The Constructivism of Jerome Bruner

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in

which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The

word constructivist is an adjective that comes from the noun constructivism which specifies the

theory about the nature of reality and the theory of knowledge (epistemology) founded on the

basis that humans generate knowledge and meaning from their experiences, mental structures,

and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events. Constructivism focuses on the

importance of the individual knowledge, beliefs, and skills through the experience of learning. It

states that the construction of understanding is a combination of prior knowledge and new

information. Individuals can accept new ideas or fit them into their established views of the

world. Constructivist learning is a theory about how people learn. It states that learning happens

when learners construct meaning by interpreting information in the context of their own

experiences.

Bruner's theory on constructivism encompasses the idea of learning as an active process

wherein those learning are able to form new ideas based on what their current knowledge is as

well as their past knowledge. A cognitive structure is defined as the mental processes which offer

the learner the ability to organize experiences and derive meaning from them. These cognitive

structures allow the learner to push past the given information in constructing their new

concepts. The learner, often a child, will take pieces of their past knowledge and experiences and

organize them to make sense of what they know, then base further concepts and solve additional

problems based upon a combination of what they already processed and what they think should

be processed next. In this theory, the teacher resources used should be focused on that of

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encouragement, aiding and allowing the student to uncover the main principles on their own.

Communication between the learner and teacher is the key concept.

Background

Constructivism in education has roots in epistemology, which - in philosophy - is a

theory of knowledge, which is concerned with the logical categories of knowledge and its

justifiable basis. Epistemology also focuses on both the warranting of the subjective knowledge

of a single knower and conventional knowledge. In constructivism, hence, it is recognized that

the learner has prior knowledge and experiences, which are often determined by their social and

cultural environment. Learning is therefore done by students' “constructing” knowledge out of

their experiences. While the Behaviorist school of learning may help understand what students

are doing, educators also need to know what students are thinking, and how to enrich what

students are thinking. There are scholars who state that the constructivist view emerged as a

reaction to the so-called "transmission model of education", including the realist philosophy that

it is based on.

Constructivism can be traced back to educational psychology in the work of Jean Piaget

(1896–1980) identified with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Piaget focused on how

humans make meaning in relation to the interaction between their experiences and their ideas.

His views tended to focus on human development in relation to what is occurring with an

individual as distinct from development influenced by other persons. Lev Vygotsky's (1896-

1934) theory of social constructivism emphasized the importance of sociocultural learning; how

interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized by learners to

form mental constructs through the zone of proximal development. Expanding upon Vygotsky's

theory Jerome Bruner and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of

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instructional scaffolding, whereby the social or informational environment offers supports (or

scaffolds) for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.

Characteristics of a Constructivist Approach

1. Learners construct their own knowledge beginning with what they already

know, exploring what needs to be known next and determining the quality

and effectiveness of their pursuit through authentic assessment and

application.

2. All learning begins in doubt about the validity of an idea. The goal of doubt

is the restoration of belief.

3. Learning takes place in the personal zone of cognitive development between

what is already known, what is not known and what is desired to be known.

4. Learning is achieved best through a socially interactive process (Dewey,

Vygotsky).

5. Learning is best achieved when the undertaking is consistent with the stages

of human development.

6. Learning is an experience-based process of inquiring, discovering, exploring,

doing and undergoing.

7. The process of coming to know is neither random nor eclectic, it has

structure.

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 8. Learning proceeds in spiraling fashion including laddering, scaffolding,

weaving, and dialogism

9. Cognitive development occurs in a socio-cultural context – the social milieu of

individual achievement and the interaction between the learner and adults as

well as his/her peers in culturally valued activities.

10 The interactive process in coming to know needs to be guided by structured

cognitive and affective taxonomies.

Types of constructivism.

There are different types of constructivism that educators can use to find success with this

learning theory. 

 Cognitive. Cognitive constructivism focuses on the idea that learning should be related to

the learner’s stage of cognitive development. These methods work to help students in

learning new information by connecting it to things they already know, enabling them to

make modifications in their existing intelligence to accommodate the new information.

Cognitive constructivism comes from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on

cognitive development in children. 

