quantity of charge passes through the battery?

3. A charge of 120 coulombs goes through a lamp every two minutes. Calculate the electric
current.
Potential difference

Energy is required to move charge around an electrical circuit. A cell is usually required to power an
electrical circuit.

The cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.

When charge passes through components in a circuit, energy is converted from electrical to other
forms of energy.

In a filament lamp, electrical energy is converted into light and thermal energy. In the case of a
resistor, electrical energy is converted into thermal energy.

An electric current flows from one point to another because of a difference in electric potential
between the two points.

• The potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving unit positive
charge from infinity to that point. The SI unit of potential is the volt (V).

• 1 volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a circuit when 1 joule of
energy is converted when 1 coulomb of charge flows between the two points. (1 V = 1 JC‒1)

W
• The equation of electrical potential is V =  V – electrical potential /V
Q
W – work done /J Q – charge /C

Figure 1.1.3

In the circuit in Figure 1.1.3 a cell is being used to provide a current I through resistors R1 and R2.

Figure 1.1.4 shows the variation of electric potential around the circuit relative to point F.
 Figure 1.1.4 Variation of electric potential around the circuit

Electric potential cannot be measured directly.

The difference in electric potential can, however, be measured. A voltmeter is used to measure
potential difference.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the component whose potential difference is being measured.
An ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance.

As charge passes between the two points, energy is converted from electrical to some other form. In
the case of a resistor, electrical energy is converted into thermal energy. The resistor gets warm as
charge flows through it. In the case of a filament lamp, electrical energy is converted into light and
thermal energy.

• The potential difference V between two points in a circuit is the work done (energy converted
from electrical energy to other forms of energy) in moving unit positive charge from one point
to the other.

Figure 1.1.5 Measuring potential difference

Exercise:

1. A current of 20 amps flows through a heater for one (1) hour converts 8.6 × 106 joules of
electrical energy into heat energy. Calculate:

(a) the total charge flowing through the heater.

(b) p.d. across the heater.

2. A battery circulates 80 C of charge around a circuit. If the p.d. across a lamp in the circuit is
12 volts. How much energy is converted into heat and the light by the lamp? If the charge flows
at a constant rate for 40 seconds, what is the current during this time?

Key points:

• An electric current is the rate of flow of charge.

• 1 coulomb is the quantity of charge that passes through any section of a conductor in 1 second
when a current of 1 ampere is flowing.

• The potential at a point is defined as the work done in moving unit positive charge from infinity
to that point.

• The potential difference V between two points in a circuit is the work done (energy converted
from electrical energy to other forms of energy) in moving unit positive charge from one point
to the other.

• 1 volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a circuit when 1 joule of
energy is converted when 1 coulomb of charge flows between the two points.
Resistance and Resistivity

Resistance

As the electrons move through the metal they collide with each other and the metal ions. These
collisions restrict the flow- of electrons.

This property of the metal is known as electrical resistance

Figure 1.1.6 Measuring electrical resistance

The circuit in Figure 1.1.6 is used to determine the resistance of the component X. The component in
this case is a resistor.

The voltmeter reading gives the potential difference across the resistor.

The ammeter reading gives the current flowing through the resistor. The ratio of the potential
difference to the current flowing through component X is its resistance.

• Resistance (R) is defined as the ratio of the potential difference (V) across the conductor to the
current (I) flowing through it. The SI unit of resistance is the ohm ().

V
• The equation of electrical resistance is R =  R – resistance /
I
V – potential difference /V I – current /A

• 1 ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 A flows when there is a
potential difference of 1 V across it. (1  = 1 VA‒1).
Current-voltage graphs

In the circuit in Figure 1.1.7 a variable resistor is used to adjust the current flowing through the
component X.

Figure 1.1.7 Circuit used to obtain data to plot an I‒V curve

The variable resistor is adjusted and several values of V and the corresponding values of I are recorded.
A graph of I against V is then plotted to obtain the I‒V characteristic of the component.

Figure 1.1.8 I‒V characteristic for an ohmic conductor

Figure 1.1.8 shows the I‒V characteristic for a metallic conductor at constant temperature. The graph is
a straight line through the origin. The current I is directly proportional to the potential difference V.
This relationship is known as Ohm's law.

• Ohm's law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it provided that there is no change in the physical conditions of the
conductor.

