' •; ·" .. ' .. . . . .

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Constructional Features and

Working of l.C. Engines

Syllabus
Introduction Classification of l.C. Engines , Parts of l.C. Engine and their materials, Cycle of operation
in Four stroke and Two-stroke IC engines and their comparative study ,Fuel air cycles and their
analysis, Actual working cycle, Valve Timing Diagram.
LHR Engines, Homogeneous charge compression Ignition, Rotary engine,Six stroke engine concept.

Definition and Types of Heat Engines The heat energy of hot products of combustion (flue.
and Their Applications gases) is used· directly as in case of gas turbines to
develop mechanical power.
1.1 Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines
AJtemately, this heat energy of hot gases is used to
r::il" Definition of Heat Engine I Thermal Prime raise the pressure and temperature of another working
Movers fluid like steam. This steam is subsequently used in

DLLT .·. j'1 A '1z:~at engine is a . device in.which· t~ steam engines or steam turbines to develop mechanical
~ a
chemical energy of fuel first co"riv~rl;d is power.
into heat energy, subseqitently this :. hf!a~
Such external combustion engines are not suitable for
ene;gy is converted into mechanical ~nergy/
mobile plants used in transportation since these are
Heat engines are also called as thermal prime movers. heavy and bulky.
r3" Types of Heat Engines
~ 2. Internal Combustion Engines

Types of Heat Engines In these engines, .the combustion of fuel takes place
inside the cylinder itself with air inducted from
1. External combustion engines
atmosphere.
2. Internal combustion (l.C.) Engines i
The chemical energy of fuel released raises the pressure
·-· . l
Fig. Cl.l : Types of Heat Engines and temperature of the products of combustion.

-> 1. External Combustion Engines These hot gases are subsequently expanded to develop
the mechanical power and finally the gases are rejected
In the external combustion engines, the combustion of
back to the atmosphere.
fuel takes place outside the cylinder in a furnace.

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1.1.1 Com - . :.,
par1son between External and 1.1.2 Applications of l.C. Engines ,·~
Int · I ..
erna Combustion Engines
l. Most of the I. _
c . engines are used in transport system'
The
comp · . i.e. in automobiles, diesel locomotives, trucks, tractors,
anson between external and internal ··~
I )·
I
combustion enoine · .
b'"-U s with theu relative merits is given below
two wheelers like scooters and motor cycles etc.
Table 111 ·
• • • ompanson of
c .
Engines over I.e. · · 2. J.C. engines are used in aeropJan~s and marine
,.
E.c. Engines transports, motor boats, generating sets etc.
... ,_. .• ' .
'
..
Sir.. 3. J.C. engines are used for industrial applications for
· lnte~~l Combustion External Combustion
'No. running milJs, concrete mixtures, Jawn movers and in
(LC) Engines {E.C) Engine5
earth moving plants.
(A)
Advantages of J.C. engines over E.C. Engines 4. Diesel generators are used for as power plants upto

1. 100 MW capacity.
_T hese are compact and These are large in size
efficient. Ci!" Specific applications of type of l.C. engines are
and less efficient
given below
2. These have low weight These have high
Table ·1.1.2 : Specific Applications of I .C. Engines
to power ratio. weight to power ratio. ·,
Application . '
Sr. Type of '
3. Need less maintenance Need high No. J.C. r~ . .... '.• , •
·'

cost, thus requiring law Engine .,

maintenance cost thus

operating cost I. Two stroke Used in mopeds, scooters, motor
required high
petrol cycles, lawn movers etc due to their
- operating cost engines . simplicity in working and low
maintenance cost. These are used for
4. Does not need Needs auxiliary capacity upto 12 kW upto 600 rpm.
auxiliary equipment equipment like furnace 2. Four These are used in cars, Jeeps, motor
like furnace and heat stroke cycles, pumping sets, small power
and heat exchangers.
petrol generating sets etc. Earlier they were
exchangers engines used in aircrafts which have been
replaced by gas turbine power plants.
5. Suitable for mobile Less suit.able for These have high running cost
compared to diesel engines.
applications mobile applications.
3. Four These are commonly used in
B. Disadvantages of LC. Engines Over E.C. Engines stroke automobiles, pumping sets,
diesel construction machinery, motor boats,
engines high power generating sets etc. due to
1. Requires costly fuels Can use cheaper fuels
their high efficiency compared to
like p~trol and diesel like coal since petrol engines and low running cost.
These engines can develop 1 kW to
since combustion takes combustion takes
40000 kW of power per cylinder with
place inside the cylinder place outside speed ranging 100 rpm to 4500 rpm.

4. Two stroke These are preferred for generation by

2. Not suitable for large Highly suitable for
diesel high power because of their lower
- large power p]ants engines weight to power ratio (almost 50%)
power plants
compared to four stroke diesel
engines. Diesel power plants are used
upto a capacity of 100 MW.
 Constructional Features & Wo mg
· rk' of I c
. .
Engines
.
t.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
1-3

Syllabus Topic : Parts of l.C. Engine and

Their Material

1.2 Engine Components Exhauel@

valve

a
The sketch of four stroke, aircoo1ed petrol engine is @tMI
valve
. COITlblmiOO@
c;hmnber

shown in Fig. 1.2.1 (a) and water cooled engine in ?1s1on ©.

mos
_Fig. 1.2.l(b). @cooung
nns
----c~©
The main components ~fa 4-stroke petrol engine are : Gudgeon@ .
. pin .
@Piston
Engine Components
of a 4-stroke petrol engine c6medlng©
rod

1. Cylinder
Crankptn@)

2. Cylinder Head Crank@

Crank~©
3. Piston

@Balancing Crankcase©
4. Piston Rings weight

5. Connecting Rod

Fig. 1.2.l(a) : Parts of 4-Stroke I.C. Engine

6. Crank
Brief description of main components of the engine are
7. Crankshaft
given below :
8. Gudgeon Pin or Piston Pin
~ 1. Cylinder
9. Crankcase A cylinder (I) in an I.C. engine has to withstand very

10. Spark Plug high pressures upto 70 bar and temperatures upto
2500°C because the combustion of fuel is carried out
11 . Valve and Valve Mechanism within the cylinder.

12. Engine Bearings Therefore, cylinders must be cooled. It may be

aircooled in case of low capacity engines (e:g. two
.13. Flywheel
wheelers) or water cooled in case of high capacity
engines (e.g. cars, trucks etc.)
14. Carburettor
a MateriaIS
15. Fuel Injection Pump
Materials used f or cylinder are high grade cast iron or
Fig. Cl.2 : Engine Components of a 4..stroke alloy steels. ·
p~trol engine
It may also use aluminiuµi alloys where weight is
consideration as in case of aeroplanes and automobiles.

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I.e. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 1-4 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. En in;s.:;:~
,·
-t 2. Cylinder Bead .. 6. Crank
, , . ..;,r

The function of cylinder head (2) is to seal top end of Crank (6) is the integral part of the crankSbaft ~7) ·
the cylinder.
'·
.. 7, Crankshaft
~ Material
Crankshaft is supported in main bearings and Carries
Space is provided to carry the valve mechanism, spark the balancing weights (18) It also carries the flywh~J
,,
plug etc. It is made ofcast iron or aluminium. to ev~n out the fluctuating torque.
.. 3. Piston
ls. Material

The function of piston (3) is to transmit the gas force to Crank and crankshaft are steel forged and machined to
connecting rod, hence, to the crank. It slides in the smooth finish.
cylinder.
~ 8. Gudgeon Pin or Piston Pin
~ Material
It connects the piston to small end of the connecting
Usually, piston are made of cast steel and aluminium rod and the bearings fitted in it are called small end
alloy since it requires strength. These are made hollow bearings.
because only one face on cylinder side is a working . a Material
face.
It is made of hardened steel in the shape of spindle.
_. 4. Piston Rings
-+ 9.. Crankcase
Piston rings (4) made of cast steel are provided to
prevent the leakage of gas to crank case. Upper rings Crank, crankshaft and main bearings are set in the
are called compr~ion rings. crankcase (9).

Low.er piston rings are oiling rings. These rings have a The bottom of the engine is closed by means of oil
oil groove with several holes so as to discharge the sump, which carries lubricating oil.
excess lubricating oil from cylinder walls to drainage ~ 10. Spark Plug
holes in the piston from where oil is sent back to oil
sump. The function of a spark plug (I 0) is to provide a high
intensity spark for combustion of fuel and air in the
-> 5. Connecting Rod cylinder in spark ignition engines.

One end of the connecting rod (5) is connected to -V 11. Valve and Valve Mechanism
piston through a gudgeon pin (8) called small end and
The engine bas two valves, namely, the inlet or suction
the other end to crank through the crank pin (18) called
valve (11) and the exhaust valve (12). These valves are
big end.
operated by cam mounted on camshaft.
Connecting rod transmits the piston load (gas force) to [Refer Fig. 1.2.i (b)]
the crank. It converts the reciprocating motion of the
The camshaft rotates. at half the speed of . the
piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
crankshaft, in case offour stroke engines with the help
'5. Material of timing gears having a tooth ratio of 1: 2.

These are made of nickel, chrome and vanadium steels.

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 l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech 1·5 . Constructional Features & Working of 1.C. Engines

_. 12. Engine Bearings ~ Material

Crankshaft is supported in main bearings, which are It is made of steel or cast iron disc.
lubricated. _. 14. Carburettor
Function of bearings is to facilitate smooth motion to
The function of carburettor is to prepare the mixture of
crankshaft and reduce friction between them.
fuel and air and meter it before sending it to induction
_. 13. Flywheel system of the engine according to operating conditions
of the engine in case of spark ignition engines.
A heavy rotating mass is attached to crankshaft outside
the crankcase called flywheel. _. 15. Fuel Injection Pump
It's function is to smooth out the cyclic fluctuations of Function of fuel pump is to inject the atomised fuel to
torque developed by the reciprocating engine during a the cylinder under very high pressures in case of
cycle. compression ignition engines.

inlet valve
(B~gin~ to ope!l)

Exhaust cam shaft

Inlet cam Exhaust cam

Exhaust cam
shaft gear

Crank shaft gear

Fig.1.2.t(b): Sectional vi~w of water ccolcd engine with valve operating mechanism
·-·
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'· It also prevents the gases from passing from the -v~ve· :~-~
12 •~
.. " ·1 Materials for Main Components of port to the valve chamber of the engine block.
" 1.C. Engine -The valve spring fits be_tween the engine block and ~ ':~·~
' ""! ( <'. . •
:sr.- ·.·•.. Co
.'--~- .... _-.::'.- ___ • • ~I "' ~ • • • .' • • sp ring retainer in which the valve stem is locked by .•
;_'. ' .:-- : .-- ~ponent . - .- Material - , ·
.No~:- ·._. -,;· -.. ·_.,_-.\ ~; :- :- .. . . . .. .:··
~
. ;-: means of a conical split collar. The pressure of the _ E
spring on the retainer holds the valve in the closed '
1. Cylinder position until it is lifted by the valve tappet by the-
Cast iron or alloy steel
2. rotation of cam.
Cylinder head C~t iron or aluminium
When the valve is closed, a small clearance is
3. Piston and piston Cast steels or aluminium necessary between the valve tappet and the valve stem.
rings alloys This valve tappet clearance allows the expansion of
4. Gudgeon pin valve stem when the engine is heated. The clearance
Hardened steel
can be adjusted by rotating the adjusting screw. ·
5. Connecting rod Nickel chrome and More clearance is provided for exhaust valve as
vanadium steel compared to inlet valves since the exhaust valve are
6. Crankand Steel forged heated comparatively to much higher temperatures.
crankshaft The clearance to be provided depends upon th~ material
length of the valves and the temperatures it is subjected
7. Flywheel Steel or cast iron disc
to.
1.2.2 Valve Mechanism
Valve face

As discussed above, the poppet valves are usually used Valve seat insert

?
for automobiles which are operated by the cam mounted on -
-
the camshaft driven by crankshaft at half the speed through - Engine block
-
gears or chain.
Valve port_.........~
Based on the location of valves, the valve mechanism
are of two types :
1. Valve mechanism for operating the valves in engine
block for (L-T-F) head designs.

2. Valve mechanism for operating the overhead valves.in

the cylinder head for I and F - head design engines.

1.2.3 Valve Mechanism for Valves in Engine J--- -- Valve tappet

I

Block
Flat faced follower
A valve m echanis m for operating the valves in engine
block used for L-T-F bead designs is shown in Cam

Cam shaft
Fig. 1.2.2.
-when the camshaft rotates, the valve stem guide acts as Fig.1.2.2: Valve mechanism in engine block
a slipper bearing to allow the valve to move up and

down.

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.!(fr1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1-7 Constructional Features & Wor1<ing of 1.C. Engines

1.2.4 . Valve Mechanism for Overhead Valves 1.2.5 Camshaft

In Engine Cylinder
The camshaft provides a means for opening and closing
The valve mechanism for overhead valves used in I and . of the inlet and exhaust valves. The cam shaft is driven
F design cylinder heads is shown in Fig. 1.2.3. As either through meshing gears or by chain drive from the
compared to valve mechanism for valves in cylinder crankshafL The speed of the cam shaft is half that of
block discussed above, it requires two additional the crankshaft.
components viz. the push rod and the rocker arm. The camshaft is mounted on bearings in the lower part
When the cam shaft rotates, the cam mounted on it lifts of the cylinder block. It has two cams for each cylinder.
the valve tappet. It actuates the push rod. One to operate the inlet valve and another to operate

The push rod in tum rotates the rocker ann about its the exhaust valves. Thus for a four cylinder in line

shaft or a ball joint to cause its other end to push down engines, the Jong camshaft will have eight cams.

the valve stem in its guides. Thus the valve opens into The cams are so arranged to ensure proper firing order
the cylinder head and connects to its combustion of the engine. The camshaft also provides a drive for
chamber. the ignition distributor and the mechanical fuel pump.

In this mechanism the clearance is kept between the The camshaft is forged from alloy steel or cast of cast
· rocker arm end and the valve stem end. This clearance iron which is case hardened. The camshaft is machined
can be adjusted by adjusting screw. and the cams are hardened to withstand wear.

There are various designs and systems used for Terminology used in l.C. Engines
operation of overhead valves.
Adjusting screw 1.3 Terminology used in l.C. Engines
Rocker arm
Cylinder head
Clearance
volume (Ve}

Spring retainer Cylinder

rn.~-- Spring
..___ _ Valve guide Piston position
atT.D.C.
Bor • (d)
Cylinder head
Piston position
Combustion
at B.D.C.
chamber
Piston
-...._
Connecting '
N' \
Cylinder
rod
I
Crank I
I
F
' ..... __._
I ........ /

B.D.C.

Engine block Fig. 1.3.1 : Bore, stroke and Oearance Volume

Valve tappet

Carn
Carn shaft

Fig. J.2.3: Valve mechanism for overhead valve

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r. ! '·..
constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engi~\
IWr l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V~Mech) 1-B %oil .~

r:r Definition of clearance ·ratio

1• Dead Centres

ln case of vertical engines, when the piston is at the top

most position, the crank position is called top dcnd
center (T.D.C).
When the piston is at the bottom most position, the . .. (1.3.2)
crank position is called bottom dead center (B.D.C.).

In case of horizontal engines, the crank positions (where d is bore of cylinder)

corresponding to the inner most position and outer most
s. Total volume of the cylinder or cylinder
pos1'ti on of the piston are called inner dead center
O.D.C) and outer dead center (O.D.C.) respectively.
volume
r:Jl9 Definition of total or full volume the cylinder
2. Cylinder Bore, d
DEFDllTlON
1
Definition of bore
OJ
Cfl9 .
.