 Social. Social constructivism focuses on the collaborative nature of learning. Knowledge

develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large.

Students rely on others to help create their building blocks, and learning from others

helps them construct their own knowledge and reality. Social constructivism comes from

Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to cognitive constructivism with the added

element of societal and peer influence.

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  Radical. Radical constructivism is very different from cognitive and social

constructivism. It focuses on the idea that learners and the knowledge they construct tell

us nothing real, only help us function in our environment. The overall idea is that

knowledge is invented, not discovered. The things we bring to the table make it

impossible for us to have truth, only interpretations of knowledge. This theory was

developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld in 1974.

Bruner is poignant about language and how this affects cognition within this theory of

learning development. It is pertinent to any success of a child to identify the differences between

adult language and the language used by children. With the child being younger, they need time

to advance not only their conceptual learning but their language as well. Thus, teachers and

parents alike are encouraged to envelop the "scaffolding" method of communication which is a

strategy aimed to simplifying tasks within learning by making smaller steps, all leading to the

final outcome. This aids in maintaining any frustration while keeping in mind what is important

throughout the learning process.

When evaluating study skills of the child, Bruner's theory suggests that the teachers be

explicit regarding organization, help the learner to focus on the larger task at hand as well as the

goals, instead of getting caught on minor details or frustrations. They are encouraged to praise

the efforts put out by the learners while reminding them, helping them focus on relevant items,

and encouraging them to practice and rehearse what they have learned. Social as well as cultural

contingencies of learning were adapted into Bruner's later work, theorizing how these affected

learning.

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Principles of constructivism.

There are many specific elements and principles of constructivism that shape the way the

theory works and applies to students. Learn about the different principles of constructivism and

how they make up the whole theory. 

 Knowledge is constructed. This is the basic principle, meaning that knowledge is built

upon another knowledge. Students take pieces and put them together in their own unique

way, building something different than what another student will build. The student’s

previous knowledge, experiences, beliefs, and insights are all important foundations for

their continued learning. 

 People learn to learn, as they learn. Learning involves constructing meaning and systems

of meaning. For example, if a student is learning the chronology of dates for a series of

historical events, at the same time they are learning the meaning of chronology. If a

student is writing a paper about history, they are also learning principles of grammar and

writing as well. Each thing we learn gives us a better understanding of other things in the

future.

 Learning is an active process. Learning involves sensory input to construct meaning. The

learner needs to do something in order to learn, it’s not a passive activity. Learners need

to engage in the world so they are actively involved in their own learning and

development. You can’t just sit and expect to be told things and learn, you need to engage

in discussions, reading, activities, etc.

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  Learning is a social activity. Learning is directly associated to our connection with other

people. Our teachers, our family, or peers, and our acquaintances impact our learning.

Educators are more likely to be successful as they understand that peer involvement is

key in learning. Isolating learnings isn’t the best way to help students learn and grow

together. Progressive education recognizes that social interaction is key to learning and

they use conversation, interaction, and group applications to help students retain their

knowledge. 

 Learning is contextual. Students don’t learn isolated facts and theories separate from the

rest of our lives—we learn in ways connected to things we already know, what we

believe, and more. The things we learn and the points we tend to remember are connected

to the things going on around us. 

 Knowledge is personal. Because constructivism is based on your own experiences and

beliefs, knowledge becomes a personal affair. Each person will have their own prior

knowledge and experiences to bring to the table. So the way and things people learn and

gain from education will all be very different. 

 Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on experiences and physical actions are necessary for

learning, but those elements aren’t enough. Engaging the mind is key to successful

learning. Learning needs to involve activities for the minds, not just our hands. Mental

experiences are needed for retaining knowledge.

 Motivation is key to learning. Students are unable to learn if they are

unmotivated. Educators need to have ways to engage and motivate learners to activate their

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minds and help them be excited about education. Without motivation, it’s difficult for learners to

reach into their past experience and make connections for new learning.

A summary of Jerome Bruner’ theory

Jerome Bruner’s theory is very influential and has direct implications on the teaching

practices. The main ideas of the theory can be summarized as follows:

 Learning is an active process. Learners select and transform information.

