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On Perfect Numbers and their Relations

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Int. J. Contemp. Math. Sciences, Vol. 5, 2010, no. 27, 1337 - 1346

On Perfect Numbers and their Relations

Recep Gür

2000 Evler Mahallesi Boykent Sitesi E Blok 26/7 Nevsehir, Turkey

[email protected]

Nihal Bircan

Technische Universitaet Berlin Fakultaet II Institut für Mathematik

MA 8 − 1 Strasse des 17. Juni 136 D-10623 Berlin, Germany
[email protected]

Abstract
In this paper, we get some new formulas for generalized perfect
numbers and their relationship between arithmetical functions φ, σ
concerning Ore’s harmonic numbers and by using these formulas
we present some examples.

Mathematics Subject Classification: 11A25, 11A41, 11Y70

Keywords: perfect number, 2-hyperperfect number, Euler’s totient

function, Ore harmonic number

1 Introduction
In this section, we aimed to provide general information on perfect numbers
shortly. Here and throughout the paper we assume m, n, k, d, b are positive
integers and p is prime.
N is called perfect number, if it is equal to the sum of its proper divisors. The
first few perfect numbers are 6, 28, 496, 8128,... since,

6 = 1+2+3
28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14
496 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 31 + 62 + 124 + 248

Euclid discovered the first four perfect numbers which are generated by the
formula 2n−1 (2n −1), called Euclid number. In his book ’Elements’ he presented
the proof of the formula which gives an even perfect number whenever 2n −1 is
1338 Recep Gür and Nihal Bircan

prime. In order for 2n −1 to be a prime n must itself be a prime. Moreover, the

perfect numbers are all even and end with 6 or 8. In [5] the author provided
detailed information on perfect numbers.
In general, we can say that if ap − 1 is prime for some numbers a ≥ 2 and
p ≥ 2, then a must equal to 2 and p must be a prime. This means that if we are
interested in primes of the form ap − 1 we only need to consider the case that
a = 2 and p is prime. Primes of the form 2p − 1 are called Mersenne primes
which are available at [15], [16]. If N is an even perfect number, then N looks
like N = 2p−1 (2p − 1) where 2p − 1 is a Mersenne prime. Up to know, only 47
Mersenne primes are known which means that there are 47 known even perfect
numbers. There is a conjecture that there are infinitely many perfect numbers.
To search for new ones is to keep on going. But to this day no one has been
able to discover any odd perfect number. However, no one has yet been able
to prove conclusively that none exist. In [8] the author proved any odd perfect
number must have the form n = 12m + 1 or n = 36q + 9 shortly. In [6] the
author proved that no odd perfect number exist in the interval [1, 10300 ] ⊂ N.
We can also define perfect numbers as σ(N) = 2N, (N ∈ N) where σ is a
divisor function. If p is a prime number and k ≥ 1 than its only divisors are 1
and p. So, σ(p) = p + 1 and
pk+1 −1
σ(pk ) = 1 + p + p2 + ... + pk = p−1
.

Furthermore, if 2n+1 − 1 = p, N = 2n p is perfect, then we have,

σ(N ) = (2n+1 − 1)(p + 1) = 2n+1 p.

For any prime p, we have φ(p) = p − 1 where φ is Euler’s totient function

defined as the number of invertible elements in an complete residue system.
Here are some properties of Euler’s totient function which we use to prove our
results;

(i) If a and m are integers

 such that (a, m) = 1 then a
φ(m)
≡ 1 (mod m)
(ii) If n ≥ 1 we have φ(d) = n
 
d|n

(iii) For n ≥ 1 we have φ(n) = n. 1 − p1

p|n
k
The harmonic mean of k numbers n1 , ..., nk is 1
+...+ n1
. For example, the
n1 k
harmonic mean of 1 and 2 is 2/(1 + 1/2) = 4/3. Such an integer is called Ore
harmonic number or harmonic divisor number. According the theorem of Ore;
every perfect number is harmonic.
n is called superperfect number if σ(σ(n)) = 2n and every even superperfect
number n must be a power of 2, that is, 2p−1 such that 2p − 1 is a Mersenne
prime.
On perfect numbers and their relations 1339