3. Stroke Length, L :. Total volume of the cylinder

Definition of stroke .. .(1.3.3)
r,;;;--:---:--:--:-:-----:------~
<:if8
DfFIXITlOW = Clearance volume, Vc + Stroke volume, V1
r TL-;ii The tr:ivel of the piston·' from .'its \Tbq :toI
b.J.-1.J BDC is called the s'troke ofpiston: , ·. '"·;:I 7. Compression Ratio, r
r:Jl9 Oeflnitlon of compression ratio
If 'r is the radius of crank, it is obvious that :

Stroke length, L = 2 x r ... (1.3.1)

4. Clearance Volume, Ve

ar Definition of clearance volume

The volume contained in the cylinder above Cylinder volume= Clearance volume, 01J +stroke volume, 01.)
the piston from its top dead centre position . . Cylinder volume
is called clearance volume, Ve. Compress10n ratio,r = ~C------­
1earance volume

5. Stroke Volume V 11 and clearance ratio, C V,+Vc

= ...(1.3.4)

CJr Definition of stroke volume

8. Piston Speed
DlfIIITTIOit
The travel ofpiston from T .D.C. to B.D.C. i.s
OJ called piston stroke denoted by 'L' and
the volume displaced by the piston is called
The average speed of piston is called piston speed and
it is equal to 2 LN. Let N = speed of the crankshaft in
r.p.ro
stroke volume, Va.
. . Piston speed= 2 x L x N (mlmin) .. . (1.3.5)
. N
P1ston speed= 2L x 60 (mis) ... (1.3.6)

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-i l.c: Engines MU-Sem. V-Mech 1-9 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines
I
I
·1
Syllabus Topic : Classification of l.C. Engines
.I

i
I
1.4 Classlficatlon of l.C. Engines
1
The internal combustion engines are classified based on the following systems :

Tho Internal combustion engines aro classified

based on the following systems

(1) Based on number of strokes per cycle

(a) Four stroke engine (b) Two stroke engine

(2) Based on thennodynamlc cycle used

(a) Otto cycle , (b) Diesel cycle (c) Dual combusUon cycle
J .
(3) Based on number of cylinders

(a) Single cylinder engine (b) Multicytinder engine

(4) Based on arrangement of cylinders

(b) V-engines I (c) Radial engines

.em::exzsa
I
(d) Opposed cylinder engine (e) Opposed piston engine

(5) Based on Ignition system

(a) Sp~rk ig_niti~~~S.I.) en_~~n~s.J (b) Compression ignition (C.1.) engines

(6) Based on cooling system

(a) Water cooled engines (b) A:Jr cooled engines

(7) Basod on fuel used

(b) Diesel engines (c) Gas engines

(8) Based on fuel supply sy stem

(9) Based on lubrication syatem

(a) We t sump lubrication l

Fig. Cl.3 : Classification of I.C. Engines

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l$fC l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) .1-10
• ~ ·_~ ._;·~-? ~!

-t (a) In-line engtnes . . · . · . ·. 1

-+ (1) Based on Number of Strokes Per. Cycle
In this all the cylinders are arranged With ~:::.1
(a) Four stroke engine in which one cycle is
axes parallel Wid transmit the power to a sin~•&C<I
·
completed in four strokes of the piston in two
' •,·
crank-shaft.
revolutions of the crankshaft.

(b) Two stroke engine in which one cycle is

-+ (b) V-engines

completed in two strokes of the piston in one These engines contain two banks of cylinder

revolution of the crankshaft. connected to same .crank and crank-shaft Their

axes are inclined to each other.
_. (2) Based on Tberoiodynamic Cycle Used

(a) Constant volume combustion cycle or Otto cycle.

-+ (c) Radial engines

In this the cylinders are arranged radially and are

(b) Constant pressure combustion cycle or Diesel
connected to a single crank-shaft
cycle.
_. (d) Opposed cylinder engiile
(c) Partly at constant volume and partly at constant
pressure combustion cycle or Dual combustion In this engine there are two cylinder banks which

cycle. are located in the same plane on opposite sides of

crankshaft. It can be visualized as two in-line
~ (3) Based on Number of Cylinders
engine arrangements 180° apart. The connecting
(a) Single cylinder engin~. rods of the two cylinders are connected to a single

(b) Multicylinder engine. crank. It provides a well balanced engine.

~ (e) Opposed piston engine

~ (4) Based on Arrangement of Cylinders

(Refer Fig. 1.4.1) In this engine a single cylinder houses two pistons,
each of which drives a separate crankshaft as
shown in Fig. 1.4.l(e). It is also a well balanced
engine and the advantage of such an engine is that
it requires no cylinder head.

-) (5) Based on Ignition System

(n) In-line engine (b) v:..engine
(a) Spark ignition (S.I.) engines_

~ Petrol engines use the spark ignition system for

\ I
--- igniting the compressed charge.

(b) Compression ignition (C.I.) engines

Diesel engines utilize the high temperatures raised

(c) Radial engine (e) Opposed piston due to high compression ratio of the cylinder.

Fig. 1.4.1 : Arrangement of Cylinders

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 . . . . ..

KJ?r 1.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1-11 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

Compression ignition engines can be further classified as : _. (b) Solid injection engines

(i) Normal type based on the type of liquid fuel used i.e. In case of diesel engines the fuel is injected with

light diesel oil (LOO), high speed diesel oil (HSD) and the help of a fuel pump.

heavy oil diesel engines. _. (c) Air injection engines

(ii) Dual-fuel type diesel engines. In these engines, a In certain diesel engines the fuel is injected into
gaseous fuel or highly volatile fuel is supplied along the·cylinder with the help of compressed air.
with air during suction stroke or initial part of
_. (9) Based on Lubrication System
compression stroke through a gas valve in the cylinder

head and the liquid fuel is injected into the combustion (a) Wet sump lubrication

chamber near the end of compression stroke. (b) Dry sump lubrication

_. (6) Based on Cooling System (c) Pressure lubrication.

(a) Water cooled engines Syllabus Topic : Cycle of Operation in Four Stroke
Engines
(b) Air cooled engines.
1.5 Four Stroke Cycle Engines
~ (7) Based on Fuel Used

(a) Petrol engines In a four stroke engine, the cycle consists of four

strokes of· the piston completed in two revolutions of the

(b) Diesel engines
crankshaft. These are :
(c) Gas engines
1. Suction stroke.
(d) Bi-fuel engines : These engines use the main fuel
2. Compression stroke.
as gas and the liquid fuel is used for the starting
purposes. 3. Expansion or power stroke.

~ (8) Based on Fuel Supply System 4. Exhaust stroke.

-> (a) Carburettor engines

In such engines the mixture of petrol and air from

carburettor is supplied to the engine cylinder.

'. '

1-12 Constructional Features & Workln

WflRKING OF 4 STROKE S.L ENGINE

[ (•) Soctlq~ 1~ke .·1 j
Inlet valvo
Inletvatve
closed .Exhaust
Exhaust
valve(EV) valve(EV)
closed closed

Cylinder Cylinder

Piston

Connecting
Crank rod

Crank
-1:C.~>'¥ipj(nslor~';Stro~P:iJ
... -,-:,,.,.,< ·(d) Exha"ushtro1¢ .
Inlet valve
closed Inlet valve Exhaust valve
closed (EV) open
:;...-"8ctlaust gases

Piston

Cylinder
Cylindsr

- Piston
•,,

Crank

Seamed w ith CemScann~

: . ..
;.

lq?r l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1·13 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

During this stroke, the During this Stroke Inlet (l.V.) and During this stroke the During this stroke, the inlet
inlet valve (l.V.) opens Exhaust Valves (E.V.) both inlet and exhaust valve remains closed and the
and the exhaust valve remain closed. valves remain closed exhaust valve is opened.
(E.V.) remains closed.

The mixture of fuel and The charge is compressed upto its The piston moves The piston moves from BOC to
air called charge is clearance volume and Piston from TDC to BOC. TDC and· during this motion,
drawn during the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. the piston pushes out the burnt
movement from T.D.C gases from the cylinder.
toB.D.C.

It is represented by It is represented by process It is represented by Heat rejected is represented by

process (0-1). (l -2). process (3 -4). process (4 - 1) and the exhaust
The piston bas now During the process the pressure High pressure and process by (1 - O).
made one stroke during and temperature of the mixture temperature gases The exhaust valve closes at the
the 180° of crankshaft rises. Just before the end of push down the piston end of the stroke and a part of
rotation. compression stroke, the mixture is to create the motive burnt gases called residual
ignited with the help of spark plug power. gases remain in the clearance
and due to instantaneous release space. Again the inlet valve
of chemical energy of fuel, the opens and a new cycle starts.
pressure and temperature of the
mixture further rises. It is
represented by process (2 - 3).

p (ii) Compression ignition (C.I.) engines.

3
The petrol or gas engines work on Otto cycle.

During the suction stroke the mixture of fuel and air is

Compression stroke supplied and the mixture is ignited with the help of
Ignition

Intake stroke
___
....._ __;;;::..
4
-1-
R-e:i-

~-1- Exhaust stroke

rro
)-
- ~di
-_ o-
n:-
·t4l
~
-,,-51 spark provided by spark plug before the end of
compression stroke. These are called S.l. engines.
i.....~~~~~~~-t>V
Volume The compression ignition engines work on diesel cycle
(e) p-V diagram for
otto cycle engine with working fluid as diesel. In these engines, only air
is inducted during suction stroke and the fuel is injected
Fig. 1.5.1 : Working of 4-stroke S.I. engine
at the end of compression stroke. These employ high
Each of the above stroke in sequence is completed in of
compression ratio in the range of 14 to 20.
crank rotation.
Thus, the air compressed is at very high pressure and
Four stroke engines are of two types :
temperature and the fuel auto ignites.
(i) Spark ignition (S.L) engines Working of four stroke engines is discussed below :·

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I.e. Engine.s (MU-Sem. V·Mech) 1-14

...- ,.
l .S.l Working of Four Stroke S.I. Engines or p HeataddltiOO

\ 1•'
Petrol Engines 2
The WO rkingof four stroke ideal cycle for spark
ignition engmes
· · based on the actual cycle developed
1s
by German Engineer, Otto in 1862.

The working fluid for these engines is petrol or gas.

Four strokes are completed in two revolutions of the

crankshaft.

The compression ratio used in these engines varies v

(b) p· diagram for diesel cycle
from 5 to lO.
Fig. 1.5.2 : Schematic Diagram of 4-stroke C.I. Engine
The series of operati~n of the engine are shown by the
schematic diagram in Fig. l.S.l. The working of a compression ignition engine is based
on the engine designed by German Engineer, Rudolf ·
Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engines
Diesel in 1892 using very high compression ratio.
1•5•2 Working of Four Stroke C.I. Engine or The working of diesel engine is similar to petrol
Diesel Engines engines working on Otto cycle except that in case of
Fuel pump
C.I. engines the air is only drawn during its suction
Fuel injector (F.1.)
with nozzle Diesel from stroke instead of mixture of fuel and air drawn in case
--tank
Air filter
Exhaust valve (E. V.) of S.I. engines.

In case of C.I. engines the fuel is injected into the

cylinder before the end of compression stroke under
Cylinder
very high pressures.
Piston
The working fluid for C.I. engines is diesel and it
operates on diesel cycle.
Gudgeon pin
The compression ratio used for diesel engines varies
Connecting
rod from 14 to 20.

The schematic diagram of a four stroke diesel engine

Crank pin with main components is shown in Fig. 1.5.2.

The ideal sequences of operation of a four stroke diesel

Crank shaft
engine are as follows :
Crank
(a) Suction Stroke

(b) Compression Stroke

(c) Expansion or Power Stroke

(d) Exhaust stroke

(a )
Fig. 1.5.2(Contd•••)
 .l ·• •

... ~- ' .

kJ?r 1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. v-Mech) 1-15 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

Various stroke of the cycle are shown in Fig. 1.5.3.

WORKING OF 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Inlet valve Inlet valve

opens closed
Exhaust
·valve(EV)
closed

Piston c=g
~ ....
Cylinder
!8
~CD
Cylinder

-E
I I
B:g
I I
PISton

I I

I I

I
Crank • Connecting
Crank rod
shaft shaft
Crank

(c) Expansion stroke

Inlet valve Inlet valve Exhaust valve (EV)
closed closed
Exhaust open
valve (EV) :::::.'Exhaust gases
closed

~8
em0
Piston c:g
Q)
~ ....
~8
>-
Cylinder Cylinder
~8
c 1- cm
~ E .9 E
-a.-
e e
.!!!
a._
Piston

Connecting
rod

Connecting
Cranl< rod

Fig. 1.5.3 : Four strokes of Diesel Engine Cycle

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_lWr LC, Encinas (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

!.
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·j
·:.i
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exhaust valve (E.V.) closed. (E.V.)
remains closed. remain closed.

Piston moves from T.D.C. Piston moves from B.D.C. to After the injection of The piston traveling from
to B DC d . fuel 15
· over (1·.e. after BOC to TDC pushes out the
· · · unng the T.D.C. during the stroke.
stroke. fuel cut-off), the combustion gases.

products of combusti~n
expand during piston
movement from T.D.C.
toB.D.C.

Only the air is inducted The air sucked during suction Though the fuel Since diesel engine uses very

during the suction stroke. stroke is compressed upto its injection starts nearly high compression ratio, the
clearance volume. at the end of temperature of the air at the
compression stroke, but end of compression stroke is
the rate of injection of very high and it is sufficient
fuel is such the to self ignite the fuel.
combustion maintains Due to this, in case of C.L
the pressure constanL engines a spark plug is not
Due to combustion of needed. This method of
fuel, heat is assumed to ignition of fuel is called auto
be added at constant ignition.
pressure.

Comparison of Petrol (S.I.) and Diesel (C.I.) Engines

1.6 Comparison between S.I. (Petrol) Engine and C.I. (Diesel) Engine

Both are four stroke internal combustion engines completing one power stroke in two revolutions of the crankshaft.
However, the basic differences in their cycles of operation areas shown in Table 1.6.1.

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.l$fC 1.C. Engines (.MU-Sem. V~Mech) 1·17 Constructional Features &Worldng of l.C. EnQlnes

Table 1.6.1

1. Basic cycle Based on Otto cycle Based on Die5el cycle

2. Fuel used Gasoline (Petrol) having high self Diesel having lower self ignition
ignition temperature temperature compared to gasoline

3. Induction A carburettor is used to prepare the No carburettor is needed. Fuel is injected

required strength of mixture of fuel with the help of fuel pump under high
and air. pressure directly into the combustion
chamber before the end of the compression

stroke.

4. Compression ratio (C.R.) Varies from 5 to 10. Upper limit is Varies from 14 to 20. Upper limit is fixed
limited by antiknock rating of fuels. due to increasing weight of the engine with
the increase in C.R.

5. Ignition Spark is used to ignite the mixture. The self ignition of fuel occurs due to high
temperature of air bCcause of high
compression of air.

6. Load control Quantity of mixture of fuel and air Fuel pump regulates the supply of fuel
inducted is controlled by throttle. injected to cylinder.

7. Speed. High speed engines due to light Low speed engines due to heavy weight.
weight.

8. Thermal efficiency Low efficiency due to low High efficiency because of higher
compression ratio (C.R.) compression ratio (C.R.)

9. Weight Lighter due to lower peak pressures. Heavier due to higher peak pressures.

10. Starting Easy due to low C.R. Difficult due to high C.R.

11. Running cost More as they use costly fuel. Low as they use cheap fuel.

12. InitiaJ cost. Low High.

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l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
1 8 ... , _1 constructional Features & Workln
'.
The top of the piston usually has a deflector. The f ::. .:1 ~
Syllabus Topic : Cycle of Operation of ~'
= Two Stroke Engine
charge sweeps out the remainder of the .burnt 8~ ;·
T . while 'passing over the deflector. Th.is ProcCss -0; ·~
1.7
wo Stroke I.e. Engines
sweeping out the burnt gases from the cylinder by ~ ·

In two Stroke engines,

· one cycle is completed in one fresh charge is called sca••enging.
revolution of the .......~'--
- "·~haft by eliminating the suction
and exhaust strokes.
However the .
• suction and exhaust processes are carried
out simultaneously during the compression and
expansion strokes. Gudgeonpln
or piston pin
The working of SJ· and CJ. cog.mes
. working on two
stroke cycle are being described below.

1.7.1 Working of Two Stroke S.I. (Petrol)

Inlet port

Engine

....."-----~ di agmm of two stroke

Fig. 1.7.1 shows the .-UQu.:wc
CrankC8118
engine. In this type of en~inc the \'11.h'c.." of the four
stroke engmc
.· Crank
3fC repl:K~ hy ports which urc lhrcc in

numbers. n.:uncJy, transfer po~ inlet or Induction

port and aha.ust port.

C.on..~i-da tb:s.t the pis.ton is 3t T.D.C. which h3s the high

Fig. 1.7.1: Two Stroke S.I. Engine
piessure :md high tcmpcr.uure t~s of the previous

strclr ~ the fresh clurge in the er.ml: c.3.~ During the upward motion of the piston from BOC to

\"\'hen the piS1..:oo mo\"es from TOC to BOC. the burnt TDC, U1e piston first uncovers the inlet port allowing

g3:SeS e..~ :md de\'clop the moth-e power. the fresh charge to be admitted into the crank case due

to the partial vacuum created in the crank case and then

Wben the piSUln mo\·es downwards during its
it uncovers the transfer and exhaust ports.
cxpmrioo !t:rol:e. lhe pisron first CO\'et'S the inlet port

l!:ld ~the fresh c-h.3rgc held in the crank case. 111e fresh charge admitted into cylinder in its previous

stroke is now compressed. Before the end of

After c::om;:t!ctioo of :about 80% of expansion stroke, the
compression stroke a spark is supplied which burns the
pi:slon WlCO\·cn the cxlwlst port and some of the
fuel air mixture.
proda;..-u of cc:nbustiCY.J esczpc to 3tmospbere.
Cycle is now again repeated.
On furtha IDO'Joo of the Jili,10n, the piston uncovers the

tr.msfa port and allcr..i.·s the !>lightly compressed charge

from the cranl: case to be admiue.d into the cylinder via

the uansfer pert.

