Analysis of

UNIT 1 ANALYSIS OF ALGORITHMS Algorithms

Structure Page Nos.

1.0 Introduction 7
1.1 Objectives 7
1.2 Mathematical Background 8
1.3 Process of Analysis 12
1.4 Calculation of Storage Complexity 18
1.5 Calculation of Time Complexity 19
1.6 Summary 21
1.7 Solutions/Answers 22
1.8 Further Readings 22

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A common person’s belief is that a computer can do anything. This is far from truth.
In reality, computer can perform only certain predefined instructions. The formal
representation of this model as a sequence of instructions is called an algorithm, and
coded algorithm, in a specific computer language is called a program. Analysis of
algorithms has been an area of research in computer science; evolution of very high
speed computers has not diluted the need for the design of time-efficient algorithms.

Complexity theory in computer science is a part of theory of computation dealing with

the resources required during computation to solve a given problem. The most
common resources are time (how many steps (time) does it take to solve a problem)
and space (how much memory does it take to solve a problem). It may be noted that
complexity theory differs from computability theory, which deals with whether a
problem can be solved or not through algorithms, regardless of the resources
required.

Analysis of Algorithms is a field of computer science whose overall goal is

understand the complexity of algorithms. While an extremely large amount of
research work is devoted to the worst-case evaluations, the focus in these pages is
methods for average-case. One can easily grasp that the focus has shifted from
computer to computer programming and then to creation of an algorithm. This is
algorithm design, heart of problem solving.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• understand the concept of algorithm;

• understand the mathematical foundation underlying the analysis of algorithm;

• to understand various asymptotic notations, such as Big O notation, theta

notation and omega (big O, Θ, Ω ) for analysis of algorithms;

• understand various notations for defining the complexity of algorithm;

• define the complexity of various well known algorithms, and

• learn the method to calculate time complexity of algorithm.

7
Introduction to
Algorithms and Data 1.2 MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND
Structures
To analyse an algorithm is to determine the amount of resources (such as time and
storage) that are utilized by to execute. Most algorithms are designed to work with
inputs of arbitrary length.

Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader computational complexity theory,

which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which
solves a given computational problem. These estimates provide an insight into
reasonable directions of search for efficient algorithms.

Definition of Algorithm
Algorithm should have the following five characteristic features:
1. Input
2. Output
3. Definiteness
4. Effectiveness
5. Termination.

Therefore, an algorithm can be defined as a sequence of definite and effective

instructions, which terminates with the production of correct output from the given
input.

Complexity classes
All decision problems fall into sets of comparable complexity, called complexity
classes.

The complexity class P is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a
deterministic machine in polynomial time. This class corresponds to set of problems
which can be effectively solved in the worst cases. We will consider algorithms
belonging to this class for analysis of time complexity. Not all algorithms in these
classes make practical sense as many of them have higher complexity. These are
discussed later.

The complexity class NP is a set of decision problems that can be solved by a non-
deterministic machine in polynomial time. This class contains many problems like
Boolean satisfiability problem, Hamiltonian path problem and the Vertex cover
problem.

What is Complexity?
Complexity refers to the rate at which the required storage or consumed time grows as
a function of the problem size. The absolute growth depends on the machine used to
execute the program, the compiler used to construct the program, and many other
factors. We would like to have a way of describing the inherent complexity of a
program (or piece of a program), independent of machine/compiler considerations.
This means that we must not try to describe the absolute time or storage needed. We
must instead concentrate on a “proportionality” approach, expressing the complexity
in terms of its relationship to some known function. This type of analysis is known as
asymptotic analysis. It may be noted that we are dealing with complexity of an
algorithm not that of a problem. For example, the simple problem could have high
order of time complexity and vice-versa.
8
Asymptotic Analysis Analysis of
Algorithms
Asymptotic analysis is based on the idea that as the problem size grows, the
complexity can be described as a simple proportionality to some known function. This
idea is incorporated in the “Big O”, “Omega” and “Theta” notation for asymptotic
performance.

The notations like “Little Oh” are similar in spirit to “Big Oh” ; but are rarely used in
computer science for asymptotic analysis.

