Automation of Manufacturing:

CNCs, Industrial Motion Control,

Motor Control and PLCs

CI(D)M Class
2014
 Numerical Control
• Numerical control is a method of
automatically operating a manufacturing
machine based on a code of letters, numbers,
and special characters.
• The numerical data required to produce a
part is provided to a machine in the form of a
program, called part program or CNC
program.
• The program is translated into the appropriate
electrical signals for input to motors that run
the machine.
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 Numerical Control - History
• The concept is credited to John Parson (1947). Using
punched cards he was able to control the position of
a machine in an attempt to machine helicopter blade.
• US Air Force teamed up with MIT to develop a
programmable milling machine (1949).
• In 1952, a three-axis Cincinnati Hydrotel milling
machine was demonstrated. The term Numerical
Control (NC) originated. The machine had an
electromechanical controller and used punched
cards.
• A new class of machines called machining centers
and turning centers that could perform multiple
machining processes was developed.
• Modern NC machine has a computer on board,
Computer Numerical Control (CNC). They can run
unattended at over 20,000 rpm (spindler speed) with
a feed rate of over 600 ipm and an accuracy of .0001
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 Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
A CNC machine is an NC machine with the added feature of an on-board
computer.

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Hardware Configuration of NC Machine
Machine Control Unit (MCU)
the brain of the NC machine.
The Data Processing Unit (DPU)
reads the part program.
The Control Loop Unit (CLU)
controls the machine tool operation.

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 Loop Systems for Controlling Tool
Movement
Open Loop
System
Uses stepping motor to create movement. Motors rotate a fixed
amount for each pulse received from the MCU. The motor
sends a signal back indicating that the movement is
completed. No feedback to check how close the actual
machine movement comes to the exact movement
programmed.

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 Basic principles of CNC machines
 NC/CNC machine consist of 3 basic elements.
List of instructions – NC code – a mix of alphabecial and
numerical information. Contaion information about
movements, feed, speed, tool change and other
machine functions (cooling, measuring)
Control unit - control system – converts the program into
signal for machine and send them to machine (PLC
controller)
Control Machine
NC
unit Drive
code
(system) motor

Sensing
device
 Basic principles of CNC machines
 NC/CNC machine consist of 3 basic elements.
Machine tool – fitted with drive motor to operate
slides, support and spindle. Also with switches to
start/stop specific functions
Sensing device – optional(closed circuit)- sensing
device control if a specific demand was fullfilled.
Support feed, Table position etc.

Control Machine
NC
unit Drive
code
(system) motor

Sensing
device
CNC machine tool
 Motions
Three types of motion
1) point-to-point motion – tool is moved to
specific location, path or speed of move
between location is not controlled. (drilling)
2) Linear control – movement along one of the
axes of the machine.
3) Contouring control – movement can be
made in two or more axes simultaneously.
 Motions
Point-to-point control Linear control Contouring control (continual)

drilling milling machines, lathes machining c.(milling, turning)

 CNC machining centre(MC)
• MC combine a number of different machining
processes in one operation
 CNC Machine Axes of Motion
The coordinate system used for the tool path must be identical to the
coordinate system used by the CNC machine. The standards for
machine axes are established according to the industry standard
report EIA RS-267A.

Right hand rule

Vertical
milling
machine
Horizonta
l milling
machine

CNC machines milling machines can

perform simultaneous linear motion along
the three axis and are called three-axes
machines. 13
CNC Machine Axes of Motion

Coordinate system for a Lathe

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 CNC Machine Axes of Motion
More complex CNC machines have the capability of executing additional
rotary motions (4th and 5th axes).

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 CNC Machine Axes of Motion

Five-axis
machine
configurations

Mechanical Engineering 16
Department
 Machining Centers
Machining Center
A computer-controlled machine tool
capable of many types of cutting
operations on multiple surfaces and
directions on a workpiece
Manufacturing Centers
Z
Y

3-Axis Operation

4-Axis Operation

φ
θ

5-Axis Operation
Components of a
Machining Center
 Example of a
Machining Center
 Example of a
Machining Center
Example of a Machining Center

Example of a 5-axis CNC machine (the tool pivots instead of the

workpiece)
Vertical Machining Center
Horizontal Machining Center
 Examples of
Manufactured Parts
 Machining Centers
Machining Center
A computer-controlled machine tool
capable of many types of cutting
operations on multiple surfaces and
directions on a workpiece
Manufacturing Centers
Z
Y

3-Axis Operation

4-Axis Operation

φ
θ

5-Axis Operation
Components of a
Machining Center
 Example of a
Machining Center
 Example of a
Machining Center
Example of a Machining Center

Example of a 5-axis CNC machine (the tool pivots instead of the

workpiece)
Example of a Vertical Machining
Center
Example of a Horizontal
Machining Center
 Examples of
Manufactured Parts
 Open-Loop Motion Control
System

• Operates without verifying that the actual

position achieved in the move is the
desired position
 Closed-Loop Motion Control
System

• Uses feedback measurements to confirm

that the final position of the worktable is
the location specified in the program
 Optical Encoder

• Device for measuring rotational position and speed

• Common feedback sensor for closed-loop NC control
 Precision in NC Positioning
Three measures of precision:
1. Control resolution - distance separating two
adjacent addressable points in the axis
movement
2. Accuracy - maximum possible error that can
occur between the desired target point and the
actual position taken by the system
3. Repeatability - defined as ±3σ of the
mechanical error distribution associated with
the axis
Definitions of Control Resolution,
Accuracy, and Repeatability
 DC Motors

• The stator is the stationary outside part of a

motor. The rotor is the inner part which
rotates. In the motor animations, red
represents a magnet or winding with a north
polarization, while green represents a magnet
or winding with a south polariztion. Opposite,
red and green, polarities attract.