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· ·mi-1.c. Engines (MU-Serri. V-Mech) 1·19 constfucticina1 Features &working 01 1.c. Engines . · ·

·WORKING OF 2 STROKE PETROL ENGINE .

Piston .
•movement
·Transfer port Transfer port
(T.P.) dosed (T.f>;) closed

Spar1( plug

Piston

Transfer port
mOVement
Transfer pori
(T.P.)open .(tP;) open .

I
I
\

Fig. 1.7.2: Working of two stroke petrol engine

The fuel is supplied with the help of fuel injection

1.7.2 Working of Two Stroke C.I. (Diesel) pump and the injector to the cylinder.
Engine The working of diesel engine is similar two stroke S.l.
engine except that only air is inducted into the crank
Fig. 1.7.3 shows the schematic diagram. of a two stroke, case in case of C.I. engine in place of mixture of fuel
diesel engine. and arr.

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 . .., .... .

"·
'1·
1·20
motion, the piston firstly uncovers the exhaust l>Ort ;.

8
little later it uncovers the transfer port. ..
'lid
The air compressed during .the previous. stroke in ·u:.,
·~ crank case is transferred mto the cylinder via ·
. . . h the
transfer port. This mcommg arr pus es out the bU?nt ·
gases while passing over the deflector. This Process ~ .
sweeping out the burnt gases is called scavenging.
The piston ~oves upwards i.e. from B.D.C. to T.D.c. It ·
first closes the transfer port and a little later the exhaUst
port.
The air transferred earlier into the cylinder is now
compressed with further movement of piston upwards.
Simultaneously, the vacuum is created in the crank case
' I

" due to which fresh air is drawn inside the crank case
through the inlet port.
Before the end of compression stroke, the fuel is
Fig. t.7 .3 : Two stroke diesel engine injected and the atomised fuel bums due to · high
;·I :·, ' ~mperature of air called auto ignition.
The working of the engine Is ~follows :
\' '
The ·resulted hot gases will again expand, thus
\ ' (Refer Fig. 1.7.4)
completing a cycle.
\'· Consider the piston at T ·0 .C. When piston
. moves
"
down, the hot gases expand. During its downward

wo~~KING OF 2 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Piston
rnOv&I!
· Cylinder . .:
T.D.C. to . Defledor Pjston .
B.D.C.. !OOvem.ent :
(Expansion
.Transfer
port closed
stroke) P!ston
1
.,
'
:

Connecting
rod

Crankcase

Crank

Fig.1.7.4: Continued..--·

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I 1-21 Constructional Features & Working of 1.C. Engine$

Fuel Inject

Deflector Piston
mo~ea
Cylinder 1·Piston
Deflector movement
B.0..C. to
Pision
r;o.c:
(Compression
•lmke)
Tranafer port .Transfer port
closed
Inlet port
open
Connecting
rod Connecting
rod
Crankcase
Crank
Crank
-'

Fig.1.7A: Two stroke diesel engine

Syllabus Topic : Comparison of Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines

1.8 Comparison between Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines

.+ (MU· May 12, May 13, May 16)

Ma 12,Ma 13, Ma 16

1. Completion of cycle Cycle is completed in four strokes of. the Cycle is completed in two strokes of
piston or in two revolutions of the the piston or one ·revolution of the
crankshaft. crankshaft

2. Power produced for same Less High.

cylinder dimensions and Power produced is almost twice of four
speed. stroke engine practically 70% to 80%
higher.

3. Size of flywheel Heavier flywheel is needed since turning Lighter flywheel is need since more
moment is not so uniform. uniform turning moment is produced.

· 4. Initial cost and space Occupies more space and costly due to Occupies less space and cheaper.
requirement for same size complicated valve mechanism.
of engine

s.;.i1111utJ w1 lh Ca11~ m 1t.'f

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N~~ - ~ CJOl).~IQO\k)r\"' f'g{!!Uft:\I! l\ W_QJkln -ot 1.0, llri ':~i

Cm~. \l'\1d..s1h11,\\1:-tf\n\ "'"~11\~ll. SC\l\\1'11\f\1'll Scuolc1~ I moto1· ll)'\llos '"'l' to their

\'t~. Clllll\11\Cl 1llt.o.

1.9 How to Toll Whether an Englno ls llm\'c\'~''i n\tl\\S~" l'lilns th~ m11l11 constltuonl of air
Four Stroke or Two Stroke Englne ? wh\~h lll.ics not \11\(lor~.o uny chl'\mlcnl 1\'luctlon: ln tha
comllllst\\)11 l'\1111nhc1', th~1'\)fol'1, tho working t1u\d
\, A "-.-.:St\\)\;_¢• ""\.~
. •\\\¢ l llX·s twit h:w~ \'U ~\Imp mu\ o\\ filter dosd)' t~somhlcs with 11\r nt 1111 times.
l'1\\S. whe~t\$ the$c t-:o1.ht \\\ ·l-$tmk~ c.t'Sino.
...,.. Doflnltlon of nlr atondnrd oyclo
2. The t.xh:mst ~Hi:'l\l.X'.f ls lt1stt1\\('\\ nt thi."1 hl'ml l"I\,\ l't'
cyUmk.r ut c"<.h:mst \':\\\'~\I\ -l~h\}kc c.t~ll\~ wh\11.) \t is
11li
~ 1/w clrnmd ~.yclos l.vitl& air as working
~ .substmll.'ll wltit}l closely 1'Csm1t1'los with
installed tow:\tds tho micMk of ~ylimk\t it1 ~""h''"'-li octuol opon c.ydm.1 is collcd an air.
Cl\£_ti\¢,
altmclard C)'Cltt.'
3. Lubric:\th~ <'il i~ mh.eli with {)etm\ ~-st~'k\' 1."tl{lhll' l'""' In pmet\cc, it Is \mpossih\o to l'C\lC:ll tho 1~111 cycles
to thh• it d~s not h:wc oU llmins :me\ tdi\ls ns it is
prccS~\llCd hy tho thl~Ol'dicnl cyclo~ for tho following
neccs...~\I)' in -'"~trokc ei1sint
rcnsons:
4. In two stmkc c1~h1c-s the munc t'l:1tc l'I\ \'.ng\nc (11) lntt"nml um\ C.'\tcnm\ ln'3vcrnibilltlcs \Ike tluid und
re<:i.'mmend..-. to mh nil with \~lt\l\ while h1 \.':isc . .,r .,. m~dumkn\ friction, 1:omhustii.m etc.
stroke engine tho munc plate pruvidc-i; the infommtion
(h) tlnlntcmtl'll hcnt \ossos.
like the c3p:1city of cmnk c:i.~c :md t)'\~ or l)i\ to be
\l~i. (c) Different 1wopcrtlcs of working medium..

Review of Alr Standard Cycles Efflctonclos ond

(d) Vnrlnlion In S\1Ceific hcut of gnscs wilh tompcmturo.
Mean Effective Pressure (mop) Howo,·cr, thc nir stnm.hud cycles nrc uscfol nm\ become
1m hn111.,rt:mt \0()\ to 11ro\•idc t\ simple method fot nchicving n
1.1 o Review of Air Standard Cycles qmmtih1ti\'o t-ompnrisol\ of cycle \'!Crfonmmcc.

An internal comhustion (1.C.) t"nginc wNks on open 1.11 Assumptions of Air Standard Cycle
cyck but it i~ dc~in1\'llc to dc\•IC'O cto,"l'<l cyde thnt
~ (MU - May 13)
would nppro:dnmtc the nc-trn\l Clpen cycle.
ttmh§i.M•.hil!im .,:,. -:·"-<;· · .·' :, ...:,:.··· ,:_- · .,.~
Jn nn nctunl engine. the working fluid ch:mges from t1ir
nnd fuel to products of comhustion during the cydc.
,o,.:'., .,. :~fot&, ~ho· ~~¥~~.e.tto~i: 1~·. ~n ·:A;r.~~t~~~~r? -'. ey~~§;(
. "' ":": ,. ·....... ·~·.""~ .. ~,· . ~.~:·· ~:- . '• ~. • - '~~- , -~ ,

- ·· ... -· .
l
1
1
j ~ l.C. En ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) •
1 23
l · of t· · Engines
· & Working
Constructional Features . c·
i ~ollowing are the assumptions made m the an ys1s o
j _,,,--
air standard cycles :
· a1 · f 1.12.3 Relatlve Efficiency

I (i) The w.orking medium in the cylinder is air. ~ r::r Definition of relative efficiency
j ;:{ii)
-- The air behaves like an ideal gas i.e. it obeys the gas
I laws and its specific heal is constant al all temperatures.
: c = 1.005 kl/kg K. CV= 0.718 kl/kg~ y = 1.4 .
I' -- -- . - . - · - ·---. '"'= •
disc~arging operations are omitted,
p - · ·- -
[ (iii) The charging and
: therefore, a constant mas_s of the medium is carried Thermal efficiency
Relative efficiency · = Air standard efficiency
through the entire cycle.
Acutal workdone
(iv) Ari the processes are internally reversible. There are ~o == Theoretical or ideal Workdone ...(1.12.4)
unin~nded heat los~s and friction is neglected.
1.12.4 Work Ratio
(v) The heat energy added to the working medium is
transferred from
a heat reservoir. .There is also a r:ir Definition of Work Ratio
provision for transfer of heat from the working medium
tq a heat reservoir sink s.o th~t the cyc~e is completed.
1.12 Air Standard or Ideal Efficiency and
Other Efficiencies
Net work transfer
•· Work ratio, rw · == Positive work transfer
Cir Definition of air standard efficiency
= Positive work tr:mSfer - negative work tr.msfer ...( u 2.S)
Positive work transfer ,

It is desirable to have work ratio approaching to unity.

It is also called as ideal efficiency. 1.12.s Mean Effective Pressure (m. e. p.)

1.12.1 Air Standard Efficiency '6"'. Definition of Mean Effective Pressure (m. e. p.)
DEmartON

Air standard efficiency is the ratio of ideal workdone to

the heat supplied. Therefore, UJJ
· Air tandard ffi . Ideal work done
. s e ciency = Heat supplied ...(1.12.1)
_ Heat suplied - Heat rejectM
·- Heat supplied ...(l.l 2·2)
Refer Fig. 1.12.I.
1.12.2 Thermal Efficlency
Let,
W = Workdone during the cycle :·

Pm == Mean effective pressure

By definition,

Pm x ar~a of piston x stroke :::: '!/orkd~ne'~'- (W)

:. Pin x volume displaced., (V~) ~Vi
Therefore,

Tberina1 efficiency A_ctual workdone

= Heat supplied- ...(1.12.3)

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,W- l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1_24 construcllon•I Features & Worl<Jng of t.c. ~

p 1•12.6.1 factors Affecting the Volumetri·: ·.~ ·

Efficiency of an Engine

''
J· The volumetric efficiency of the engine is affected .
. drit .
to following reasons. ·

Factors Affecting the Volumetric ·

Efficiency of an Engine

1. Effect of inlet air temperature

· V
v. 2. Effect of suction and exhaust pressures

.
Fig. J.12.J

----
... Mean effective Ptts.mre, (P...) = Workdone, (W)
Swept volume , (VJ

...(1.12.6)
3. Resistance of inlet valves

4. The valve overlap

5. Effect of speed I
1 12 6
• • Volumetric Efficiency or Charge 6. Effect of valve timing
- Efficiency, 11v
Fig. Cl.4 : Factors Affecting the Volumetric Efficiency
rir- Definition of volumetric efficiency of an Engine · ·

w
Df!JJUnoN ,< • •

... 1. Effect of inlet air temperature

Due to heating of fresh charge/air in the intake

. manifolds and by hot cylinder walls, T'lv reduces.

·.+ 2. Effect of suction and exhaust pres.rures

Alternately, the volumetric . efficiency can also be In narurally asp~ated engine the suction or inlet

defined.as the ratio of mass of the fresh charge present in pressure, P; is Jess than the exhaust pressure, Pe whereas

the cylinder per cycle to the maximum possible of the fresh P; > Pe in supercharged engines. The ratio of p/p,

charge which can be admitte~ into the cylinder during the affects the volumetric efficiency.

admission stroke per cycle at the given suction conditions. (a) When P; < Pe , the clearance volume is filled with
residual gases at Pe· When the inlet valve opens
Fresh charge represents the air in case of diesel engines
and the mixture of liquid or gaseous fuel with air in case of and the exhaust valves closes, the residual gases

spark ignition or petrol engines. · will flow into 'intake manifolds and these gases
will expand isentropical1y and mix with fresh
Therefore,
charge. As a result the fresh charge admitted into
~- ·--· - ·

j Actual mass of fresh charge/cycle admitted the cylinder is less and its volumetric efficiency
into the cylinder at suction conditions
\ 1lv = Mass of fresh charge/cycle that can be admitted reduces.
'
1
corresponding to its stroke volume (b) When P; > Pe in supercharged engines, it increases
1
the volumetric efficiency since more charge will
be admitted into the cylinder.

.. ..,.,~~ - ~ ' - ~ -- -· -- - ·-- ---"------

 ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V·Mech) 1·25 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engin.es .

. . · 3. Resistance of Inlet valves _1.12.7 Useful Thermodynamic Relations

and Equations ·
Resistance of inlet valves which depends upon the area
provided for charge to flow into the cylinder reduces 1• 1• law of thennodynamlcs
the volumetric efficiency. For closed system : d'Q - d'W dU = .. .(1.12.7) .

· Q-W =AU ...(1.12.8)

. . . 4. The valve overlap

The valve <:>verlap remains for q~te some period during

Where, d' W = p d V and dU = m Cv dT
. T2
the suction of charge and the exhaust gases. Some of
the fresh charge admitted is used to drive out the
:. AU=m JCvdT=m Cv (1'2 -T1)

exhaust gases, therefore, it reduces the volumetric F.;r oi>t:n.system or Dow process .
efficiency. d'Q = d'Wat +dH
(when changes in ICE and P. E. are neglected)
-+ s.. Effect of speed ...(l.12.9)
or Q-Wat = MI ...(l.12.10)
The velocity of suction air depends on Ille piston speed
d' w.f = - v. dp and dH = m cp dT
(2 _L N). At low piston speeds, the llv almost remains Tl

constant. but the volumetric efficiency increases with Ml = m JCPdT =m<;(T -T1) 2

T,
the increase in piston speed upto a certain optimum
velocity. However, further increase in piston speed 2. Gas Equation
... (1.12.11)
beyond certain optimum value, the volumetric pV = mRT
efficiency decreaSCS due to increased resistance to flow. 3. Mayer's Equation for Relatlonshlp between
cpand c .. .
-+ 6. Effect of valve timing
Cp-Cv = R
The inlet valve closing and valve overlap are decided
c ... (1.12.12)
based on the engine speed. and Y -- .:::J2
CV

At low speeds. the pressure at the end of suction stroke

4. Law of Process
is equal to the inlet pressure and closing the L V beyond
(a) [sotbennal
BOC may cause the fresh charge to flow back into the intake . : ..(1.12. 13)
manifolds causing the reduction in volumetric efficiency.
p·V =P1 V1 =P2 V2 •·· =C
(b) Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic
However, at higher speeds the delay in closing the LV y y c ...(1.12.14)
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = · · · =
will help to draw more fresh charge into the cylinder due to
. b . ~: effiect, therefore the volumetric efficiency
(~t1' =(~f"
. .. (1.12.15)
.
its hig er we. u.a .
increases· , .
-'""""t° ·valve is opened few degree (c) Polytropic
C ... (1.12.16)
siJililarly the e~ after TDC The closing
. n n
, p . V1 = P1 v I =P2 v2 ••• =
before BOC and closes few degrees .
-"'""' Trv"" reduces the·back pressure and it improves
of E.V. _& ......r IJ'- ¥. = (~r"~ =(*.r" •.. (1.12.17)

the volumetric efficiency·

Scanl'led w l1h c amScanner

 ·I
, ,. ~I.e. Englnes (MU-Sem.
·
V-Mech) 1-26
Constructional Features & Workin

~--
T 3
.Wor1c Transfer w

i·" (a) ISOlhennai

(b) lsenlropic W=e,v,-p,v, s

(y-1)
(b)
_mR (!1 - Ti) .
(Y-1) Fig. 1.13.1 : Otto cycle
(c) Polytroplc W-f!1V1-1l2V2
- (n-1) W=(n~1 )mR (T,~TJ (I) Processes Involved
:: mR (T1 -Tzl
(n-t) Otto cycle consists of two constant volume and two

ll"d reversible adiabatic processes as shown in Fig. 1.13.l(a)