Tradeoff between space and time complexity

We may sometimes seek a tradeoff between space and time complexity. For example,
we may have to choose a data structure that requires a lot of storage in order to reduce
the computation time. Therefore, the programmer must make a judicious choice from
an informed point of view. The programmer must have some verifiable basis based on
which a data structure or algorithm can be selected Complexity analysis provides such
a basis.

We will learn about various techniques to bind the complexity function. In fact, our
aim is not to count the exact number of steps of a program or the exact amount of time
required for executing an algorithm. In theoretical analysis of algorithms, it is
common to estimate their complexity in asymptotic sense, i.e., to estimate the
complexity function for reasonably large length of input ‘n’. Big O notation, omega
notation Ω and theta notation Θ are used for this purpose. In order to measure the
performance of an algorithm underlying the computer program, our approach would
be based on a concept called asymptotic measure of complexity of algorithm. There
are notations like big O, Θ, Ω for asymptotic measure of growth functions of
algorithms. The most common being big-O notation. The asymptotic analysis of
algorithms is often used because time taken to execute an algorithm varies with the
input ‘n’ and other factors which may differ from computer to computer and from run
to run. The essences of these asymptotic notations are to bind the growth function of
time complexity with a function for sufficiently large input.

The Θ-Notation (Tight Bound)

This notation bounds a function to within constant factors. We say f(n) = Θ(g(n)) if
there exist positive constants n0, c1 and c2 such that to the right of n0 the value of f(n)
always lies between c1g(n) and c2g(n), both inclusive. The Figure 1.1 gives an idea
about function f(n) and g(n) where f(n) = Θ(g(n)) . We will say that the function g(n)
is asymptotically tight bound for f(n).

Figure 1.1 : Plot of f(n) = Θ(g(n))

9
Introduction to 1 2
Algorithms and Data For example, let us show that the function f(n) = n − 4n = Θ(n2).
Structures 3
Now, we have to find three positive constants, c 1, c 2 and no such that
1 2
c1n2 ≤ n – 4n ≤ c2 n2 for all n ≥ no
3
1 4
⇒ c1 ≤ − ≤ c2
3 n

By choosing no = 1 and c2 ≥ 1/3 the right hand inequality holds true.

Similarly, by selecting no = 13 c1 ≤ 1/39, the right hand inequality holds true.

So, for c1 = 1/39 , c2 = 1/3 and no ≥ 13, it follows that 1/3 n2 – 4n = Θ (n2).

Certainly, there are other choices for c1, c2 and no. Now we may show that the
function f(n) = 6n3 ≠ Θ (n2).

To prove this, let us assume that c3 and no exist such that

6n3 ≤ c3n2 for n ≥ no, But this fails for sufficiently large n. Therefore 6n3 ≠ Θ (n2).

The big O notation (Upper Bound)

This notation gives an upper bound for a function to within a constant factor. Figure
1.2 shows the plot of f(n) = O(g(n)) based on big O notation. We write f(n) = O(g(n))
if there are positive constants n0 and c such that to the right of n0, the value of f(n)
always lies on or below cg(n).

Figure 1.2: Plot of f(n) = O(g(n))

Mathematically for a given function g(n), we denote a set of functions by O(g(n)) by

the following notation:

O(g(n)) = {f(n) : There exists a positive constant c and n0 such that 0 ≤ f(n) ≤ cg(n)
for all n ≥ n0 }

Clearly, we use O-notation to define the upper bound on a function by using a

constant factor c.

We can see from the earlier definition of Θ that Θ is a tighter notation than big-O
notation.

f(n) = an + c is O(n) is also O(n2), but O (n) is asymptotically tight whereas O(n2) is
notation.

10
Whereas in terms of Θ notation, the above function f(n) is Θ (n). As big-O notation is Analysis of
upper bound of function, it is often used to describe the worst case running time of Algorithms
algorithms.
The Ω-Notation (Lower Bound)
This notation gives a lower bound for a function to within a constant factor. We write
f(n) = Ω(g(n)), if there are positive constants n0 and c such that to the right of n0, the
value of f(n) always lies on or above cg(n). Figure 1.3 depicts the plot of
f(n) = Ω(g(n)).

Figure 1.3: Plot of f(n) = Ω(g(n))

Mathematically for a given function g(n), we may define Ω(g(n)) as the set of
functions.