A unitary perfect number is an integer which is the sum of its positive proper
unitary divisors, not including the number itself. (A divisor d of a number n is
unitary divisor if d and nd share no common factors). T. Yamada [13] showed
that 9 and 165 are all of the odd unitary superperfect numbers.
A. Bege gave a table of k-hyperperfect numbers in [1] which defined n as;
k−hyperfect number if n = 1 + k[σ(n) − n − 1] and so σ(n) = k+1 k
n + k−1
k
.
Also, they proved a conjecture which states that all 2-hyperferfect numbers
are of the form n = (3k − 1).(3k − 2) where 3k − 2 is prime. In [7] the author
computed all hyperperfect numbers less than 1011 .
If σ(σ(n)) = 32 (n + 1), then n is called super-hyperperfect number. In [1] the
authors studied generalized perfect numbers, presented some conjectures and
p
numerical results. They conjectured that, if n = 3p−1 where p and 3 2−1 are
primes, then n is a super-hyperperfect number. In [11] the author studied on
perfect numbers and their composition with arithmetical functions.
n is called multiplicatively e-perfect if Te (n) = n2 where Te (n) denote the prod-
uct of exponential divisors of n. In [10] a characterization of multiplicatively
e-perfect and similar numbers is given. An alternative proof for characteriza-
tion of e-perfect and e-superperfect numbers can be found in [3].
For further information on perfect numbers see also [2], [4], [9], [12], [14].

2 Main Results
Theorem 2.1. If k ≥ 1, 1 + 2 + 4 + ... + k = 2k − 1 where (2k − 1) is prime
and k(2k − 1) is a perfect number, then

φ(k[2k − 1]) = k(k − 1). (1)

Moreover, if k[2k − 1] = 2n (2n+1 − 1) is an Euclid number, then

φ(2n [2n+1 − 1]) = 2n (2n − 1). (2)

Proof. Let k ≥ 1 , 1 + 2 + 4 + ... + k = 2k − 1 and 2k − 1 is prime. Since

φ(k[2k − 1]) is a multiplicative function and (k, 2k − 1) = 1, we can write
φ(k[2k − 1]) = φ(k).φ(2k − 1). From hypothesis k is even and is of the form 2n
(n ≥ 1). By using a property of Euler’s totient function, we can write,
1 k
φ(k) = k.(1 − ) = (3)
2 2
Since 2k − 1 is prime,

φ(2k − 1) = 2k − 2 (4)

From (3) and (4), we obtain

1340 Recep Gür and Nihal Bircan

k
φ(k[2k − 1]) = φ(k).φ(2k − 1) = (2k − 2)
2
φ(k[2k − 1]) = k(k − 1).

Any even perfect number is an Euclid number, that is, it is of the form
2n (2n+1 − 1) where 2n+1 − 1 is prime. So, if k = 2n and 2k − 1 = 2n+1 − 1 is
prime, then k[2k −1] is an Euclid number. So, φ(2n [2n+1 −1]) = 2n (2n −1).
Proposition 2.2. If N > 6 is a perfect number, then φ(N ) is even and
φ(N ) is not a prime.
Proof. Let N is a perfect number. From the result of Euclid theorem and
theorem 2.1, N = k.(2k − 1) and φ(k[2k − 1]) = k(k − 1). Also, 2|k.(k − 1) so
φ(N ) is an even number and φ(6) = 2 and from hypothesis N > 6 so φ(N ) > 2.
Moreover, k|φ(N ) and (k − 1)|φ(N ) so φ(N ) is not a prime.
Corollary 2.3. If N is a perfect number and N = k.(2k − 1), then there is
at least a natural number n which satisfies n|φ(N ) and (n + 1)|φ(N ).
Proof. It is clear from theorem 2.1.