6.
Law of ~ermodynamics
and (b).
_@ ,
" dS - T ,

d'Q = T. dS . .. (1.12.18) Consider 'm' kg of air in the cycle at · state-1

Tl (p 1, V 1, T 1) . The various processes are:
Heat transfer, Q "." J T. dS ... (l.12.19) (a) Process (1·2) : Reversible adiabatic compression or
T,
isentropic compression during which air is compressed
Al Sta .
r ndard Otto, Diesel and Duel Combustion Cycles from state-I to state-2. The law of process is p · vr = C.
1.13 Air Standard Otto Cycle (b) Process (2·3) : Heat is added to air from a heat
\ {-::: (_ ~ (MU· May 16) reservoir at constant volume and state changes from

~"Universit
. •', ~ . .. ' Question
'. . ·)>_::;:, ~~~-:<)\;~;:g~~~~J.:\\;{;~~~:;.,
state-2 to state-3.
Heat supplied, Q2•3 =mCv (T3 - T J ...(i)
.a,\ ,: '-~·~-lh~ e~ci~~ ~i~i~J~~-; (c) Process (3-4) : The air expands from state-3 to state4
Spark ignition engines operate on theoretical Otto reversible adiabatically according to law p · yY =C.
~ycl~. The cycle is represented on (p-V) and (T-S) diairams
(d) P~ (4·1) : During this process heat is rejected at
m Fig. 1.1.3.l(a) and Fig. 1.13. l(b) respectively.
p 3 constant volume and the system returns to its original
Reversible
1
acfiabalics (pV = C) state. Therefore, a cycle is completed.
Heat rejeeted, ~• - t> ·= mcv (T4 - T 1) · ... (ii)

"'- ·. ·-.. (II) Analysis of the cycle

4 ,1

-· --"J'o ',./\ Net workdone, W = Heat supplied - Heat reject

'a b'
v
Air standard efficiency,
(•)
Fig. 1.13.l(Contd•••) = Net workdone _ mCv (T3 -T2)-mCv (f4 -T1)
11 Heat supplied - mCv (f3 - T 2)

- ---- - --- ·--- - - -- - - - -------

Sc<lnn9d w it h CllmScan 1wr
I~
!
I!
I
I ~ l.C. Engines {MU-Sem. V-Mech) ·1·27 Constructional Features & Working of 1.C. Engines

...(iv) - (II) Mean Effective Pressure (m.e.p.) ,..·

~ Definition mean effective pressure

As the compression and expansion processes are

isentropic with the same volume ratio, we can write,
T ~~(y- I) .• T ·~~(y-1) ·Refer Fig. 1.13.3. -
~-
.!.Z.... ..!..1.
TI-v and ..!.l
T-v
3 Let, W = Workdone during the cycle
Since V2 = V3 and V 1 = V 4 it follows that, Pm = Mean effective pressure
~y definition,
. .!.l T _ ~~<y-IJ
T - .!.l ..!..1. - ( )(y-1) Pm x area of piston x·stroke= Workdone, (W)
: T 1 - T4 - V - r ...(v)
: • . Pm x volume displaced (VJ = W
With the help of Equations (iv) and (v) we get, . · . · Workdone, (W)
. . Mean effective pressure, <Pm> = Swept volume, (VJ

_
Tl - 1 -
[(~- (r)
.~i-1~]'J
(r)
(T3 -Tz)
p
...(1.13.2)

. 1
= 1--w:n
(r)
..•(1.13.1) .

~--Y = 1.67 (Monoatomic)

~--Y =1-4 (dhatomic)

0
" 8 12 16 20 24 28
v
Compressi.on ratio, r
Fig. 1.13.2: Otto cycle efficiency Vs comp~ion ratio Fig.1.13.3
It is evident from Equation (1.13.1) that the thermal
. I ~ Mean effective pr~ure for Otto cycle can be
efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with the increase
calculated as follows :
in compression ratio.
v1 v,.
The effect of compression ratio is illustrated in Compression ratio, r =v=v 2 3
Fig. 1.13.2. Though the thermal e.fficiency can be
increased, theoreti~ally, by increasing the compression
ratio but in actual engines a limi~ is put on the P2 p3
It follows : Pt =r=-
y

p4
compression ratio due to detonation chatacteristics, of
the gasoline used. · Let, pressure ratio (explosion ratio),

However, the development of fuels for antiknock p3 p,.

properties have made it possible to use higher
a = p; =p;-
compression ratios in actual engines. Usually, a
compression -ratio of 6 to 10 ·is used in petrol engines.
 eonsuuctlonai Features & Wor1dn
·'
~I.e. En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech · 1-28

Mcllll effective pressure,

'·

m.e.p. = Wo- ·o-WCl-21

(V 1 -V 2)

Pl V3-p4 V4 P2 V2-P1 V,
(y-1) Cy-t)
=

= P"· V4 (~1 V1 ) (p2 V2 ) ciearancs yOlume

\P.;'Y;-1 -p 1 V1 \Pi·v.-1 (•)

' v, (1-.~) (y-1) T

3 -

=(y-1) lr-1) v1 x[p. v.Gv ·7-1)-P1 v, Gv ·7-1)]

' \•

r [r<v-•>-11
Pt
V
I
[p4p V1,v - 1]
:: I I
(r- l) V 1 (y-1)

r([r<Y-ll_l])p 1 V,(a.-1)
I (r-1) V 1 (y-1)
!I'
11'

.(s~ce V = V and::= a.)

i, (b)
','
.. 4 1
., .
1' Fig. 1.14.1 : Air standard diesel cycle
I , .

,,!· P1 • r (a-1) [ r<y-l) -11

\, :. m.e.p. = ... (1.13.3) ' The difference between otto and diesel cycle is in the
(r-1) (y-1)
heat addition process. In case of otto cycle the heat is
1•
I
"
added at constant volume while in case of diesel cycle,
the heat is added at constant pressure.

Point l represents the condition of air at the end of

suction stroke or at the beginning of the compression
stroke. This air is compressed isentropically with a
compre~sion ratio of 'r' which ranges from 14:1to20:1
'i
represented by the process (l-2).

Heat is transferred at constant pressure to air from a

1.14 Air Standard Diesel Cycle
beat reservoir. This process (2-3) corresponds to the
.,· .+ (MU - Dec. 16)
injection and burning of the fuel in an actual engine.
Universit Question
The point 3 is called the point of cut-off or the lo~

ratio.

Now the hot air expands isentropically to its initial

volume represented by the process (3-4).
An air standard cycle for diesel engines is shown in Finally the heat is rejected to a heat reservoir at
Fig. l.l.4.l(a) and (b) on (p-V) and (f-S) diagrams. Diesel constant volume in the process (4 - 1) so as to
engines are also called as compression ignition (C.I.) complete the cycle.
. I
engines.

~· ...-, .
L •
~ l.C. En Ines (MU·Sem~ V·Mech) Constructional Features & WorWng of 1.C. Engines

· · . 1[ T, • ~y -Ti 1.
r:-;:-;_y iitfJ~~ '~t(1.1
. 'll = 1-- (y-) (y- i)J

4.t)
,) (r) . . -
. . . . ""_,..,_. - . '. _._. .... ~ - ..... ·- ~-.1•:.0-
~;Ti--~..,.-- .
•..(i)
lt can be noticed from Equation (1.14.1) that the di~l
efficiency depends .upon the value of compression ratio
.,
Thermal efficiency of the cycle, r! ratio of s~ific heats y and cut-off ratio p.
= Heat supplied , (Q2 _ 3) - Heat rejected , (Q. _1) Diesel efftciell:CY differs. from ,Otto cycle only by the
'll . · . Heat supplied, (Q2 _ 3)
bracketed tei:m, this factor is always greater than unity.
mCP (f3 -T1)-mCv (f-4 -T1)
= mCP(f3 -TJ For this reason, the efficiency of diesel cycle is always

. j-=---'l(T;:T;)~-~ less than Otto cycle at a given compression ratio.

•• . 'll ~ l-y(f3-TJ ...(ii)
' .-'·
~ ~---~--~~------
For lsentroplc p~ (1-2)
.· ---- However, this comparison of efficiencies of a given
compression ratio is not of any practical importance
; · since the diesel engines operate at much higher

~
(y-1)
T
.!.1 (Yi . (y-1)
T = \V =(r) compression ratio ( 14 to 20) compared to spark ignition
1
(y-1) . (S.1.) engines operating on Otto cycle which use
T1 = T1 -(r) ...(lll)
~ compression ratio in the range of 6 to 10.
For constant p~ process (2-3) Due to higher C.R. used in . diesel engines, it's
efficiency is always higher than S.I. engines.
~
Tl -- PJ..Y.i.
T3 I
but P2 =p3
It can be further noticed from Equation (1.14.1) that the
• T3 = T1. Yi
V
l
efficiency of diesel cycle increases with the.increase in
compression ratio and with the decrease in cut-off ratio.
On substituting the value of T1 from Equation (iii),
The cut-off ratio in diesel engines is proportional to the
(y-1)
T 3 = [..T 1 • (r) ) •p ...(iv) load on the engine, for this reason, the efficiency of the
diesel cycle decreases with the increase in load on the
Finally, for constant volume the process (3-4) engine.
~ =@(y-l)=(~r-1) 1.14.1 Mean Effective Pressure

(p)y-1 . Workdone
T" = T3 • ---cy:i)
m.e.p. = Displacement v~lume
(r)
mCP (T3-: T1)- mCV er.. -Ti)
=
On substituting the value of T3 from Equation (iv), we CV1 - V1)
get, m • y • Cv (f3- T 2) - mCv(f4 - T 1)
=
v1(1-~~
1
. _ m • Cvy [ (T1 • p • r1 - l - T 1 • r1- ) ] - mCv (P1 • T 1 - T t)
...(v)
- mR T1 (
1
_!'\
Substituting the values of T1 , T3 and T.. from Pi . i)
1

Equations (iii) to (v) in Equation (ii) we get,·

.:' .)

Scanned with Ca mSconner

 . :-: (
. : . ; ;:~

~I.e. Engines (MU..Sem. V-Mech)

' -~.

1-30 eonstrucdonal Fealures & WOltcing o1 1.c. ~:

:: ~\Cy• Ti[ y • ry-t (p- 1)-(py - I)] The air standarcr" efficiency_ of_ this_ cycle can · ~·
~(r-(\ calculated as follows :
P1 \ r )
Let, Compression ratio,
I ,

. l ,· B Cy --L
Ut. R ::
I
(Y-1)
.. ,..=El
.)-------~~~;[;:~Y-l·{p--l>~{py-1)) ( Pressure or explosion ratio, ..... p2
m.e.p. ~ (Y-1) (r-1) \ ...(1.l 4·2>
.- J
Cut-off ratio,
1.15 ·Air .Dual Co;b~stlon or"
Standard Heat rejected. (~ _1) ,
Limited Pressure Cycle Efficiency, '1 = 1 - Heat supplied <Oi-3 + °-1-J ·

mCv(T5 -T1)
The combustion process in case of actual S.I. and C.I.
engines do not take place at constant volume and at
constant pressure respectively. . T5-Tt
:. Tl= l-(T3-TJ+y(T4_-T3) ...(i)
In order to approximate more closely to these actual
cycles, the dual combustion or limited pressure cycle For isentropic process (1-2)
has been developed as shown in Fig. 1.15.l(a) and (y-1) y-1
Fig. l.15.l(b) on (p-V) and (T-S) diagram in which the T2 = T1~ =T1 ·(r) ..•(ti)
heat is supplied partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure. For constant volume process (2-3)
p
3 Reversible Ii - Pl_,..
1
adiabatics {pV = C)
T2 - P2 - .....

T3 = a·T2
(y-1)
2 .. T3 = a·T1 (r) ...(iii)

5 For constant pressure process (3-4)

I! - Yi_p
T3_ - V3 -

v T4 = p ·T3
(a)
i.e. T4 = p ·a T1 (r)y-1 ...(iv)
T
p=C For isentropic process (4-5)

~)Y- ll - [V,.N~ <Y-ll

Ts = T4 V - T,. VsN

[V4N~<v-i>
= T,. V N
1

i.e. Ts = T4 ; tr-·> =[pa·T1(r)<r-•>] · ; rr-I)

.. Ts = P1 · cx·T1 ... (v)
(b)
On substituting the values of T 2 , T 3, T 4 and Ts with the
• 1•15. 1_ •• Air standard dual combustion cycle
F 1g.
help of Equations (ii) to (v) in Equation (i), we get,

-------------====::_:___--------~-=nnedWithCOmScOrlrl«
-
~ l.C. Engines {MU~Sem. V-Mech) 1·31 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

= 1- [
.
. . (y-1)
' Py ·Cl · T 1 -T1
(y-IJ (y - h
· · .
(y-1)
J
(a·T1·r - .T 1 · (r) )+y(pa · T 1r -aT1 · r )

... = 1-[ y-1

(a· Py -1)
.
] ...(1.15.1)
1\
(r) . [(a-1) +y · a(p-1)]

Above expression shows that the efficiency. increases with. increase in compression ratio and.decrease
.
in
'
cut-o~ ..ra~o.
It can be noted from Equation ( 1.15 .1) that a value of p~surc ratio a > 1 results in an increased efficien~y for given
value of r ~d. p,_~us,_ the efficiency of ~e dual cycle lies between the Otto and Diesel cycles .for ·given value of a
compression ratio.
' "
1.15.1 Mean Effective Pressure

Workdone, W mCv(T3-T2) + mCP (T4-T3)-mCv CTs-T1) ,

m.e.p. = Displacement Volume, V, = ·(V 1 -V2)
1 1
[ m • Cv (ex· T 1 • l- - T 1 • ry- ) + m • y • Cv (P' • a· T 1 • ry- t - a.T1 • ry.- t ) - m • Cv (PY· a· T 1-T1)
= mR T 1 (i _.!.)r
P1
'''.
Pt· r Cv -1 ·
= (r-l) ·R~[ry (a-l)+y·cx(p-1)-(pY·a-l)]

Cy 1
But, R = y-1 ·
' l
P1 • r [ rY- [ (a-1) + y ·a (p -1) ] - (py ·a- 1)]
m.e.p. = ...(1.15.2)
(r-1) (p-1)

Air standard efficiency

Problems on Air Standard Cycles
Tl = 1-+. ... [According to Equatjon (1.13.l)]
Example 1.15.1 (r) , .
. 1
An engine wooong on Otto cycle, air has a pressure of 1 bar Tl = 1- 1.4-1
(7)
and temperature of 27°C. Air is compressed adiabatically
= 0.5408 or 54.08% ••.Ans.
with a compression ratio of 7 and then heat is added at
constant volume till the temperature rises to 2000 K. Find the
To find pressure of air : .
air standard efficiency, pressure of 8:ir at the end of For adiab~tic process (1-2):
' y ..
compression and heat addition process and the mean
P2 : V2 = P1. Vy1
effective pressure of the cycle. Assume, Cv =0.718 kJlkg K,
r= 1.4 and R =287 Nm/kg K.
Solution:
•• P2 = P1~y
Refer Fig. 1.15.1. . . Pressure at the end of com:pression,
ffi(l.4) .
Given: p1 =fbar, T1 =27°C =27 + 273 = 300 K, P2 = l \j.J = 15.245 bar •..Ans.
.. .
r= 7, T3 = 2000K rY..ll(y-1) ' (l.4 ..:.'1) '

'' .
Also, T2 = T~ \VJ = (273 + 27) G)
'~ .. = 653.37 K : _

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 • I

r.:
I
. I
l• Constructional Features & Workln
l.C. Engines (MU-Sem:.V-Mech 1-32
. . , l.