Ω(g(n)) = { f(n) : there exists a constant c and n0 ≥ 0 such that 0 ≤ cg(n) ≤ f(n) for all
n ≥ n0 }.

Since Ω notation describes lower bound, it is used to bound the best case running time
of an algorithm.

Asymptotic notation

Let us define a few functions in terms of above asymptotic notation.

Example: f(n) = 3n3 + 2n2 + 4n + 3

= 3n3 + 2n2 + O (n), as 4n + 3 is of O (n)
= 3n3+ O (n2), as 2n2 + O (n) is O (n2)
= O (n3)
Example: f(n) = n² + 3n + 4 is O(n²), since n² + 3n + 4 < 2n² for all n > 10.
By definition of big-O, 3n + 4 is also O(n²), too, but as a convention, we use the
tighter bound to the function, i.e., O(n).

Here are some rules about big-O notation:

1. f(n) = O(f(n)) for any function f. In other words, every function is bounded by
itself.

2. aknk + ak−1nk−1 + · · · + a1n + a0 = O(nk) for all k ≥ 0 and for all a0, a1, . . . , ak ∈ R.
In other words, every polynomial of degree k can be bounded by the function nk.
Smaller order terms can be ignored in big-O notation.

3. Basis of Logarithm can be ignored in big-O notation i.e. loga n = O(logb n) for
any bases a, b. We generally write O(log n) to denote a logarithm n to any base.
11
Introduction to 4. Any logarithmic function can be bounded by a polynomial i.e. logb n = O(nc)
Algorithms and Data for any b (base of logarithm) and any positive exponent c > 0.
Structures

5. Any polynomial function can be bounded by an exponential function i.e.

nk = O (bn.).

6. Any exponential function can be bound by the factorial function. For example,
an = O(n!) for any base a.

 Check Your Progress 1

1) The function 9n+12 and 1000n+400000 are both O(n). True/False

2) If a function f(n) = O(g(n)) and h(n) = O(g(n)), then f(n)+h(n) = O(g(n)).

True/False
3) If f(n) = n2 + 3n and g(n) = 6000n + 34000 then O(f(n)) < O (g(n).)
True/False
4) The asymptotic complexity of algorithms depends on hardware and other
factors. True/False

5) Give simplified big-O notation for the following growth functions:

• 30n2
• 10n3 + 6n2
• 5nlogn + 30n
• log n + 3n
• log n + 32

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

1.3 PROCESS OF ANALYSIS

The objective analysis of an algorithm is to find its efficiency. Efficiency is dependent

on the resources that are used by the algorithm. For example,

• CPU utilization (Time complexity)

• Memory utilization (Space complexity)
• Disk usage (I/O)
• Network usage (bandwidth).

There are two important attributes to analyse an algorithm. They are:

Performance: How much time/memory/disk/network bandwidth is actually used when

a program is run. This depends on the algorithm, machine, compiler, etc.

Complexity: How do the resource requirements of a program or algorithm scale (the

growth of resource requirements as a function of input). In other words, what happens
to the performance of an algorithm, as the size of the problem being solved gets larger
and larger? For example, the time and memory requirements of an algorithm which
12
computes the sum of 1000 numbers is larger than the algorithm which computes the Analysis of
sum of 2 numbers. Algorithms

Time Complexity: The maximum time required by a Turing machine to execute on any
input of length n.

Space Complexity: The amount of storage space required by an algorithm varies with
the size of the problem being solved. The space complexity is normally expressed as
an order of magnitude of the size of the problem, e.g., O(n2) means that if the size of
the problem (n) doubles then the working storage (memory) requirement will become
four times.

Determination of Time Complexity

The RAM Model

The random access model (RAM) of computation was devised by John von Neumann
to study algorithms. Algorithms are studied in computer science because they are
independent of machine and language.

We will do all our design and analysis of algorithms based on RAM model of
computation:

• Each “simple” operation (+, -, =, if, call) takes exactly 1 step.

• Loops and subroutine calls are not simple operations, but depend upon the size of
the data and the contents of a subroutine.
• Each memory access takes exactly 1 step.