• A conductor that obeys Ohm's law is called 'ohmic'.

The physical conditions could be temperature or mechanical strain.

Figure 1.1.9 shows the I-V characteristic for a filament lamp.

Figure 1.1.9 I‒V characteristic for a filament lamp

The graph for the filament lamp does not obey Ohm's law. The resistance of the filament lamp is not
constant. It varies with current.

Figure 1.1.10 I‒V characteristic for a semiconductor diode

Figure 1.1.10 shows the I-V characteristic for a semiconductor diode. The I-V graph for the
semiconductor diode does not obey Ohm's law.

When the semiconductor diode is connected so that it is reverse-biased, it does not allow any current to
flow. The resistance is infinite when it is reverse-biased.

This is the reason why the current is zero for negative voltages. If the semiconductor diode is now
connected so that it is forward-biased, it begins to allow a current to flow when the voltage is
approximately 0.6 V.

It may be desirable for the resistance of a device to vary with temperature. One such device is a
thermistor. There are two kinds of thermistor.

There is one type whose resistance decreases exponentially with increasing temperature. These
thermistors are said to have a negative temperature coefficient.
 There is another land whose resistance increases suddenly at a particular temperature. These
thermistors are said to have a positive temperature coefficient.

Figure 1.1.11 I‒V Variation of resistance for a thermistor with negative temperature coefficient

Figure 1.1.11 shows how the resistance of a thermistor having a negative temperature coefficient varies
with temperature. Thermistors are used as temperature sensors in many electrical devices. They are
used in aircraft wings to monitor external temperature.

Resistivity

Resistance depends on several factors. It depends on the resistivity of the material, the length of the
material, the cross-sectional area of the material and the temperature of the material. The SI unit of
resistivity is m.

l
• Resistivity is defined by R =  . R – resistance /  - resistivity /m
A
l – length of wire /m A – cross-sectional area of wire /m2

The resistivities of silver and copper are 1.6 × 10‒8 m and 1.7 × 10‒8 m respectively. Copper and
silver are good electrical conductors and therefore have low resistivities.

Resistivities of various materials at room temperature

Material Resistivity /m

Silver 1.6 × 10‒8
Copper 1.7 × 10‒8
Aluminium 2.8 × 10‒8
Iron 10 × 10‒8
Constantan 49 × 10‒8
Mercury 96 × 10‒8
Germanium  0.5
Alumina 109 ‒ 1012
Pyrex 1012
Fused quartz > 1016
Energy and power

Consider a steady current I, flowing through a resistor R for a duration of time t. As current flows
through the resistor it dissipates energy. The energy dissipated is equal to the potential energy lost by
the charge as it moves through the potential difference between terminals of the resistor.

From the definition of potential difference

where
W is the energy dissipated in a time t, Q is the charge that flowed during a time t, V is the potential
difference across the resistor R. The charge that flows during time t is Q = It

W = ItV

Power is defined as the rate at which energy is converted.

P
P

W
t
ItV
t

P = IV

The SI unit of power is the watt (W). From the definition of resistance (see 2.3) V = IR
P = I(IR) = I2R Also, P = (f )v - £

Commonly used circuit symbols

Figure 2.2.2 shows a list of commonly used electrical circuit symbols that will be encountered in the
chapters that follow.
Key points:

• Resistance (R) is defined as the ratio of the potential difference (V) across the conductor to the
current (I) flowing through it.

• 1 ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 A flows when
there is a potential difference of 1 V across it.

l
• Resistivity (p) is defined by R = 
A

• Power is the rate at which energy is converted.

Summary of the equations of electrical quantities

Equation Meaning of symbols

1. Q = It Q – charge /C I – current /A t – time /s
2. Q = ±Ne N – number of charges e – charge on electrons
3. V = W/Q V - potential difference /V W - work done /J
V - potential difference /V I – Electric current /A
4. V = IR
R – Electric resistance /
5. P = IV P - power /V
6. P = I2R
7. P = V2/R
8. E=Pt V - electric energy /J
l  - resistivity /m l – length of wire /m
9. R=
A A – cross-sectional area of wire /m2
Using the equations of electrical quantities to solve problems

Exercise:

5. A current of 20 amps flows through a heater for one (1) hour converts 8.6 × 106 joules of
electrical energy into heat energy. Calculate:

(a) the total charge flowing through the heater.