For coostan ·
. t volume heat addition process (2-3) :
p

Pl = P2 ~ = 15.245 (6~i)
,.
= 46.666bar
To find mean effective pressure :
Heat supplied per kg of air, . .
.. . \

'la-3) = CV (T3 -T~ L-------...v

= 0.718 (2000 - 653.37) = 966.88 kJ/kg
Fig. P.1.15.2
:. Workdone, W= Tl x ~ _ > = 0.5408 x 966.88
23
. 'I

For adiabatic process (1-2) and (3-4) we can write,

= 522.88 kJ/kg
(y-1) y-1
Since P1 V1 = RT1 ~ · =@ =(r)
vi = 287 x 300 0 86 3 k . .
lxl05-. lm/g . (y-1) I
rf.il
.Yi. 0.861 3
T
~ =\VJ =(r)
y-

V2 = r =--=;-=0.123m /kg
where, r =Compression ratio·
:. Swept volume, . (y-1)

V, = V 1 -V2 =0.861-0.123
:. T2 = T1 • r
!' -(y-1)
!
3
= 0.738 m /mg and T4 =T 3 • (r) ...(ii)

Mean effective pressure, From Equations (i) and (ii) we get.

= mc.,[{r3-T1·r(y- 1 )}-{r3·(r)-(y- )~T1}]

w522.88 1
W
Pm = V 1 = 0.738

= 708.51 kN /m
2
•••A.ns. From maximum work, d: = 0 if T3 and T, are fixed

Example 1.15.2 temperatures.

Therefore,
For an Otto standard cycle with fixed intake and maximum
dW Y- 2 -Y
temperatures, find the compression ratio that renders the -;k=O=mC,[O-T1 ·(y-l)·r +T3 · (y-l)r +OJ

efficiency is given by the expression : 1 - (

Solution:
=
work per cycle, a maximum and show that the cycle

~ J
,ri
:. T 3 • (y-1) r-Y

. (r)[(y-2)-(-y)] - ·
••
= T 1 (y-1) · rY- 2
!i
- T, .•
(r)2 (y-1)
.
= f I

=~
Refer Fig. P. 1.15.2.
:. (r)y-1

1 1
'lmax = 1 - (r{- l =1 - - lfi
"\jt.
Workdone, W = Heat supplied - Heat rejected

= Qi _3-Q4-1 ...Proved.

= mCv (f3 - T2)- mCv (T4-T1) ...(i)

 _,

J
1 .1·33 Constructional Feattires & Workln nes'
1 Example 1.15.3 Heat supplied =m Cv (T3 -Ti)

II A four stroke engine working on Otto cycle has a swept

a
volume of 0.1 m . The compression ratio Is 7. The condition
at the start of the cycle Is at 1 bar, 90°C. The heat addition at
constant volume Is 100 kJ/cycle. And the Ideal efficiency,
mean effective pressure and pressure and temperature at
JOO = 0.112 x 0.718 (T3 -790.6)
:. T 3 = 2034.J K
For constant volume process (2 - 3),

!l
p3 = P2 "T2 .
! . key points In the cycle. Assume air as working substance
=
with Cv 0.718 kJ/kg K and y 1.4. = 2034.1
= 15.25 x _ = 39.24 bar
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.15.3. 790 6

Given : Compression ratio For adiabatic process (3 - 4),

y
- 7-Yl_.Y.i
r - - V 2 - V3 i.e. Vt = 7 V2 •.. (i) p4 = p3 · @

p 1 =1 bar; T 1= 90°C = ·363 K, Q2_3 = 100 kJ . 1A

p = 39.24 (t) .= 2.57 bar

1.4-1
= 2034.1 (t)
= 934.0K
1

v
Fig. P. 1.15.3
. 3
Swept volume, V1 - V2 = 0.1 m 1. 1 0.11669 363.0
[ from Equation (i) ] 2. 15.24 0.01667 790.6

.. 7V2 -V2 = 0.1 3. 39.24 0.01667 2034.1

0 4. 2.57 0.11669 934.0
V2 = (/ =0.01667 m3
•••Ans.
V1 = 7 V2 = 0.11669 m3 Heat rejected = ~- 1 ~mCv (T4 -T1)
P1 V1 = mRT1 = 0 .112 x 0.718 (934-363)
1xtcrx0.1169 = m x 287 x 363 = 45.92 kJ/cycle

:. m = 0 .112kg Workdone,

To fmd p~ and temperature at key points :

w = Heat supplied - Heat rejected

y y = 100-45.92 = 54.08 kJ/cycle

P1 · V 1 = P2 · V2
Ideal efficiency
4
Pi- = 1 x (7/ =15.25 bar Workdone 45.92
y-1 Tl = Heat supplied = 100
T2 = T1 • (#) 4
= 363 (7)1- -l
= 0.4592 or 45.92 % •••Ans.
= 790.6K
 ..
. ,.
\ ?,· , ·onal Features & Working of I.e.
.;(.34 Construeti ..
lit 1 111.4_

Mean effective Presmtre :

t .J . . 3

P n1 = Workdone (Nm) _ 45.92 x 1000

Swept volume (m3) - 0.1
=o.06Um .
.. _. · · ure beataddition proce.s s (2-3) : · '·: ·:
· · For consUUJt press . . · · .· · ,. · ·.
== 45.92 x 10 N / m 4 2
=4.592 bar ••• Am.
"',.. . ""/ -:\.:1 . . .._: ;
v..
_. =
~V '-!:;: ~ - -? .--- . '···· '.
__.;.----
T2 T3 ,r··-.:1""'·
•• .
.;fl 'i1._ .
(./ 01' -• -
T3
YJ. T _ _...:..- x 886.78=1449.99K . ...Ans, .
= v X 2 - 0.0612 . , , ..
2

From Expansi~n process (3-4) :

y y
P3 v3 = P4 v4
1.4

= ~!Y·p3 =(¥) x50 .

.. p4
'

.r'
= 1.991 bar.
p y-1/y . . [1.99lr4-l/l.4
.. T4 = T3 • ~J =1449.99 x so
••.Am.
= 577:29 K ·
2. Diesel cycle e~l~lency (1)) :
[ P - l
fl= 1-(r)y-I • y(p-'l) .
1
1
J
v . ~ · 1
(a) where, r = compression rate = _y = Q06i2
2
T
3
= 16.34

p = cut-off ratio =~-_JU_

V 2 -o.0612

= 1.634
290K

s : . Tldiesel cy.:Jc
1
= 1.- (16.34)0.4. =
[ (1.634( - 1
1.4 (1.634- 1)
4
J
(b) = 1- 0.3271 [l.11382]
Fig. P. 1.15.4
= 0.6357 or 63.57 % •••Ans.
1. Temperatures at salient points of the cycle
MU ::Dec>1Si 10 Marks
CT2,T3,TJ
. . ,
For compression process (1-2):
:/1·
y - 1/y (1 .4-' 1)!1.4
5
· T - T · (£i
~J
l , .= 290 · ( Q'_ .--
1 ).(.,
\ .. .
•• 2 - 1
(""' I/ - /
/ ~

= 886.78K "r· J ••:J\ns.

 MU-Sem.-V-Mech ines
1-35 Constructional Features &Wor1dn
Solution:
'· p4 = 2.976 bar
p1 =1 bar, · T1 =37°C =37 + 273 = 310 K (y- I) 0.4

P2 = 15 bar, T3 =2000 K, ~ =0.717 kJ/kg K: y =1.4 T4 = T3 x@ = 2000' (6.k)

(1) Tbeoredcal thermal eftlclency, 11
= 922.5 K
v~ =P:z • v~ ; ~ =r·=~ 1r =(\~in-•
1

p1 • Heat rejected, (4_1 = m Cy (T4 -T1)

= 6.92 . =--: 1x0.717 (922.5 -:-: 310)

. -1 1 -I 1 . = 4.39.2 kJ/kg
11 - (r)(y-1) .--::, ' (6.92)0.4
Workdone, .w = Heat supp~~ Qz-3
· = 0.5387 or ·5 3,87 ...Ans. - heat rejected, ~ _1
(ii) Heat supplied I kg of air, QZ-.1 \~t~ l) = 952.2 - 439.2 = 513 kJ/kg ...Am.
T2 = T1 ~Jy-1)11= 310 el~o.411.4 ~ , Alternately, w = 11 x heat supplied,
Q2·3 = 0.5387 x 952.2 =513 kJJkg ...A.ns.
= 672K
Qi.3 = mCv(T3 -T~

= 1 x 0.717 x (2000- 672)

= 952.2kJ/kg
p
3

Diesel cycle is shown in Fig. P. 1.15.6.

i.----v•.- - - - v
Given : Compression ratio, r ='if= 18
v 2

Fig. P.1.15.S (V3 - V2) = 10 % of strbke volume (V1 - v~

(ill) Pressure at the end of expansim~, p 4 and p 1 = 1 bar, T 1 ='20°C=20 + 273 = 293 K
workdoneW 3
V 1 .= (V 1 -V2)=1~m . /hr
vA v· p
- _..!.1_692
V3 - Y2 - .
2 3

Consider constant volume process (2 - 3) :

• . - I.
n. T 2000
~ = -;f! ;P3 = 15 x 672 = 44.643 bar
' 4

1 bar -1-------v------- ,1 (20"C)

1· • •·
v
Fi • P .1.15.6
 .l.C.En In
·' ·
: ', I
es MU-Sem. V-Mech 1-36 Constructional Features & Workln
I
Let. v1 -v2 ==
100 ml /hr ... •

.
I •
V2 &- 1) = 100
Heat supplied,
I •
.' ~ .. v2 os-1> == 100
I
0,2 _ 3> = mcp (T3 -T2>
.·. v2 :: J7
100
= 5.8824 m3 I hr = .0.03497 x I.DOS (25 I3.9 - 93 J.1)
'= SS.63 kW

Heat rejected,
- 105.8824 m3 /hr
Since
V3-V2:: 0.1 (V1 -V2) Q(4 - I) = mCy (T4 -°T,)
... V3 :: O.l x 100 + 5.8824 =15.8824 m3 /hr = 0.03497 x 0.718 x (1461.2-293)

(i) Maxhnum Ptts.w = 29.33kW

re and temperat~re or the cycle
Thermal efficiency,
fY (y)
Pi = P1 • \.~ = 1 (18)
14
' =57.2 bar n
•1 =
H.S - H.R _ l H.R _ l 29.33
}l.S - - H.S - - 55.63
•" Maximum pressure
• = 0.4728 or 47.28 % ···An....
••• Ans. (Ill) Indicated power or the engine
(y- 1) J.P. = H.S - ·H.R =SS.63 - 29.33
T2 =Ta·® =293(18)(l.4 -t)
= 26.3 kW •••Ans.
t ' ·,~.'")-;,
= 931.IK •••Ans. I '·
V

. .
'

1Examp1e 1..1s.1 IMIM•l§W•I€1

,.
•' '

. . .·
I ' ,:· • .1 t

.· :.. ·· .... ·. ·. .:.. ~· . :.:·~~;.,:(::/

- ," . . -
~
';-:-,

~~
."',;· ,.,;,;;:
'j}.

For constant pressure (2 - 3), we can write iAn air-standard Dual cycle .has acompression ratl~ ofj (>j
.!J -~ .
;The ·pressure and . temperat~re · at the .. f?eglnnl~~f.Co(
;compression .are 1. bar and. 27°C. The maximum pressure!
T2 - V2
[reached Is 42 bar.and the maximum temperature.is 1soo~q~ .
.YJ 'oetermine - (I) temperature at the end of constant .voiu'me'. ·
.. T 3 =V2. T 2 = 15.8824
5.8824 x 93 1.1
1

heat addition, (Ii) cut-off ratio; (Ill) work done·por kg of air'aiid1

••• Maximum temperature during the cycle.

;<Iv) cycle efllcienc~:~ ~.~,~~~:~~ ..fP, ~ "1~o·~,!~t~·;·f~~~;;J%,~;.~
.cv =.=J:>!!f~ ~!Jcg ,~:.2!.a!r!..._ .....;:.:::·.~-:•.1::....::.:.:·•. ,.:.·..::.., _~~u. ~.,s!'J
T1 = 2513.9K ... Ans. Solution:

Refer Fig. P. 1.15.7

(lJ) Thermal efficiency or the cycle
. v
For isentropic process (3 - 4), we can write,
Given : Compression ratio, r =~
2
=10
~l(y-J) p 1 =1bar,T1 =27 °C = 300K; p3 = p4 = 42 bar
T4 = Tl '\,VJ T~ = T4 = 1500°C =1773 K, m =1 kg
(J.4- l)
cp 1.004
= 2513.9 ( ~~~~) 1 = 1461.2 K y = Cy =o.717 =t.4
Mass flow rate, of air, R = Cp-Cv= 1.004-0.717

.Ei..Yi. _ 1 x w' x 105.8824 = 0.287 kJ/kgK =287 Nm/kg/K.

m = RT1 - 287X293

= 125.914 kg/hr

St:nnnl'K1 wit hf::im:..r.nnn11r

172 .. . . ·.·. .- . . .. ..
... ·, ..
~-

1-37
p (W) Workdoneperkgofalr, W
- ' . -. 3 .
'-42bar
Consider adiabatic process (4-5),
(y-1)

2
I
T, = T4 ·(if,)
I 04
I 5 - {!O 1211) ·
I = 1773 \.. 0.861 = 700.2 K
I
1 bar - L - - - - - - - - - 1
Vc I Va Heat supplied/kg of ak,
v
QI = Qz...3+~ ·
Fig. P. 1.15.7
= 'mcy(1'3-Tz} +mCP {T4-T~
mR T 1 _ 1 x287 x300 _ 3/k
Vi = 1x103 0861 m g
P1 - - ·
= lx0.717(1260-753.6)
Yi 0.861 .
V2 = r =-w =0.0861 mlkg=V3
3
+ 1x1.004 (1773-1260)

(I) . Temperature at the end of comtant volume heat = 878.1 kJ/kg

addition, T 3
Heat rejected per kg of air,
Consider adiabatic p~ (1- 2) :
(ii' (y-1)
T2 = T 1 ·\.yJ = 1x0.717 (700.2-300) =293.4 kJ/kg

W = Heat supplied, Qi - Heat rejected, Qr

= 300(10)0 ·4 =753.6 K
y y = 878.1-293.4
Pv
I I
:n..·V.
FJ. 2 •
= 584.7 kJ/kg ••• A.ns.
= 4
1 (10{ = 25.12 bar
(iv) Cycle efficiency,"
Consider constant volume heat addition process (2-3) Workdone,W _ 584.7
Tl = Heat supplied.Qi - 878.1
El - !i
P2 - T2
= 0.6659 or 66.59 % •••Ans.
T3 =T2 ·~=753.6x 2~~ 2
= 1260K ••• Ans.
. . v
(ii) . Cut· off ratio, p = ~

Consider constant pressure process (3 - 4),

~ '.!!
V3 = T3 =1773
1260 =I.40?

v Solution:
. • Cut-off ratio, p = -ij-3 =1.407 •••Ans.
Refer Fig. P. 1.15.8
V4 = p • V3 = 1.407 x 0.0861 .. . . =~
Compression ratio, r V =8
2
3
= 0.1211 m /kg
p1 = 1 bar, T 1 = 373 K. plIWt = p3 = 50 bar

; ~ !

Scan ~ w1tti CamSCanner

 l.C. Engines MU-Sem. V-Mech
I.

Assume : <;. = 0.718 kJ/kg K, 'Y =1.4,

R = 287 Nm/kg K

Mass of air =1 kg
1•. Pressure, volume and temJ,erature at salient points
p

1.0705 1014.69
4. 2.72
Ve ---v. --.1

v 2. Ratio of beat.rejected ~d beat supplied Le.~

Fig. P.1.15.8 . 2-3

·: P1 V1 = mRT1 ~ _ ·m C1 (T. -Ti)= (T4 -Ti)

Q2-3 - m Cv(T3 - T:z) (1'3 - Ti)
v 1 = m R Ti _ 1 x 287 x 373
P1 - 1x103 (10)4.69-373) _ O 4353 A-~
= (2331.15-856.93) - • ~
. vl = 1.0705 m3/kg
Consider ise11tnopic
· · compression process (1- 2): Syllabus Topic : Actual Working Cycles and Val:'
. Timing Diagrams
v
2 = Yir =--g
1.0705 3
=0.1338 m /kg . -
1.16 Theoretical and Actual (p-V)
!2. = (V;')cy-1>
T1 (V2) T2 -T
-
1
1· r cr- > . Diagrams for 4-Stroke Petrol Engine

T2 = 373(8)'1.4-1) =856.93 K The theoretical and actual (p-V) diagrams for petrol
Pt v~ =Pi v~ ; engine working on Otto cycle are. shown in Fig. 1.16.l(a)
and Fig. 1.16.l(b) respectively.
Pi= Pt (r)Y =I x (8)t.
4
=18.38 bar
Difference between their (p-V) diagrams are discussCd
Consider constant volume process (2 - 3):
as follows :
11_11.
T - Pi •
2
T3 =856.93 x 1~.~ 8 =2331.15 K
B.D.C.
V3= V2= 0.1338 m3/kg p I
I
Consider isentropic process (3 _ 4): I

v.
= V1.,; 1.0705 m3
t 2 I
I.
I
.Yi .Yi 4
V3 = V2 =8
patm

(.1~ 1.4 -v
\8) = 2.12 bar (a) Theoretical cycle
.Fig.1.16.1 : (Contd••••)

-
. ,. _-... ' 1 . r;'
~ .· ..
"l

!
1
1-39

4.
Constructional Features & Workln of l.C. Engines

Combustion process (2 - 3) is carried out by providing

:l a spark to mixture few degrees before T.D.C. The
Ignition
i
J B.D.C.
pressure rise takes place thi-ough some crank rotation.
l
I I s. Exhaust at point 4 is not instantaneous since there is a
I
I I time gap in opening the exhaust valve.
j
j
I
I 6.
l 4
7.
Processes are not ideal.