The complexity of algorithms using big-O notation can be defined in the following
way for a problem of size n:

• Constant-time method is “order 1” : O(1). The time required is constant

independent of the input size.
• Linear-time method is “order n”: O(n). The time required is proportional to the
input size. If the input size doubles, then, the time to run the algorithm also
doubles.
• Quadratic-time method is “order N squared”: O(n2). The time required is
proportional to the square of the input size. If the input size doubles, then, the
time required will increase by four times.

The process of analysis of algorithm (program) involves analyzing each step of the
algorithm. It depends on the kinds of statements used in the program.

Consider the following example:

Example 1: Simple sequence of statements

Statement 1;
Statement 2;
...
...
Statement k;

The total time can be found out by adding the times for all statements:

Total time = time(statement 1) + time(statement 2) + ... + time(statement k).

13
Introduction to It may be noted that time required by each statement will greatly vary depending on
Algorithms and Data whether each statement is simple (involves only basic operations) or otherwise.
Structures
Assuming that each of the above statements involve only basic operation, the time for
each simple statement is constant and the total time is also constant: O(1).

Example 2: if-then-else statements

In this example, assume the statements are simple unless noted otherwise.

if-then-else statements

if (cond) {
sequence of statements 1
}
else {
sequence of statements 2
}

In this, if-else statement, either sequence 1 will execute, or sequence 2 will execute
depending on the boolean condition. The worst-case time in this case is the slower of
the two possibilities. For example, if sequence 1 is O(N2) and sequence 2 is O(1), then
the worst-case time for the whole if-then-else statement would be O(N2).

Example 3: for loop

for (i = 0; i < n; i + +) {
sequence of statements
}

Here, the loop executes n times. So, the sequence of statements also executes n times.
Since we assume the time complexity of the statements are O(1), the total time for the
loop is n * O(1), which is O(n). Here, the number of statements does not matter as it
will increase the running time by a constant factor and the overall complexity will be
same O(n).

Example 4:nested for loop

for (i = 0; i < n; i + +) {
for (j = 0; j < m; j + +) {
sequence of statements
}
}
Here, we observe that, the outer loop executes n times. Every time the outer loop
executes, the inner loop executes m times. As a result of this, statements in the inner
loop execute a total of n * m times. Thus, the time complexity is O(n * m). If we
modify the conditional variables, where the condition of the inner loop is j < n instead
of j < m (i.e., the inner loop also executes n times), then the total complexity for the
nested loop is O(n2).

Example 4: Now, consider a function that calculates partial sum of an integer n.

int psum(int n)
{
int i, partial_sum;

14
 partial_sum = 0; /* Line 1 */ Analysis of
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) { /* Line 2 */ Algorithms
partial_sum = partial_sum + i*i; /* Line 3 */
}
return partial_sum; /* Line 4 */
}
This function returns the sum from i = 1 to n of i squared, i.e. psum = 12 + 22+ 32
+ …………. + n2 . As we have to determine the running time for each statement in this
program, we have to count the number of statements that are executed in this
procedure. The code at line 1 and line 4 are one statement each. The for loop on line 2
are actually 2n+2 statements:

• i = 1; statement : simple assignment, hence one statement.

• i <= n; statement is executed once for each value of i from 1 to n+1 (till the
condition becomes false). The statement is executed n+1 times.

• i++ is executed once for each execution of the body of the loop. This is
executed n times.

Thus, the sum is 1+ (n+1) + n+1 = 2n+ 3 times.

In terms of big-O notation defined above, this function is O(n), because if we choose
c=3, then we see that cn > 2n+3. As we have already noted earlier, big-O notation
only provides a upper bound to the function, it is also O(nlog(n)) and O(n2), since
n2 > nlog(n) > 2n+3. However, we will choose the smallest function that describes
the order of the function and it is O(n).

By looking at the definition of Omega notation and Theta notation, it is also clear that
it is of Θ(n), and therefore Ω(n) too. Because if we choose c=1, then we see that
cn < 2n+3, hence Ω(n) . Since 2n+3 = O(n), and 2n+3 = Ω(n), it implies that
2n+3 = Θ(n) , too.