(b) p.d. across the heater.

6. A battery circulates 80 C of charge around a circuit. If the p.d. across a lamp in the circuit is 12
volts. How much energy is converted into heat and the light by the lamp? If the charge flows at
a constant rate for 40 seconds, what is the current during this time?

7. An electric fire has a power rating of 3 kW. Calculate the current that will flow through the fire
when it is connected to the 240 V mains supply.

8. A torch bulb is labelled 2.5 V, 0.3 A. Calculate the power of the bulb and the energy converted
in 10 minutes.

9. An electric kettle has a heating element rated 2 kW when connected to a 250 V electrical
supply. Calculate:

(a) the current that would flow when the element was connected to the 250 V supply.

(b) the resistance of the element.

(c) the heat produced by the element in one (1) minute.

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) and Potential difference (p.d.)

SPECIFIC OJECTIVES

1.8. use energy considerations to distinguish between e.m.f. and p.d.. Include the observation that
e.m.f. is associated with sources or active devices whereas p.d. is used in reference to an
electric field or passive device.
Drift velocity

SPECIFIC OJECTIVES

1.9. explain drift velocity (v) in terms of the charge carriers;

1.10. derive the equation I = nqvA for charges moving in a metal (n = charge density).

1.11. use the equation I = nqvA for charges moving in a metal (n = charge density). Since a similar
equation describes the flow of particles in uniform channels, candidates should be able to apply
such equations to semiconductors and electrolytes.

Drift velocity

When there is no current flowing in a metal, the electrons are moving about rapidly with a range of
speeds, in random directions. When a potential difference is applied across a metal an electric field is
set up. The free electrons begin moving under the influence of the electric field. As the free electrons
accelerate they collide continuously with metal ions. This movement of the electrons is superimposed
on the random motion.

• The drift velocity is the mean value of the velocity of the electrons in a [conductor when an
electric field is applied.

Consider a section of a metallic conductor of length l and cross-sectional area A. Let:

I = current flowing in the conductor /A

n = the number of free electrons per unit volume /m3
e = charge on each electron /C
v = the mean drift velocity of the electrons /ms‒1
Volume of section = Al
Number of electrons in the section = n A l
Total amount of charge flowing
l
Time taken for electrons to travel from one end of the section to the next =
v

Q
Electric current I =
t
nqAl
=
l/v
I = nqvA
Exam tip

Notice that drift velocity in a metal is small, yet a light bulb turns on instantly when a light switch is
turned on.

Free electrons are present in the conducting wires. As soon as the circuit is closed electrons start
moving. A movement of charge is a current. Therefore, the light bulb turns on instantly.

Example:

A potential difference is applied across a piece of copper wire with cross- sectional area of
1.3 × 10‒6 m2. The current flowing through it is 1.2 mA. The concentration of free electrons in copper is
8.7 × 1028 m‒3. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons in the wire.

Solution:

cross- sectional area of the piece of copper wire, A = 1.3 × 10‒6 m2

current flowing I = 1.2 mA
charge density, n = 8.7 × 1028 m‒3

I = nqvA

I
Drift velocity, v =
neA
1.2×10−3
=
8.7 ×1028 ×1.6 ×10−19 ×1.3 ×10−6
= 6.6 × 10‒8 ms

• In a metal, conduction is due to free electrons.

• In an electrolyte (e.g. a solution of sodium chloride) the mobile charge carriers are positive and
negative ions (Na+ and Cl‒ in this case).

• In a semiconductor, the mobile charge carriers are electrons and 'holes'.

Example:
Suppose a uniform glass tube of cross-sectional area A contains a salt solution (electrolyte). A current
I flows through the solution. The current is carried equally by positive and negative ions. The charges
on the positive and negative ions are +2e and ‒ 2e respectively. The number of each ion species per
unit volume is n. Write down an expression for the current I flowing through the solution in terms of
the drift velocity of charge carriers in the salt solution.

The positive and negative ions flow in opposite directions. Therefore, if the positive ions flow with a
drift velocity v, the negative ions will flow with a drift velocity ‒v.

Current I = n(+2e)(v)(A) + (‒2e)(‒v)(A) = 4nevA

Key points:

• The drift velocity is the mean value of the velocity of the electrons in a conductor when an
electric field is applied.