I
1 Work developed in the theoretical ·cycle equals to area
(a) and in actual cycle it is equal to area (a1 - ~.
•
I where, area (lli} represents ihe pumping losses.
ll (b) Actual cycle
1.16.3 Valve Timing Diagram for Four Stroke
l Fig.1.16.1: (p-V) diagram for petrol en~
j Petrol Engine
1.16.1 Assumptions made In Theoretical ~ (MU. May 16; Dec.17)

I Cycle [Refer Fig. 1.16.1 (a)] .rnn i/;.Js-.• . : . ;i!--'·"\ ,,.,.,,:...; ;,,!;/ . ;f>. ,f•''..;.,;3:r ·</"

1 1. The suction and exhaust strokes are at atmospheric

I pressure.

2. Each of the suction (0-1)~ compression (1-2), expansion

(3-4) and exhaust (4-0) strokes take place during 180°
Of crank rotation.
Considering the actual cycles discussed above. the
3. Compression and expansion processes are reversible valves need to be operated to meet the mechanical and
adiabatic. . dynamic requirements.

4. Heat addition process (2-3) and heat rejection process ~ Definition of valve timing diagram
(4-1) are both at constant volume and takes place
instantly. There are no other unintended heat losses.

5. The air behaves like a perfect gas and

6. All dissipative effects like friction and viscosity are

neglected. · ·
Valve timing has to be ~justed according to speed of
1.16.2 Actual Cycle [ReferFig.1.16.I(b)] the engine.

For example, the ~et valve is made to open some what

Actual cycle differs from theoretical cycle in the
followings aspects earlier with)ncrease in speed due to inertia. effect and
the time required in attaining the full opening.
1. During suction stroke (0-1) the mixture of fuel and air
Si.milady exhaust valve is made to open few degrees
is admitted instead of only air. The process is only
more before BDC and close few . degrees more after
possible below atmospheric pressure to admit the
BOC with increase in speed.
mixture.
2. The exhaust stroke (4-0) is above atmospheric pressure
since the gases have to be expelled to atmosphere.

3. The compression process (1 - 2) and expansion process

(3 - 4) are polytropic due to heat transfer between the
stem and surroundin s.

___
-...,,.,.,.
- - - - ---··--·--- -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - -- -
S\;;Jm>e..>d w 1lh Ca rnScarmc r
,I
Constructional ·Features & Workln
1-40

(I) Inlet valve

Top dead
lm.t vatv. centre ExhlUlt The inlet valve opens few degrees before 1'.n ' "_,~
opem T valve cloees
shown in Fig. J.16.2, when ~e pressure <hops·~· ~
inside the cylinder, fresh ch,..... .~
I· aunosphere -ie~· ~
admitted.
When the piston reaches B.D.C., and Slartg •
compression stroke, the charge continues to rno"e . Ill
the cylinder due to its K.E. To take its advantage,~.llllO
inlet valve is ~ept opened for few degree after B.n.c.
The K.E. of the charge prod.uces .a ram eft'ect ""hie~
forces more charge to be admitted mto the cylinder.
The inlet valve for slow speed engine opens 100 beri
T.D.C. and closes 20° . after B.D.C.,. while_:
respective values for a high speed cog.me ~ 100
Bottom before T.D.C. and 50° after B.D.C. '
dead
Inlet valve centre
CIOMS
(II) Exhaust valve
(a) The exhaust valve opens few degree before B.D.C. and
closes few degree after T.D.C. .
The exhaust valve remains open even after the in]~
valve has opened. This period of valve overlap helps in
driving out the exhaust gases efficiently.
Exhaust valve opens 25° before B.D.C. and closes 50
after T.D.C. for slow speed engine.
While, it opens 45° before B.D.C. and closes 200 after
T:D.C. for high speed engines.

(Ill) Ignition

er Definition of Ignition advance

Inlet valve
closes Bottom
w
DmlllTJOll

to-)D- Lj)-1--0 dead opens

centre
(b) ~jh5 PUA Spark is provided 15° before T.D.C. in case of slow
Fig. L16.2: Actual valve timing diagram for four stroke
speed engine and 30° before T.D.C. in high speed ·
petrol engine
engines.
The valve timing is controlled by cam shaft. It can be
Related definitions are as follows :
varied either by modifying the camshaft or it can be
v~ed during engine operation by variable valve 1. Valve lead
timing. The amount on crankshaft ,degrees by which valves
A typical valve timing diagram for slow and high speed open before TDC or BDC is called valve load.
petrol engine is shown in Flg. 1.16.2(a) and (b) The valve closing and opening n~eds a definite time, a
respectively. slight lead time is necessary for its operation.

- - -- - ------ -- -
·- Scanned w ith ComScOnn«
 ---
'
1-41 Constructional Fesh.Ires & Wor1<1ng of l.C. Engines

z. . Valve lag · 1.17.1 Assumptions made In Theoretical

The ungle turned by the crank shaft degrees by which Dlesel Cycle [Refer Ag. 1.11.1 (a)l
the valve close before TDC or BOC is reached is called I. · The suction and exhaust strokes are at atmospheric
valve lag.
pressure. During suction stroke (0-1), only air is sucked
3, Valve overlap. instead of mixture of fuel and air in case of diesel
engines.
There is a overlapping in closing the exhaust valve and
opening the suction valve. This overlap is called valve 2. Each of the suction (0-1), compression ( 1-2), expansion
overlap. It helps in cooling the exhaust valves. (3-4) and emaust (4-0) strokes take place during 18<>°
of crank rotation.
1.17 Theoretical and Actual (p-V) 3. Compression (1-2) and expansion (3-4) processes are
Diagrams for Diesel Engines reversible adiabatic.
4. Heat addition process (2-3) at constant pressure and
+ (MU· May 13)
heat rejection process (4- l) at constant volume are
Un1ve1 sit Ollestions from heat reservoirs and there are no other intended
heat transfers.
5. The air behaves like a perfect gas.
6. All dissipative effects are neglected.
The theoretical and actual (p-V) diagrams for· a diesel .
engine working on diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 1.17.l(a) 1.17.2 _Actual ~cle [Refer Fig. 1.17. l(b)]
and Fig. 1.17.l(b) respectively.
T.O.C. Actual cycle differs from theoretical cycle .·in the --
I
B.D.C. following aspects :
p
2'--- pVY =CI
I
1. During suction stroke (0-1), air is admitted at a pressure
t 1
I
I
I below atmospheric pressure.
I I
I "14 2. The exhaust stroke (4-0) is only possible above
I
·I atmospheric pressure since the g~s have to be
lo expelled to atmosphere from cylinder.

-v 3. The compression process (1-2) and expansion process

(3-4) are polytropic due to heat exchanged between the
(a) Theoretical cycle system and surroundings.
4. Combustion process (2-3) is due to self ignition of high
Fig.1.17_.1
T.O.C. temperatures gases caused by high compression ratio.
I The fuel is injected few degrees before end of
P I
compression upto the point of fuel cut-off. Hence, the
t 8.0.C.
I combustion process is not at constant pressure due to
I continuous fuel injection.
-----1-ExpanSion
I
5. Exhaust at point 4 is not instantaneous due to time
14
lapse in opening the exhaust valve.
~:.=..=.:;:~;:.==-- 1 . .
6. Processes are not ideal and mixture does not behave
-v
like a perfect gas.
(b) Actual cycle
7. Work developed in theoretical cycte ·equals to area (a)
Fig.1.17.1: (p-V) diagram for diesel"engine and for actual cycle it is equal to area (a1 - al). Area .
(~)represents the pumping losses.

ftfts<n • - -- ··- - - --· --- . _. . . _....~~"tTlo~--""""- ......ri=n.,,..,""=··"'h'""''"-""""'tlC,....htwi,..,,..,W... ..

=~t&!l!!'!.!!l!!&E!'!!!!!!
=""·™""""™~™!!t'ro:™oz:·""&!!;>! .&&!ftWC-=-·=·ccM---l'!l!!&!l!!'ES---= ;m:,,,1
rr; -- tf,,
..

I.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

1-42
1 73
"1 • Valve Timing Dfagram for Dlesel
Engines
I
l"
; I•

r:r Assumptions In Ideal cycle

1. Compression and expansion processes are isentropic.

2. Combustion process lalres place instantaneously.

3. Exhaust pressure reduces to atmospheric Pl"esslJrC

instantly at constant volume.

4. Transfer of fresh charge through transfer port and

exhaust lalce place at atmospheric pressure.
Exhaust Valve S. There are no dissipative effects.
opena
Flg. L17.2: Vah·e tintlng diagram ora dJesel engine Piston travel
p
3 In uncovering
the ports
1be \-al\•e timing di.lgram for actual engine is shown in
Fig. I.I 7.2 for :i cypic.U diesel engine. I !
l.!.J
I

I I
1be ' 'ulous strokes are modified for similar reasons as I I
I
exp~ in case of petrol engine. I
I
c:r Fu&l ln}ection tfmfng

The fueJ ne.ed,s to be injected few degrees before T.D.C.

(a) Ideal
for beuer evapor-.ition and mixing of fuel and air. p

~ fueJ valve is closed few degrees after T.D.C. ac;

shown in Fig. 1. 17.2.
t
VaJye timings ha\•e to be adjub'ted depending upon lhe
speed of rbe engine. Usual timings are a'l follows:
Inlet valve opens (IVO) Transter port opens
~
JO., to 25° before T.0.C.
Inlet vaJ\'e closes (IVC)
-+
Fuel injection starts (FVO)
25° to 50° after B.D.C. -------------+-----..
Exhaust port doses
- - Transter port doses
V
-+ 5° to JO" before T.D.C. (b) Actual
FueJ injection stops (FVC) Fig. l.18.1: Ideal and actual {JrV) diagram for two
-+ 15° to 25° after T.D.C.
stroke S.L engine

-: ":""--~--·----

S\;;Jm>e..>d w ith Ca rnScarmc r

' '!~----~---:-------
.,

d I

..1
1 1.C. Engines (MU-Sam. V~ech) 1-43 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines.
.i
·1 A] Actual (p-V) diagram
l The actual (p-V) diagram differs from ideal cycle in the
following aspects :
1. Compression and expansion .. processes are
j polytropic due to heat exchange . with
. surrou~dings.
I
2. · Combustion process is carried out gradually due to
time lapse from the poin~ of ignition upto the
completion of combustion through some degree of
crank rotation.
' .
3. Admission of fresh charge and exhaust both take
place slightly above atmospheric pressure.
4. There is power loss due to dissipative effects
present in the system.

BJ Port timing diagram

Typical port timing diagram of a two stroke engine is

shown in Fig. 1.18.2 which is self explanatory. The timing· F.lg. 1.18.3 : Port timing diagram for 2-stroke diesel
engine
for various events are :
Top dead Since in case of diesel engines only air is supplied~
centre
there is no danger of loss of fuel during scavenging period.
For this reason the port timing for scavenging is kept
90° for diesel engine~ as compared to 70° of petrol engine.
Similarly, the exhaust is for 120° in case of 2-stroke diesel
engine as compared to 90° for petrol engine. ·

Syllabus Topic : Fuel Air Cycles and Their Analysis

1.19 Fuel-Air Cycles

+ (MU-Dec.12, May 13)

Tn1nsfer port closes Tn1nsfer port opens

35• later BOC centre 35• before BOC

Fig. 1.18.2 : Port timing diagram of two stroke

S.I. engine

1.18.1 Port Timing Diagram for Diesel Engine

In case of idealized cycles so far discussed, it was
Port timing diagram for 2-stroke diesel engine is
assumed that' the working substance is air which
similar to 2-stroke petrol engine except the positions of ·
behaves like a perfect gas and the specific heat of air
opening and closing of fuel valves. It is shown in
remains constant throughout. ·
Fig. 1.18.3.

Scanned with CamScanner

FF
~r i·'..1
. ..
'
·, ·' .
l.c:\ Englnes (MU-sem. V-Mech) 1-44
\ er Assumptions In fuel-air cycles
In case\ of actual engines the working substance is . ...;,+:;
I ~
t
(i) Subsequent .to combustion process, the mixture is .)
j
mixture of WJ:: and fuel with presence of residual gases chemical equilibrium. .. ~:
I of the previous stroke in the clearance space. In other
i (ii) The intake and exbaUSt process are both at atxnoSplicric'.·,.
I!··l' .- words the Workin°i·· substance is entirely different than
pressure. · : ...,
.
the lllr. ' ,.,
l i . (ill) Compression and expansion processes arc adiab~·.
The specific heat of gases increase with the. increase in without friction.

tcmpe~· except in 'case of m;~o-atomic gases due es in kinetic energy are negligible.
(iv) 1bechang
to hi h ' ,. ( ) In case of Otto cycle. the mixture of fuel and air .
':
" w c • the value of y representing' ..the. ratio of
v homogeneous and it b~ ins~taneously at co~
specific heats at constant pressure ~d at ~-nstant
. " volume Varies during . the various processes of the
volume.

1.20 Effect of various Factors on Ana1y818 ·

actual cycle.

It is also observed that at high temperatures the of Fuel-Air Cycles

--~~~~----~------
products of combustion tends to dissociate since these ·+ (MU - May 12, Dec. 12, May 17)
are not stable at temperatures beyond 1200oc. ---~=~~~~

.Due to these factors the performance of idealized

cycles are no where near to actual cycles.

~ Definition of fuel-air cycle

m
The detailed effect of various aspects of fuel-air cycle
analysis are as follows : .
The analysis of fuel-air cycles leads to more closer
approach to actual performance of the engines compared to 1.20.1 Compression and Air-Fuel Ratio
air standard cycles.
er Definition of lean mixture
c:r Analysis of fuel-air cycles takes Into
consideration the following aspects

(a) The mixture of fuel and air with residual gases.

(b) Variation of specific heat with temperature.

(c) The variation of air-fuel ratios.

(d) The change in number of moles due to combustion

which affects the pressure and temperature of system.

( e) The chemical equilibrium and dissociation. Fig. 1.20. l shows the effect of air-fuel ratios on the
thennal efficiency with the variation of compression
ratio.
 ':. .. ., • .· .. ·:.'

·.1

nes (MU-Sem. V-Mech · 1-45 Ines .

Constructional Features & Wor1dn

In actual practice, the specific beat of a gaS increaSCS

with the increase in temperature except in case of

150% monoatomic gases because molecules have high degree

52 Theoretical
air (lean ml>dunl) .o f freedom at higher temperatures.
120% The variation of specific beat with temi>eraturc above

100% 1500 K is given by the relation,

(SIDichiometric
mixture)
CP · = a+ bT +er
90% Fuel
air Cv = a 1 +bT+cr
32 cydes

28 75% (Rich m
where a. b, c and a 1 are constants. It can be seen that
the ratio of two specific beats,
24
c .
20.__.......~.......~......~.i..----i~.....1.--
3 .. 5 6 . 7 8
Y= if. decreases with the increase in temperature.
9 y

Compression ratio
Since, CP - Cy = R, it implies that (a- a 1) = R.
Fig. t.20.1 : Effect of air-fuel ratio and comp~lon ratio
on thermal efficiency It should be noted that the variation of specific heat in
the temperature range of 300 K to 1500 K is almost a
It could be observed from Fig. 1.20.1 that the fuel-air
cycles with lean mixtures tend to be more closer to straight line. Therefore, the variation of specific heat in

theoretical cycle compared to with rich mixtures. this range of temperature may be considered as :

The main reason is that the lean mixtures tend to reach CP = a+bTandCv=a1 +bT.
their chemical equilibrium just at the beginning of
r:r Change In Internal Energy and Enthalpy
expansion stroke. Also the value of ratio of specific
The effect on change in internal energy with variation
beats 'y' for rich mixtures tend to decrease at low '
in specific heat for unit mass of gas can be evaluated as
temperatures.
follows:
Fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with compression T1 T1
ratio in the same manner as air standard ef:ficiency. Uz _u 1 = f Cv. dT = f (a+ bT) dT
T1 T1
1.20.2 Variation of Specific Heats

+ (MU· Dec. 15)

= a(f2-T1)+b (T~-T~)
2

Uni vers it 1 Question

Ui-U1 = a(f2-T1)+b(f2-T1)x(T2~T,)

Where, Tm represents the mean temperature

In case of ideal cycles the specific heat of the working
... (i)
fluid was assumed to be constant throughout.
Cy~ is called mean specific heat

...(ii)

S;c;,11nt ..>dw1ll1 CarnSc:.mnt.'f

 - .......--,..---
..