It is again reiterated here that smaller order terms and constants may be ignored while
describing asymptotic notation. For example, if f(n) = 4n+6 instead of f(n) = 2n +3 in
terms of big-O, Ω and Θ, this does not change the order of the function. The function
f(n) = 4n+6 = O(n) (by choosing c appropriately as 5); 4n+6 = Ω(n) (by choosing
c = 1), and therefore 4n+6 = Θ(n). The essence of this analysis is that in these
asymptotic notation, we can count a statement as one, and should not worry about
their relative execution time which may depend on several hardware and other
implementation factors, as long as it is of the order of 1, i.e. O(1).

Exact analysis of insertion sort:

Let us consider the following pseudocode to analyse the exact runtime complexity of
insertion sort.

Line Pseudocode Cost No. of

factor iterations
1 For j=2 to length [A] do c1 (n−1) + 1
2 { key = A[j] c2 (n−1)
3 i=j−1 c3 (n−1)
4 while (i > 0) and (A[i] > key) do c4 n

∑T
j= 2
j

5 { A[i+1] = A[I] c4 n

∑T −1
j= 2
j

15
Introduction to 6 i = I –1 } c5 n
Algorithms and Data
Structures
∑T −1
j= 2
j

7 A[I+1] = key } c6 n−1

Tj is the time taken to execute the statement during jth iteration.

The statement at line 4 will execute Tj number of times.

The statements at lines 5 and 6 will execute Tj − 1 number of times (one step less)
each

Line 7 will excute (n−1) times

So, total time is the sum of time taken for each line multiplied by their cost factor.
n n n
T (n) = c1n + c2(n −1) + c3(n−1) + c4 ∑T
j =2
j + c5 ∑T
j =2
j − 1 + c6 ∑T
j =2
j − 1 + c7 (n−1)

Three cases can emerge depending on the initial configuration of the input list. First,
the case is where the list was already sorted, second case is the case wherein the list is
sorted in reverse order and third case is the case where in the list is in random order
(unsorted). The best case scenario will emerge when the list is already sorted.

Worst Case: Worst case running time is an upper bound for running time with any
input. It guarantees that, irrespective of the type of input, the algorithm will not take
any longer than the worst case time.

Best Case : It guarantees that under any cirumstances the running time of algorithms
will at least take this much time.

Average case : This gives the average running time of algorithm. The running time for
any given size of input will be the average number of operations over all problem
instances for a given size.

Best Case : If the list is already sorted then A[i] <= key at line 4. So, rest of the lines
in the inner loop will not execute. Then,

T (n) = c1n + c2(n −1) + c3(n −1) + c4 (n −1) = O (n), which indicates that the time
complexity is linear.

Worst Case: This case arises when the list is sorted in reverse order. So, the boolean
condition at line 4 will be true for execution of line 1.
n
So, step line 4 is executed ∑ j = n(n+1)/2
j =2
− 1 times

T (n) = c1n + c2(n −1) + c3(n −1) + c4 (n(n+1)/2 − 1) + c5(n(n −1)/2) + c6(n(n−1)/2)
+ c7 (n −1)

= O (n2).

Average case : In most of the cases, the list will be in some random order. That is, it
neither sorted in ascending or descending order and the time complexity will lie some
where between the best and the worst case.

T (n) best < T(n) Avg. < T(n) worst

16
Figure 1.4 depicts the best, average and worst case run time complexities of Analysis of
algorithms. Algorithms

Worst case

Average case

Best case

Time

Input size

Figure 1.4 : Best, Average and Worst case scenarios

 Check Your Progress 2

1) The set of algorithms whose order is O (1) would run in the same time. True/False

2) Find the complexity of the following program in big O notation:

printMultiplicationTable(int max){
for(int i = 1 ; i <= max ; i + +)
{
for(int j = 1 ; j <= max ; j + +)
cout << (i * j) << “ “ ;
cout << endl ;
} //for
………………………………………………………………………………………
3) Consider the following program segment:
for (i = 1; i <= n; i *= 2)
{
j = 1;
}

What is the running time of the above program segment in big O

notation?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4) Prove that if f(n) = n2 + 2n + 5 and g(n) = n2 then f(n) = O (g(n)).
5) How many times does the following for loop will run
for (i=1; i<= n; i*2)
k = k + 1;
end;

1.4 CALCULATION OF STORAGE

COMPLEXITY

As memory is becoming more and more cheaper, the prominence of runtime

complexity is increasing. However, it is very much important to analyse the amount of
memory used by a program. If the running time of algorithms is not good then it will
17
Introduction to take longer to execute. But, if it takes more memory (the space complexity is more)
Algorithms and Data beyond the capacity of the machine then the program will not execute at all. It is
Structures
therefore more critical than run time complexity. But, the matter of respite is that
memory is reutilized during the course of program execution.