 Learners make appropriate decisions and postulate hypotheses and test their

effectiveness.

 Learners use prior experience to fit new information into the pre-existing structures.

 Scaffolding is the process through which able peers or adults offer supports for learning.

This assistance becomes gradually less frequent as it becomes unnecessary.

 Intellectual development includes three stages. The enactive stage which refers to

learning through actions. The iconic stage refers to the learners’ use of pictures or

models.  The symbolic stage refers to the development of the ability to think in abstract

terms.

 The notion of a spiral curriculum states that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas,

building on them until the student grasps the full formal concept.

 Although extrinsic motivation may work in the short run, intrinsic motivation has more

value

Implications on the learning process

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 Bruner’s learning theory has direct implications for teaching practices. Here are some of

these implications:

1. Instruction must be appropriate to the level of the learners. For example, being aware of

the learners’ learning modes (enactive, iconic, symbolic) will help you plan and prepare

appropriate materials for instruction according to the difficulty that matches learners’

level.

2. The teachers must revisit the material to enhance knowledge. Building on pre-taught

ideas to grasp the full formal concept is of paramount importance according to Bruner.

Feel free to re-introduce vocabulary, grammar points, and other topics now and then to

push the students to deeper comprehension and longer retention.

3. The material must be presented in a sequence giving the learners the opportunity to:

acquire and construct knowledge, transform and transfer his learning.

4. Students should be involved in using their prior experiences and structures to learn new

knowledge.

5. Help students to categorize new information to able to see similarities and differences

between items.

6. Teachers should assist learners in building their knowledge. This assistance should fade

away as it becomes unnecessary.

7. Teachers should provide feedback that is directed toward intrinsic motivation. Grades and

competition are not helpful in the learning process. Bruner states that learners must

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 “experience success and failure not as reward and punishment, but as information”

(Bruner 1961, p. 26)

The advantages of the theory

Constructivism is an important learning theory that educators use to help their students learn.

Constructivism is based on the idea that people actively construct or make their own knowledge,

and that reality is determined by your experiences as a learner. Basically, learners use their

previous knowledge as a foundation and build on it with new things that they learn.

Constructivism is crucial to understand as an educator because it influences the way all of

your students learn. Teachers and instructors that understand the constructivist learning theory

understand that their students bring their own unique experiences to the classroom every day.

Their background and previous knowledge impact how they are able to learn. Educators are able

to use constructivist learning theory to help their students understand their previous knowledge.

If you’re a current or aspiring educator, it’s important to get the education and credentials you

need. But it’s also important to understand learning theories and how they impact you and your

students. Constructivism is a theory in education that recognizes the learners' understanding and

knowledge based on their own experiences prior to entering school

Disadvantages of constructivist methods

The biggest criticism of constructivist learning is its lack of structure. Some students need

highly structured and organized learning environments to thrive, and constructivist learning

focuses on a more laid-back method to help students engage in their own learning.

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 Grading is often removed from constructivist classrooms and places more value on

student progress, which can lead to students falling behind and not meeting standardized grading

requirements.

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Conclusion
Conclusively, the concept of constructivism has influenced a number of disciplines,

including psychology, sociology, education and the history of science. During its infancy,

constructivism examined the interaction between human experiences and their reflexes or

behavior-patterns. Piaget called these systems of knowledge "schemes." This only points to the

fact that Bruner was not just interested in knowledge but he was also concerned in elicit prior

knowledge whereby new knowledge is created in relation to learner's pre-existing knowledge.

This theory is appropriate because as people experience the world and reflect upon those

experiences, they build their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-

existing knowledge (schemas).

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References

Bruner, J. S. (1961). "The act of discovery". Harvard Educational Review.

Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. New York: Free Press.

Nola, Robert; Irzik, Gürol (2006). Philosophy, Science, Education and Culture. Springer Science

& Business Media.

Piaget, J. (1971), Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge New York:

Grossman.

Denis; Griffin, Peg; Cole, Michael (1989). The Construction Zone: Working for Cognitive

Change in School. Cambridge University Press.

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