I
II

' I
JfC ;.c. Engines (MU·Sem. V·Mech)
1-46

The effect of variation of specific beat in case of Otto

cycle is shown in Fig. 1.20.2. Cycle (1·2-3-4)
represents the ideal Otto cycle.
:
Dutjng compression process the value of Y decreases
With the increase in temperature due to which the actual
temperanire of gas after compression will be lower than 1

'·
the ideal compression temperature.
p l__-------------v
Fig. t.20.3

process (1-2') repre~nts the . actual compressi<>i"i:

., ., e to decrease in y, the actual. pressure ~
process. D u th 'deal .
temperature will be lower than e 1 compression
.
process.
•
Due to mcrease
cP with temperature, the temperature
m
·
·
To will be lower than T 3 for the same amount of heat
3
lied Process (3'-4") represent the process for
.
Fag. v supp . al of y and (3'-4') represents. the actuai
1.20.2 : Otto cycle with variation In specllic heat constant v ue . . .
process d ue
to increased value of y with reduction in
I '
Process ( l - 2') represents the actual compression
temperature during expansion process.
process. For the same amount of beat supplied, the
The work developed in actual cycle (1-2'-3'-4') is le~
maximum. pressure and temperature achieved is also
than the work developed in ideal cycl~ (1-2-3-4). ~
lower and it corresponds to state 3' due to increased
loss of work is due to variation in specific beat.
specific beat at con~tant volume.
1.20.3 Molecular Change
.
Process (3' - 4"') shows the adiabatic process for the
constant value of 'y' corresponding to state 3': But,
In an ideal cycle it is assumed that the number of moles
during the expansion process the value of 'y' increases
of the working substance before and after combustion
with the decrease in temperature, therefore, actual
remains constant since the heat transfer to and from the
expan.8ion process is shown as (3' -4').
working substance were assumed with-the help of heat
Actual cycle is represented by ( 1 - 2' - 3 ' - 4') with reservoirs. However, the number of moles present
variation in spe.cific heat. The work developed in actual before and after the combustion would be different in
cycle is Jess than the ideal cycle. case of fuel-air cycles e.g. consider the following
The difference of theoretical or ideal work and the combustion equations :
actual work is calied the loss of work due to variation c +02 --t C02
In specific heat.
1 mole 1 mole --t 1 mole
1.20.2.1 Effect of Variation of Specific Heat
fn Case of Diesel Cycle 2 moles 1 mole --t 2moles

Effect of variation of specific heat is shown in It could be seen that the total number of moles before
Fig. 1.20.3. Cycle (1-2-3-4) represents the ideal cycle. and after combustion of fuel are differenL The variation
in number of moles is commonly known as molecular
contraction or expansion.

scanned w ith c amScannef

 1-47 . Constructional Features &Workln of l.C. Engines
According to gas equation,
ca_+02 ~C02

= n R T ; (R =Universal gas constant)

0 0

p. V Therefore the effect of dissociation is to reduce the

The pressure of the gas is proportional to number of maximum pressure and temperature expected· during
the combustion process.
moles at a given temperature and volume. Therefore
• -
the actual pressure in the combustion chamber will be At the late stage of expansion proces~, when the
different compared to theoretical cycles due to temperatures_ fall, a part of dissociated products· may
recombine to release the heat energy which can not be ·
variation in number of moles caused by the combustion
utiliz.ed effectively for producing work. A portion of
of fuel.
this heat is carried away by exhaust gases.
The pressure attained in the cylinder further depends on
We conclude that the reduced maximum· pressure 'and
fuel-air ratio, type of fuel used and extent of reaction in
temperatures are achieved during the combustion
·the cylinder. This pressure directly affects the
pi'ocess due to dissociation, there is a loss of work and
workdone by the gases on the piston. efficiency. These losses are called as ~tion
los.ws.
1.20.4 Chemical Equlllbrium and Dissociation
It has been practically observed that C02 tends· to
+ (MU· May 15, Dec.16) dissociate above 1000°C. ·
Dissociation is only 1% at 1500°C ~-9f
dissociation
~-
increases
~
with-~-
the increase~ in temI>.Crature.
- --~ -
. . ............ . .. . - - .- - -·. - • -. ... J'• •

The effect of dissociation on power and efficiency is

much less compared to specific heat variation loss.
Fig. 1.20.4, shows the loss in·temperature of the exhaust
If a fuel is burnt in presence of air and the combustion gas mixtures due to dissociation with respect to mixture
process goes to completion, the heat energy is released strength.
representing an exothermic reaction.
3200
This beat energy released is utiliz.ed to heat the
~ / N o dissociation .
products of combustion which raises its pressure and 3000
II'
temperature. I I '
.6 2800 I I ' ,
t... / I ',
However in actual practice such high theoretical
~
I
2600 I
temperatures, as expected, will not be achieved in an e I
I

~
I
actual cycle because the products of combustion like 2400 I
With dissociation
~ 1.
C02 and H20 are not stable at temperatures above
2200
1000°C and 1300°C respectively.
2000 .__...__ __._ __.._ _.__......__.........
Product of combustion like C02 may dissociate into 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
their components as CO and 0 2• Lean Rich
Degree of richness(%)
During ·the dissociation process, it absorbs heat from
Fig. 1.20.4 ·: Effect of dissociation on temperature
the combustion space representing an endothermic
reaction. This ·lowers the temperature of the Curve shows that the maximum temperature is attained
combustion till a chemical equilibrium is achieved at a with stoichiometric air-fuel ratio without dissociation
particular · temperature and at this condition the while the maximum temperature is obtained with
chemical reaction can proceed in eithei direction. The dissociation at about 10% rich mixture.
equation becomes,

Scanned w ith CamSc.anner

....
t. •..;,.
,.
12
. Constructional Features & Workin

· ~.s shows the results of a test between B.P. and

~

:''·.
Fig.
f dissociation on Otto .cycle is . 1.~ :. ~~ I
A...F. ratio .on a four sim.1ce spark ignition engine when Effect o · 8
"0% '· ·'.'
,... lllnning at constant Speecf. .It sbo.ws that the power is
. 1 20 6 Cycle (1-2-3-4), represents the n... · :.j J
F1g. · · · , ~'(() C)c~" ·I
lllax.inillln With st~icbiometric mixture when there is no
"thout dissociation. T3 < Tl, due to dissaciati ~.~j
disSOciation. · WJ . • . .Ott Qf
(3, _ 4') would have been the tSCntropic · . -..~ ·'
~;
gases. . , . . P~ . i
.
w1tbou t •_........,
...,sociation
. of dissoc1atec1
· gases and· (3' '4j
. "";:·
th
shows eactual process. : · · . . .. ·;:
B.P.With dlssocla1lon
T,.,, > T... i>Ccause of the heat rel~ du~·--g.·. '
.
reassociation of dissociated gases · at
1O\\oct
temperatures.

The energy corresponding ' ( is Carried away in tbc .

11
12 13
Oxbaust g.,.. ,;,,.,; it can not be utiJi'<d ~.. · 1

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 expansion of gases. . . .
_Alr-tue1 ratio_
Actual Air Cycles I
1

Fig. 1.20.s : ~ of power due lo dissodatfon

. ~ shacfed area shows . the loss of. power due to 1.21 Actual Cycles
~SOciation.
dissociation. When the mixture is very lean, there is no
FoIIowing....
. ""e the deviations of an actual cycle from an.
However, as the air-fuel ratio decreases, the maximum ideal cycle :

temperature rises and dissociation commences with I. The working substance is not pure air but it is a mixture
lllaximum dissociation <>ccurring at stoichiometric
mature. of fuel-air vapour in case of petrol engines and the air
and atomised fuel supplied before the end of
With the furtbcc decrease in air-fuel ratio i.e. when the compression in case of diesel engines.
mixture becomes rich. the effect of dissociation on
power tends to de.cline due to reduced temperatures of 2. Heat added is not by heat reservoirs but it is due to
83Ses in the cylinder caused by the incomplete combustion of fuel which alters the composition of
COmbustion. wor~g substance of the cycle.

Effect of dissociation in case of C.L Engines is not 3. Variation of specific heat with temperature and
appreciable because overall temperatures due to dissociation of products of combustion alters the ideal
COmbustion are low. It is due to the fact that excess air cycle and there is loss of power called specific heat
is supplied and mixture is heterogeneous. variation and dissociation losses respectively.

3 4. The residual gases alters the composition, pressure and

temperature of the fresh mixture.

5. In an ideal Otto cycle the heat supplied is assumed to

be at constant volume while the burning of fuel is not
instantaneous due to which there are time losses.

6. Compression and expansion processes are not adiabatic

since there is heat transfer between the working
substance and the surroundings. The loss of work are

Fig.1.20.6 called direct heat losses.

 . ... ' . .. , ., ..... .
'

.; •' . ..
- : ~

· ;' . I '

.111.c. Engines (M0-Sem. v~M8Ch) Constructional Featur~ & Wb~rlg of 1.C. Englnas .
1. nm ~ J~ due to incomplete_combUstion of .fuel of fuel doeS ·not . take place. inStantane~sly . and. thC :.
m" cue of actual cycl~. entire proccsS .of combustion takes a .definite time ·
. - . . ..
S, .'JJle v~es do not open and close instantaneously. Due . interval.
to early opening of exhaust valve there is an expansion During this period of combustio~ the gases experience
work loss called emamt blow down losses. a change in volume.
Suction and. exhaust processes are carried out below The increased volume due to moti~n of piston results in
9.
and above the atmospheric pressure respectively and lower maximum pressure and less work on the piston. ·
not at atmospheric pressure. The loss of work are called Fig. 1.22.1 shows the difference between ideal. fuel-air
pumping )05.WS. and actual cycles.

JO. There arc losses due to friction and leakages. p

Points 1 to 4 have already been discussea in fuel-air

cydes. Points 5 to 10 differenti~tc between fuel-air and
acniaI cycles.

1.22 Losses In Actual Cycles other than

of Fuel-Air Cycles

+ (MU· May 12)

v
Un1vers1t Oues.t1on ' .
Fig. 1.22.1 : Otto cycle-time 1os.ws
.-the~ losses ~ning In :~I~. Point 3 represents the maximum pressure in case, of ·
. Oesaibe Exhaust Bk>w-dOwn and Pu~ng .!<>sses·
ideal cycle while point 3' represents the pressure in
In detal.
case of fuel-air cycles if burning would have been
Apart from the losses considered and discussed earlier carried.out instantaneously.
in case of fucl-3.i.r cycles. the other important losses of nctua.l
However, d~e to time lag in combustion the maximum
cycles are as follows :
pressure achieved correspond~ to point - a. The shaded
Lossa o.f actual cyc.ln area represents the loss of work due to time losses or
burning time losses which includes the incomplete
(a) rme losses combustion losses also.
Temperature T; will also be less in case of incomplete
{b) Heat transfer losses
burning of fuel which will also result in loss of power
( c) Exhaust blow-down losses I and efficiency.

(d) Pumping losses er Effect of spark timing

(e} Ri.W.ng friction losses Spark advance affects the power out of the cycle.

Fig. Cl.S : Los.ses or actual cycles The maximum pressure after combustion should reach
in such a manner that. the work done during expansion
1.22.1 Time Losses stroke is high. The burning of fuel is varied by varying
the spark advance timing.
In ideal cycles the heat addition process was assumed
3.t constant volume whereas in actual cycles the burning

- - -- - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - ------·--- -- -
Scanned with CamScanner
r. ,. :,· ·,• ·'

.
~
.
..

1 ' •
1-50
eat Losses.
1.22.2 H
cession and expansion proec~8 .·,\
p
:. 1
.,,.
·
3 ideal comP . . . .. :l.'trt:}
'fbe diabatic, however m actual pr~.~ ?
. ,·· med to be a · · ~·
uanstier trom the working substance 't'o ti.:• ~-:
' .
assu
there is beat . . ·' 'tit:
ACtualcyde
i:.. der walls. .. ,
2
cy~ . .·
. rable amount of heat loss Particlllatt ~
There is cons1de . . . . .Y
bustion and expansion processes due to .
1 during the com . . . .
· f work and efficiency. These los .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 which there is Joss o . se,

Compression ratio are called heat losses.

Fig. l.22.2 : Spark at IDC i.e. spark advance 0° = 1.22.3

Exhaust Slow-down Losses

Fjg, 1.22.2 shows that when the spark js supplied at . umed to open at bottom dead cen~
Exhaust valve is ass . . .
TDC ie. spark advance is zero degrees. .d al cycles while m actual engme8 it
(BDC) in case of 1 e .
The combustion results into Jower maximum pressure . . abo t 500 before B.D.C. .
P; compared to p 3 due to expansion of gases, the
is opened at u . .
. the pressure in the cylinder during
combustion being jn expansion stroke. I t heIps in reducwg
·
·
th t the work required ·
the expansion stroke so a . . tn
In case the spark.advance js so adjusted that maximum xh st gases by the piston 1s reduced.
pushing out the e au
pressi.Jre occurs at point 3, in that case the work o~
. f beat energy is carried away by
compression will be maximum since additional work is Due to this 1ot o
ulting into the . loss of work. .
.required to compress the burning gases. exhaust gases res ·
th ideal and actual cycles.
Fig. 1.22.4 shows e
Though expansion work is maximum, it results into
resents the loss of work called
low work output. The shaded area rep
exhaust blow down losses.
Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the sp_!Y'~advance in p
such a manner at all loads that it results into maximum
output as shown in Fig. 1.22.3.

It occurs when the combustion results into maximum

pressure about 5° after TDC. Ideal
p
3

Actual cycle Fig. 1.22.4 : Exhaust blow-down losses

1.22.4 Pumping Losses

L-.....,.......__.~..,_--------v In case of ideal cycles the suction and exhaust

01234567
processes were assumed to be at atmospheric pressure.
Compression ratio
H<:Jwever some pressure differential is required to carry
Fig. 1.22.3 : Optimum spark advance {13° - 26°) out the suction and exhaust processes between the fluid
pressure and cylinder pressures.
p

·nes
1·51 Constructional Features & Wor1<lng of 1.C.
p
Therefore some work is done on the gases during
suction and exhaust stroke.

.
This work is called ·
pumpmg work as shown in

Fig. 1.22.5 by shaded area.

-~ Suction
1.22.5 Rubbing Friction Losses

These losses are due to friction between the piston and

cylinder walls, in various bUrings and other auxiliary
Pumping losses v
equipments such as pumps and fans.
Fig. 1.22.S : Pumping I~
Friction losses increase with the speed rapidly while the
During suction the cylinder pressure is ·lower than the effect of mean effective pressures on friction losses is
fluid pressure in order to induct the fluid into the to a very small extent.
cylinder and the exhaust gases are expelled at a
pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure.

1.23 Comparison between Air-standard Cycle, Fuel-air Cycle and Actual Cycle of a
Gasoline Engine

Assumed that working substance is Actual working substance is mixture of Same as fuel - air cycle.
pure air fuel and air and residual gases
2. Heat is added by heat reservoirs. Heat is added due to combustion of Same as fuel - air cycles.
fuel and air which alters the
composition of fuel and air.
3. Specific heat of gases and y does not Variation of specific heat with Same as fuel - air cycles.
change with temperature. There is no temperature is considered. The
chemical reaction. dissociation of gases at high
temperatures is considered.
4. There is no change in Chemical Residual gases and combustion Same as fuel - air cycles.
Composition of working substance. changes the number of molecules
before and after combustion.
· 5. Gases are in chemical equilibrium. Due to combustion of fuel and air, the Same as fuel air cycle
dissociation and chemical equilibrium
is considered
6. The heat is supplied of constant Burning of fuel and air takes place at Burning of fuel and air is not at
volume in case of Otto cycJe constant volume. constant volume, therefore there
are time losses
7. Compression and expansion processes Processes are not adiabatic. Heat losses are considered.
are isentropic i.e; no heat exchanged
between gases and cylinder walls.
8. Valves open and close instantaneously. Same as air- standard cycle. There are exhaust blow down
losses since there is a time lag in
opening and closing of exhaust
valve.