We will analyse this for recursive and iterative programs.

For an iterative program, it is usually just a matter of looking at the variable

declarations and storage allocation calls, e.g., number of variables, length of an array
etc.

The analysis of recursive program with respect to space complexity is more

complicated as the space used at any time is the total space used by all recursive calls
active at that time.

Each recursive call takes a constant amount of space and some space for local
variables and function arguments, and also some space is allocated for remembering
where each call should return to. General recursive calls use linear space. That is, for
n recursive calls, the space complexity is O(n).

Consider the following example: Binary Recursion (A binary-recursive routine

(potentially) calls itself twice).

1. If n equals 0 or 1, then return 1

2. Recursively calculate f (n−1)
3. Recursively calculate f (n−2)
4. Return the sum of the results from steps 2 and 3.

Time Complexity: O(exp n)

Space Complexity: O(exp n)

Example: Find the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two integers, m and n.
The algorithm for GCD may be defined as follows:

While m is greater than zero:

If n is greater than m, swap m and n.
Subtract n from m.
n is the GCD

Code in C
int gcd(int m, int n)
/* The precondition are : m>0 and n>0. Let g = gcd(m,n). */
{ while( m > 0 )
{
if( n > m )
{ int t = m; m = n; n = t; } /* swap m and n*/
/* m >= n > 0 */
m − = n;
}
return n;
}

The space-complexity of the above algorithm is a constant. It just requires space for
three integers m, n and t. So, the space complexity is O(1).

18
The time complexity depends on the loop and on the condition whether m>n or not. Analysis of
The real issue is, how many iterations take place? The answer depends on both m and Algorithms
n.

Best case: If m = n, then there is just one iteration. O(1)

Worst case : If n = 1,then there are m iterations; this is the worst-case
(also equivalently, if m = 1 there are n iterations) O(n).
The space complexity of a computer program is the amount of memory required for its
proper execution. The important concept behind space required is that unlike time,
space can be reused during the execution of the program. As discussed, there is often a
trade-off between the time and space required to run a program.

In formal definition, the space complexity is defined as follows:

Space complexity of a Turing Machine: The (worst case) maximum length of the tape
required to process an input string of length n.

In complexity theory, the class PSPACE is the set of decision problems that can be
solved by a Turing machine using a polynomial amount of memory, and unlimited
time.

 Check Your Progress 3

1) Why space complexity is more critical than time complexity?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2) What is the space complexity of Euclid Algorithm?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

1.5 CALCULATION OF TIME COMPLEXITY

Example 1: Consider the following of code :

x = 4y + 3
z=z+1
p=1
As we have seen, x, y, z and p are all scaler variables and the running time is constant
irrespective of the value of x,y,z and p. Here, we emphasize that each line of code may
take different time, to execute, but the bottom line is that they will take constant
amount of time. Thus, we will describe run time of each line of code as O(1).

Example 2: Binary search

Binary search in a sorted list is carried out by dividing the list into two parts based on
the comparison of the key. As the search interval halves each time, the iteration takes
place in the search. The search interval will look like following after each iteration
N, N/2, N/4, N/8 , .......... 8, 4, 2, 1
The number of iterations (number of elements in the series) is not so evident from the
above series. But, if we take logs of each element of the series, then

log2 N , log2 N −1, log2 N−2, log2 N−3, .........., 3, 2, 1, 0

19
Introduction to As the sequence decrements by 1 each time the total elements in the above series are
Algorithms and Data log2 N + 1. So, the number of iterations is log2 N + 1 which is of the order of
Structures
O(log2N).

Example 3: Travelling Salesman problem

Given: n connected cities and distances between them

Find: tour of minimum length that visits every city.

Solutions: How many tours are possible?

n*(n −1)...*1 = n!

Because n! > 2(n-1)

So n! = Ω (2n) (lower bound)

As of now, there is no algorithm that finds a tour of minimum length as well as covers
all the cities in polynomial time. However, there are numerous very good heuristic
algorithms.