√
Proposition 2.4. If φ(N ) = b and N is a perfect number, then 4b + 1 is
a Mersenne prime.
Proof. From the result of theorem 2.1, we can write b = k.(k − 1),

b = k2 − k
1 1
b = (k − )2 −
2 4
 2
1 1
b+ = k−
4 2

1 1
± b+ = k−
4 2

(1 + 4b) 1
k = ± +
√ 4 2
2k − 1 = ± 4b + 1

√ result of theorem 2.1, (2k − 1) is a Mersenne prime. So, it is positive.

From the
Thus, 4b + 1 is a Mersenne prime.
Proposition 2.5. If N = 2n (2n+1 − 1) is an Euclid number, then
φ(N 2 ) = N.φ(N ).
On perfect numbers and their relations 1341

Proof. By using a property of Euler’s totient function and theorem 2.1, we can
write
1 1
φ(N 2 ) = φ(22n (2n+1 − 1)2 ) = 22n (2n+1 − 1)(2n+1 − 1). .(1 − n+1 )
2 2 −1
= 22n (2n+1 − 1)(2n − 1)
= 2n (2n+1 − 1)[2n (2n − 1)]
= N.φ(N ).

Theorem 2.6. Let p is a Mersenne prime and p = 2n+1 − 1. If

N = 2n (2n+1 − 1) is a perfect number, then
4p
σ(N) = φ(N ).
p−1
or
2n+2 − 2
σ(N) = φ(N ).
2n − 1
Proof. From hypothesis and theorem 2.1, we can write
φ(N ) = φ(2n p) = 2n (2n − 1). So, 2n = p+1
2
, then

p+1 p−1
2n (2n − 1) = ( )( )
2 2
p2 − 1
φ(N ) =
4
σ(N ) = σ(2n p) = σ(2n ).σ(p)
2n+1 −1
where σ(2n ) = 2−1
and σ(p) = p + 1. So,

σ(N) = p(p + 1)

From φ(N ) and σ(N) we obtain,

4p
σ(N) = φ(N ).
p−1

or p = 2n+1 − 1. So,

2n+2 − 2
σ(N) = φ(N ).
2n − 1
1342 Recep Gür and Nihal Bircan

See example 3.5 for the use of this theorem.

Theorem 2.7. Let N is a perfect number and σ(N) is harmonic. If N is

of the form 2n (2n+1 − 1) where 2n+1 − 1 is a Mersenne prime, then

(n + 2)(2n+2 − 2)
H(σ(N)) = .
(2n+2 − 1)

Proof. If N is a perfect number; this means σ(N) = 2N or

σ(2n (2n+1 − 1)) = 2n+1 (2n+1 − 1).
H(σ(N )) = H(2n+1 [2n+1 − 1])

−1
1 1 1 1 1 1
= .(1 + + ... + n+1 + n+1 + + ... + n+1 n+1 )
2n + 4 2 2 2 − 1 2.(2n+1 − 1) 2 .(2 − 1)

−1
1 2n+2 − 1 2n+2 − 1
= .( n+1 + n+1 n+1 )
2.(n + 2) 2 2 .(2 − 1)

−1
1 (2n+2 − 1)2n+1
= . n+1 n+1
2.(n + 2) 2 .(2 − 1)
(n + 2).(2n+2 − 2)
= .
(2n+2 − 1)

This completes the proof.

Corollary 2.8. If N is a perfect number, then σ(N) is harmonic.

Proof. Ore’s harmonic number theorem tells us that every perfect number
is harmonic. From Ore’s theorem and theorem 2.7, N is harmonic. Also,
σ(N ) = 2N . So, σ(N ) is harmonic.

Theorem 2.9. Let 3k − 2 is prime. If n is a 2-hyperperfect number, then

φ(n) = n − 32k−2 .

Proof. From hypothesis, we can take n = 3k−1.(3k − 2). Also, φ(n) is a

multiplicative function, and (3k−1 , 3k − 2) = 1. So,

φ(n) = φ(3k−1.(3k − 2))

= φ(3k−1).φ(3k − 2)
= (3k−1 − 3k−2 ).(3k − 3)
= 3k−1.[(3k − 2) − 3k−1 ]
= n − 32k−2 .