14 October 2014 40
 DC Motors

• Just as the rotor reaches alignment, the

brushes move across the commutator
contacts and energize the next winding. In
the animation the commutator contacts are
brown and the brushes are dark grey. A
yellow spark shows when the brushes switch
to the next winding.
14 October 2014 41
 Full Stepper Motor

• This animation demonstrates the principle for a stepper motor using full
step commutation. The rotor of a permanent magnet stepper motor
consists of permanent magnets and the stator has two pairs of windings.
Just as the rotor aligns with one of the stator poles, the second phase is
energized. The two phases alternate on and off and also reverse polarity.
There are four steps. One phase lags the other phase by one step. This
is equivalent to one forth of an electrical cycle or 90°.

14 October 2014 42
 Half Stepper Motor

• This animation shows the stepping pattern for a half-step stepper motor.
The commutation sequence for a half-step stepper motor has eight steps
instead of four. The main difference is that the second phase is turned on
before the first phase is turned off. Thus, sometimes both phases are
energized at the same time. During the half-steps the rotor is held in
between the two full-step positions. A half-step motor has twice the
resolution of a full step motor. It is very popular for this reason.

14 October 2014 43
 Stepper Motors

• This stepper motor is very simplified. The rotor of a real stepper motor
usually has many poles. The animation has only ten poles, however a
real stepper motor might have a hundred. These are formed using a
single magnet mounted inline with the rotor axis and two pole pieces with
many teeth. The teeth are staggered to produce many poles. The stator
poles of a real stepper motor also has many teeth. The teeth are
arranged so that the two phases are still 90° out of phase. This stepper
motor uses permanent magnets. Some stepper motors do not have
magnets and instead use the basic principles of a switched reluctance
motor. The stator is similar but the rotor is composed of a iron laminates.

14 October 2014 44
 More on Stepper Motors

• Note how the phases are driven so that

the rotor takes half steps
14 October 2014 45
 More on Stepper Motors

• Animation shows how coils are

energized for full steps
14 October 2014 46
 More on Stepper Motors

• Full step sequence • Half step

showing how binary sequence of
numbers can control binary control
the motor numbers
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 Switched Reluctance Motor

• A switched reluctance or variable reluctance motor does not contain any

permanent magnets. The stator is similar to a brushless dc motor.
However, the rotor consists only of iron laminates. The iron rotor is
attracted to the energized stator pole. The polarity of the stator pole does
not matter. Torque is produced as a result of the attraction between the
electromagnet and the iron rotor in the same way a magnet is attracted to
a refrigerator door. An electrically quiet motor since it has no brushes.

14 October 2014 48
 Brushless AC Motor

• A brushless ac motor is driven with ac sine wave voltages.

The permanent magnet rotor rotates synchronous to the
rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field is
illustrated using a red and green gradient. An actual
simulation of the magnetic field would show a far more
complex magnetic field.

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 AC Induction Motor

• The stator windings of an ac induction motor are distributed around the

stator to produce a roughly sinusoidal distribution. When three phase
ac voltages are applied to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field
is produced. The rotor of an induction motor also consists of windings
or more often a copper squirrel cage imbedded within iron laminates.
Only the iron laminates are shown. An electric current is induced in the
rotor bars which also produce a magnetic field.

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 AC Induction Motor

• The rotating magnetic field of the stator drags the rotor around. The
rotor does not quite keep up with the the rotating magnetic field of the
stator. It falls behind or slips as the field rotates. In this animation, for
every time the magnetic field rotates, the rotor only makes three fourths
of a turn. If you follow one of the bright green or red rotor teeth with the
mouse, you will notice it change color as it falls behind the rotating
field. The slip has been greatly exaggerated to enable visualization of
this concept. A real induction motor only slips a few percent.

14 October 2014 51
 Brushless DC Motors

• A brushless dc motor has a rotor with

permanent magnets and a stator with
windings. It is essentially a dc motor turned
inside out. The control electronics replace the
function of the commutator and energize the
proper winding.

14 October 2014 52
Basic DC Motor Direction Control
H Bridge
 Function

The H bridge is a classic method of controlling DC motors.

• It allows control with a minimum number of components,
• is simple to build and use
• is also available as a complete device.

The H bridge offers 3 basic functions:

• rotate forward
• rotate in reverse
• stop
 Basic Components

The basic H bridge consists of:

• 4 'switches'
• motor
• power supply

Depending on which combination of

switches are switched on or off, the
motor can be made to spin:
• forward
• reverse
• stop
Forward

Switching S1 on and S4 on:

• motor rotates forward.
 Reverse

Switching S2 and S3 on:

• motor rotates reverse.
 Braking

S1 & S3 or S2 & S4 closed

will cause the motor to
stop rapidly.
(Braking)

Braking occurs when the

motor terminals are
connected together,
causing a rapid stop to
the motor.
 Short Circuit
S1 & S2 or S3 & S4 closed will
result in a short circuit
(Shoot Through)

Short circuits occur when the

positive and negative
connections to the power
supply create a direct path
bypassing the motor.
*This can cause damage to the circuit*
 Direction control logic
• Q1,Q3 (on); Q2,Q4
(off)-> FWD
• Q1,Q3 (off); Q2,Q3
(on) -> REV
 Microcontroller in Industries
• Most Automation applications use micro
controllers
• Can work in harsh environments with little
maintenance
• Robust and easy to use in configuring
systems of different sizes and scales
 Industrial Automation
• Short cycle times and round the clock
operations are demanded in high
productivity applications
• Devices are needed to handle several
inputs and process several outputs
• Flexible and reconfiguration options are
preferred in Batch Manufacturing
scenarios