The complexity Ladder:

• T(n) = O(1). This is called constant growth. T(n) does not grow at all as a
function of n, it is a constant. For example, array access has this characteristic.
A[i] takes the same time independent of the size of the array A.

• T(n) = O(log2 (n)). This is called logarithmic growth. T(n) grows proportional to
the base 2 logarithm of n. Actually, the base of logarithm does not matter. For
example, binary search has this characteristic.

• T(n) = O(n). This is called linear growth. T(n) grows linearly with n. For
example, looping over all the elements in a one-dimensional array of n elements
would be of the order of O(n).

• T(n) = O(n log (n). This is called nlogn growth. T(n) grows proportional to n
times the base 2 logarithm of n. Time complexity of Merge Sort has this
characteristic. In fact, no sorting algorithm that uses comparison between
elements can be faster than n log n.

• T(n) = O(nk). This is called polynomial growth. T(n) grows proportional to the
k-th power of n. We rarely consider algorithms that run in time O(nk) where k is
bigger than 2 , because such algorithms are very slow and not practical. For
example, selection sort is an O(n2) algorithm.

• T(n) = O(2n) This is called exponential growth. T(n) grows exponentially.

Exponential growth is the most-danger growth pattern in computer science.
Algorithms that grow this way are basically useless for anything except for very
small input size.

Table 1.1 compares various algorithms in terms of their complexities.

Table 1.2 compares the typical running time of algorithms of different orders.

The growth patterns above have been listed in order of increasing size.
That is, O(1) < O(log(n)) < O(n log(n)) < O(n2) < O(n3), ... , O(2n).
Notation Name Example
O(1) Constant Constant growth. Does
20
 not grow as a function Analysis of
of n. For example, Algorithms
accessing array for
one element A[i]
O(log n) Logarithmic Binary search
O(n) Linear Looping over n
elements, of an array
of size n (normally).
O(n log n) Sometimes called Merge sort
“linearithmic”
O(n2) Quadratic Worst time case for
insertion sort, matrix
multiplication
O(nc) Polynomial,
sometimes
“geometric”
O(cn) Exponential
O(n!) Factorial
Table 1.1 : Comparison of various algorithms and their complexities

Logarithmic: Linear: Quadratic: Exponential:

Array size log2N N N2 2N

8 3 8 64 256
128 7 128 16,384 3.4*1038
256 8 256 65,536 1.15*1077
1000 10 1000 1 million 1.07*10301
100,000 17 100,000 10 billion ........

Table 1.2: Comparison of typical running time of algorithms of different orders

1.6 SUMMARY

Computational complexity of algorithms are generally referred to by space complexity

(space required for running program) and time complexity (time required for running
the program). In the field of computer of science, the concept of runtime complexity
has been studied vigorously. Enough research is being carried out to find more
efficient algorithms for existing problems. We studied various asymptotic notation, to
describe the time complexity and space complexity of algorithms, namely the big-O,
Omega and Theta notations. These asymptotic orders of time and space complexity
describe how best or worst an algorithm is for a sufficiently large input.

We studied about the process of calculation of runtime complexity of various

algorithms. The exact analysis of insertion sort was discussed to describe the best
case, worst case and average case scenario.

1.7 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS

Check Your Progress 1
1) True 21
Introduction to 2) True
Algorithms and Data 3) False
Structures
4) False
5) O(n2), O(n3), O(n log n), O(log n),O(log n)

Check Your Progress 2

1) True
2) O(max*(2*max))=O(2*max*max) = O(2 * n * n) = O( 2n2 ) = O( n2 )
3) O(log(n))
5) log n

Check Your Progress 3

1) If the running time of algorithms is not good, then it will take longer to execute.
But, if it takes more memory (the space complexity is more) beyond the capacity
of the machine then the program will not execute.
2) O(1).

1.8 FURTHER READINGS

1. Fundamentals of Data Structures in C++; E.Horowitz, Sahni and D.Mehta;
Galgotia Publications.

2. Data Structures and Program Design in C; Kruse, C.L.Tonodo and B.Leung;

Pearson Education.

Reference Websites

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_O_notation
http://www.webopedia.com

22