Theorem 2.10. If n is a super-hyperperfect number, then

On perfect numbers and their relations 1343

φ(φ(n)) = 29 n.
Proof. From the definition of super-hyperperfect number we know that
p
n = 3p−1 where p and 3 2−1 are primes and (3p−1 , 2) = 1. So,

1
φ(φ(3p−1 )) = φ((3p−1 ).(1 − ))
3
= φ(3 .2) = φ(3p−2 ).φ(2)
p−2

1
= 3p−2 .(1 − )
3
2.3p−1 2
= = n
9 9

Theorem 2.11. If n is an even superperfect number, then

n
φ(φ(n)) = .
4
Proof. If n is an even superperfect number, then n is of the form 2p−1 where
2p − 1 is a Mersenne prime. So,
1
φ(n) = φ(2p−1 ) = 2p−1 .(1 − )
2
p−2
= 2
1
φ(φ(n)) = φ(2p−2 ) = 2p−2 .(1 − )
2
2p−1
=
4
n
φ(φ(n)) =
4

3 Examples
In this section, we introduced some examples related to our theorems.
Example 3.1. If N = p+1 4
.(φ(p) + σ(p)) where p = 2n+1 − 1 is a Mersenne
prime, then N is a perfect number.

Let p = 2n+1 −1 is a Mersenne prime. Also, by using properties σ(p) = p+1

and φ(p) = p − 1, σ(p) + φ(p) = 2p. Therefore, N = p(p+1)2
= 2n (2n+1 − 1).
So, according to theorem 2.1, N is a perfect number.
1344 Recep Gür and Nihal Bircan

Example 3.2. Let p is a Mersenne prime and N is a perfect number. By

2p 2N
using proposition 2.4, If Nb = p−1 , then find φ( p+1 ).
√ p2 −1
Since p = 4b + 1 so, b = 4
. Then,

N(p − 1) = 2pb
p2 − 1
N(p − 1) = 2p( )
4
4N (p − 1) = 2p(p2 − 1)
2N
= p
p+1
2N
φ( ) = p−1
p+1
So, the result holds.

φ(N)
Example 3.3. Every d = 2
is a triangular number where N is an even
perfect number.

This follows directly from theorem 2.1. If m = 2n then φ(N ) = m(m − 1).
So, φ(N)
2
is a triangular number.

Example 3.4. Let  > 0, N is a perfect number, n ∈ N. Is there any perfect

numbers which satisfies φ(N)
N
< 12 ?

Assume p = 2n+1 − 1 is a Mersenne prime, N = 2n p is a perfect number,

φ(N ) = 2n (2n − 1)
p2 − 1
=
4
p(p + 1)
N =
2
φ(N ) p−1 1 1
= = −
N 2p 2 2p
1
Since  = 2p
, so, φ(N)
N
< 12 .

N
Example 3.5. If N is an even perfect number then, φ(N ) > 4
and
σ(N)
φ(N)
< 8.
On perfect numbers and their relations 1345

We can verify these inequalities in two ways, Firstly, we write N = 2n .p,

p = 2n+1 − 1. So,

 1  1 1 N
φ(N ) = N. (1 − ) > N. (1 − ) = N. = N.2−2 >
p 2 2 4
p|N p|N p|N

σ(N ) = 2N
N
φ(N ) >
4
σ(N) 2N
< N <8
φ(N ) 4

The second way is shorter. By using theorem 2.6,

σ(N) 2n+2 − 2
= n <8
φ(N ) 2 −1

The inequality is true because 3 < 2n+1 .

References
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Mathematica, 1, 1, (2009) 73-82.

[2] L. E. Dickson, History of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. 1, Stechert New

York 1934.

[3] D. P. Dung and L. A. Vinh, A note multiplicatively e-perfect numbers,

Journal of Inequalities in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 7, issue 3,
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[4] G.H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers,

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[5] O. Knill, The oldest open problem in mathematics, NEU Math Circle,
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Sequences, Vol.3, (2000), Article 00.1.3
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[8] G. T. Nanda, Odd perfect numbers, American Mathematical Monthly,

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Received: April, 2010

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