~, ,.M:!CJw.thC:in~llf ltc'O
 10. Friction is neglected Friction is neglected.

p ' .
roblems on Fuel ~ Air Cycles

Example 1.23.1 Dividing by T, we get,

p ..dV m Cx dT _ O
One kg of ga
. s expands lsentroplcally from 390 K to 330 K. T + T -
The specific he8 t
at constant volume is given as
Cv = 0 71 + 2 1 1 o-•
. · · x T, where T Is In KeMn.
, But ¥=~ ...from gas equation p · V = mRT
Find the work done during the process.
Solution:

Given:
m =l ~g•.T1 =390 K, T2 = 330 K On dividing by m, we get,

. From first law of.thermodynamics, R· dV +r dT

V '-'v T
=O ...(i)
d'q-_d'w = .. du
CP = a+KT and
d'w = - m Cv dT (Since q =O) Cv = b + KT (given)
T1
.. w = - JCvdT :. R = cP - cv = (a+ KT) - (b +KT)
T1
= (a-b)
330
=- J(0.71+2.1x10- T) dT
4 On substituting the values of R and c. in Equation (i),
390 we get \.

= -[0.71 (330- 390) + 2_.1 x 10-• (3302 23902)]. (a-b) ~ +(b+KT). ~ = 0

= 47.136 kJ/kg . On.integrating the above equation,

•••Am.
(a-b)loge V+blo8e T+KT = logeC
...(where C is a constant)
. (a-b) KT
i.e. lo8e V + lo8e Tb+ lo& (e) = lo8eC
a-b KT
•• lo8e V . Tb . e

Solutlon: Talcing antilog on both sides,

a-b KT
111 law equation can be writt~n as : V ·Tb·e = Constant, C
d'q = d'w +du •••Proved
But, d'q = 0 for isentropic process, d'w =p · dV and
du= m c. · dT, therefore, the above equation reduces to :

scanne<1 with cam.scanner

 Constructional Features & Wor1dn

Tl
m,xC·V = J l x (0.997 + 21x10-' T) dT
833.4
l T ~
26 x 44000 = [0.997 TJ 3 + 21 x 10 (Tl ~ 833 42)
833.4 2 3 •

1692.3 =0.997 (T3 -833.4) + 10.5 x 10-s (T: - 833.4l

On rearranging the terms :
10.5 2 .
103""T3 +0.997T3 -2596.13 = 0
Refer Fig. P. 1.23.3.

Given: Pa = 1 b~, Ta = 50°<;.= 50 + 273 = 323 K

2
:. T 3 + 9495.2 T 3 -247.25 x Ur = 0

. . Yi T = - 9495.2 ~ y(9495.2)2 + 4 x 247.25 x 103

compression ratio, r = V = 15
. 2
3 2

Cv = 0.71+21x10-s. TkJ/kg = 2127.3K

For process (2 _ 3)
C.V. of fuel = 44000 kJ/kg, ~= 25,
!J ~
Tl = V2
R = 287 J/kg K ::= 0.287 kJ/kg K .
p . v3=V2XT!J
··
2127.3
= V 2 x 833.4 =2.5526V2
2

· · Percentage of stroke at which combustion is

completed.

1 bar 1 (so·cr

v (2.5526-1)
= c15 _ 1) x mo= 7.143 % ••• Ans.
Fig. P.1.23.3
. .
For comp~ion process (1- 2)

(efJ
. (1.35 - 1)
T1 = Ta = 3i3 (15)(1.3~ -1)
- 833.4K

cp = cv + R =co.11 + 21 x 10-' n + 0.281

..
= 0.997 + 21x10-' kJ I kg

For 1 kg of charge, the fuel required,

1 1 r
IDr = A.F. ratio + 1 =25+1 = 26 kg

T3 . Solution:
Heat supplied, Q(2 _ 3) = J mCP · dT Refer Fig. P. 1.23.4
T1 -

seamed with CamScan~

IO!I,
If' ·•.
• I

.ional Features & Wori<ln

construe"
1-54
Mass of fuel burnt.
Compress.ion ratio. r =#= 10 l1lp _j_ kg
. l
m, = A.F. ratio - 15
c.v = 48000kJ/kg
rocJucts of combustion,
1',. AF. ratio ·= ..!!!&.= 15 Mass of P 1 16
m,
m, = m.+mr= 1 +TI' =15 kg.
P1 = lbar
. process (2' - 3') at constant volume"'"
For combusuon ..~
T 1 = 57° C= 51+273 =330K
, '
Y = 1.36, C,. = 0.7ll7 + 2.1x10- 4 T have,
p
m,x C.V. = ro, x Cv x (T;-: T~)
3

)( 48000 ..,-~ [o.7117 +1.05><10- (1~+75s)]>< (1;-756)

4
1
1s 15 )(

48000 1§. _ 0 7117 (r'3 -1ss) + 1.05 x 1cf 4 [ (r;)2-(7sa~]

- 16 ><15 - . .
-o 7117 r'3 -538.05 + 1.05x·10-4 x (1;)2 -60.01
3000- .
2
1.05 x 10-4 T'3 +07117T'
• 3
-538.05-60.01-3000=0
v
Flg. P. 1.23.4 1.05 x 10- 4 T;2 + 0.7117 T; -3598.06 = 0

P1 v•36I = Pl v'-"'
l ; T ,2 + 6778.1 T; - 3426.7 x 104 = 0
------.r------:-:-:-:--=:--::-:r
~ = P1 ~~136
~
3
- 6778.1 ± y(6778. 1)
2
- 4 x (- 3426.7 x 105
1
T3 = 2
p; = 1 x (10)1-"' =22.91 b:ir - 6778.1 ± 13527 .3
p~ xv,
= 2
E.tYi = ..
T1 i-; = 3374.6 K (on neglecting negative value) ...Am.
,
v..
P~
T'l = --- xvxT
I

... .&. 11
I

P1 1
I T'3 = T'l

...~ \
T':I = -22.91 ] , 3374.6
1- x lox 330=756K P3 = 756 x 22.91 = 102.26 bar
Let T; be the tem.perarure aft.er combustion.
For comtant specific heat, c. = 0.7117 kJ/kg K
~f.ean te:mperarure during combustion,
m,xC.V. = m1 Cv (T3 -T;)
T:xT; T;+756 1 16
T = 2 = 2 ls x 48000 = ls x 0.7117 (T3 -756)

Mean specific bea1. T3 = 4971.3 K

_ (T;+756J
c.. = 0.7Jl7+2.1 x 10 4 x 2 J
4
= 0.7JJ7 + J.05 x 10- (T; + 756)
.!i., xp I 4971.3
p3 = 2 =~x22.91
Let mass of air, fila = J kg T2

= 150.65 bar ••• Ans.

---- ------- - -
Scanned ¥>1lh camSeannl'f
1111
.... . .
·

1-55 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. En Ines

CbaJ)ge in maximum pressure,
Therefore there 'is decrease' In :1~026 ·% · of efficiency_
.;, p3 - p~ =150.65 ~ 102.26 with Increase in 1.6 %. specific
. ' . ' ' . beat .a t constant.
. .. . ' . " . . -
volume
~ .
• ' -~

=48.39bar •~ .Ans. .. . ••.A..ns.

Example 1.23.6

A petrol engine using a compression ratio 7 and air-fuel ratio

of 15:1 has the pressure and temperature at the end of
suction stroke as 1 bar and 5rc'.;es·p ectively. The fuel used
Solution: has a_ calorific value of 44000 kJ/kg. Compr~ssion follows the
=.Constant·~d specific heat at constant volume
1 33
d(C) law P · v
Given: r = 8, ~= 1.6% =0.016 ·
v
is given by the relation, Cv =o. 718 '.f. 2:1 x 1o""" ·T; wtiere 'T'
Otto cycle efficiency is given by, is In degree Kelvin.

Determ· th · ·
Tl = 1--1.._-
·
1
Y- I - -
1
1.4 - l =0 .5647 ine e ,maximum pressure and temperature In the ·
(r) (8) cylinder and comi>are this value wlth·that of eoiisbint specific
=
heat, Cv 0.718 .
Solution:
Cy (y-1) i::: R .. p 'I

3
R
(Y-1) .= C.,
... (i)

Tl = 1 - -RICy
L_ - 1 - <)-Ric.
r
(r) -

1-Tt = (r)-Rlc.
On taking its log, .. -
:. log,,(1-n) - _R l.
1 • - -C., og,,r v
· Fig. P. 1..23.6
. I ' I

Differentiating Tl With na~~ . Refer Fig. P. i.2:i_6 , · "

-~l"-"-t to C where ' ' .
constant v • r 1s kept Given:
-~
· (1-ri) = -R log,, (r>[ -~. d (Cy)]
.·. dT] _= -O -ri) ~log,,(r) -[ !~C.J] . 'I.33 .
i!!l 0-11) v
. · P; - =. P_~ ~ 7= ~ (7>1_·3~ ·
·· Tl = -~. ~Y- l)log,, (r>[~~.J]
= 13.304 bar ..
[ .. R
. c:=(y...:l)]
!2.'Y_i -
T1 -
.&2
T ·
Given, 2

•i!n = -(1.:- 0.564Z\

Tl 0.5647) 0.4- I) Ooge 8) X 0 .016

---= -o.01026arc-1;026 %)

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 r•mor nr '?•._,,., di'N P %U-'!Im Ul ·mu.....,,· · Fl ·

. 1-56 Constructional Features & Workl

Let T; be the temperature after combustion Example 1.23.7

Mean temperature during combustion, A petrol engine using a compresslOn ratio of 6 Is SUppl19d ·
heat at constant volume till the temperature becomes ·
_ T;+~ T,+627.2 . l

- 2 2 2927°C. The gas now expands in Its power stroke and the
mean Index of adiabatic expansion Is 1.2. · · -~
:. Mean specific heat, Specific heat per mole is given as : .
· · .... (r+621.i') c v =20.8 + o.007 T (kJ I
0 k9rno1e) where, T Is In KeMn.
.
Find
Cy = .0.718+2.1x10 x~ 2 ) the mean value of ratio of specific heats and work done per ·

Cy = 0.718 + t.05 x 10"" (T; + 627.2) mole during expansion process. Assume, universal gaa
constant, A0 =8.314 kJ/kgmo19.
Let mass of air, m. be I .kg
Solutlon:
I
•. Mass of fuel burnt. m, = ls kg Given : r = 6, T1 = 2927°C = 2927 + 273 = 3200 K,
n =1.2
M~ of prod~cts of combustion, m. =(1 + 1~) kg Let (p1 V 1 T1) and (p2 V2 T2) be the states of gas before
and after expansion: For adiabatic process,
For p~ (2' - 3')
n-1 n-1
Heat supplied by fuel =Heat absorbed by gases T2 = T1 ~) =T1 (~)
m,xC.V. = m.xCy(T; -T~) J.2-1

:. 1; x ~ = (1+1~) x (0.718 + 1.05 x 10"" T2 = 3200 (i) =2236.2 K

n; + 627.2)] (T; - 627.2) Average temperature,
On solving, ~ = 2918.4 K •••Ans.
, ,
T = T,; T2 _ 3200 + 2236.2 _ 2718_1 K
2
.& - El
~-~ Cv
0
= 20.8 + 0.007 x T

, 13.304
p3 = (2918.4) x 627.2 = 20.8 + 0.007 x 2718.1
= 39.827 kJ/kgmole
= 61.904 bar •••Ans.

For constant spedlic heat,

.. Co -co · = Ro
p v

m,xc.v = m, xcy (T3--r;) .. cop = 39.827 + 8.314 = 48.141 kJ/kgmole

1~ x 44000 = J + (1+J~)x0.718 (T3-627.2) More correct vaJue of ratio of specific heats will be,
co
= 4457.JK p 48.141
T3 ••• A.ns. . Y1 = Co = 39.827 = 1.2088 , ••Am.
. , v

Tl -- .&
.El
T
, Exact temperature after expansion would be,
2
r-1
13.304
PJ = (4457.3) x 627.2 T2 = T (~) 1

= 94.54bar •••Ans. (l:'I(1:2088 - 1)

= . 3200~6)
.1
= 2201.26 K .J

.j
~If..
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 1·57 Constructional Features & Workln
q-W = U2-U1
For 1 kg of charge, tho fuel required.
o-w = n c: CT2 -T1) : (process is ndiabatic)
[·: m,=m.+111t=m, (-;;+ 1)]
:. w = - 1 x 39.827 (2201.26 - 3200) ' I 1
1 ---kg
= 39776.SkJlkx..,.. 111t = A·Frotio+ 1=29+1-30
••• Ans.
Heat supplied,
1
T3

I
~
. ~-3

m,xc.v _
= f m CP • dT
T2

Tl
f 1 x (0.996 + 2.8 x 10""' T) dT

ll
900
Tl
l
30X42000 = fl x (0.996 + 2.8 x lO""'T) dT
900 .

I -!![T2JT3
= [0.996T1:: + 2.8 x210 2 900
I
I
1400 = . 0.996 (T3 -900) + 1.4 x 10-5 (Tl3 - 9002)

On arranging tenns
Given: Tl= 900 K; 1.4 x 10-s T~ + 0.996 T3 - 2307.74 = 0

Cy= (0.709 + 0.000028 T) kJ I kg K: ~ + 71142.8 T3 -164.83 x 106 = O

Cy of fuel = 42 MJ/kg =42000 kJ/kg K - 71142.80 ±y(71142.8)2 -[4 x 1(-164.83 x 1Q8)]
Ts = 2x 1
R =287 J/kg K. NF ratio= 29 : 1, R = 287 J/kg
T3 = 2244.99K
For compression process (1 - 2)
p For proc~ (2-3)

Il = .Yi
Tl V2
Il v 2244.99
V3 = V 2XT2 2X 900

=2.4944 V 2

:. Percentage · of stroke at which combustion is

completed.
v
V3-V2
Fig. P. 1.23.8 = v. - v2 x 100
Tz
T1 = ~<r-t>
900
(l 6{' =296.9 K · ~-1)
=wv ) 2
-1
x 100
CP = Cy+ R =(0.709 + 0.000028 T) + 0.287
(2.4944-1)
= 0.996 + 2.8 x 1O-!! T kJ/kg K = (16 - l) x 100

= 0.09962 =9.962% ...Am.

~
!.'.
l
•
.
Constructional Features & Worldng of l.C.
1-58

For constant presswe process,

Example 1.23.9

A diesel engine uses a compression ratio of 16 and at the .

· ~-!z.
V - T
1 1
. end of compression the temperature of the air is 1100 K
2356.7 - 2 142.5
Now the air is supplied heat at constant pressure by burning = 1100 - .
fuel of calorific value of 44200 kJ/kg and the fuel-air ratio is
y 2 = 2.1425 V,
0.04:1 . Specific heat at constant volume Tis given as :
4
Cv = 0.762 + 2 x 1o- T, where T is in Kelvin. (Wbei:e, V1 = Clearance vollllnc)
Find the cut-off ratio of the engine.
Let. clearance volume,
Assume, R =0.287 kJ/kg K
V1 = 1 (unity)
Solution:

Given: r= 16, T 1 =1100 K. Stroke volume = r-1=16-1= 15

C.V = 44200 kl/kg, fuel : air= 0.04 : 1 and V2 = 2.1425

Let state (p1 V 1 T 1) and (p2 V2 Ti} be the properties of V2-V1 lOO
the gas before and at the end of heat addition process. Let Percentage cut-off = Stroke volume x
the amount 'of air compressed be 1 kg, then the amount of
fuel supplied is 0.04 kg.
= (2. 14~ -1) x 100·
Mass of gas, mg = Mass of air, Cm.) +Mass of fuel, (rD.r)
= 7.6% ···~
= 1 + 0.04 = 1.04 kg
IIlg
Example 1.23.1 o
Heat supplied = IDr x C.V. =0.04 x 44200
An engine working on Otto cycle has compression ratio 6
= 1768 kl/kg of air
uses C8 H18 as fuel. The calorific value of fuel is 44000 kJlkg:
For constant pressure process,
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is 15:1 . Determine :
. 2 (a) Maximum pressure and temperature during the cycle
Heat supplied = fII1g CP dT without molecular contraction.
·I
(b) Maximum pressure and temperature during · the cycle
~ut. cp = Cv+R considering the molecular contraction and the molecular

= (0.72 + 2 x 10-• T) + 0.287 expansion.

= 1.007 + 2 x 10· T
4
Assume, Cv =0.718 kJ/kg Kand the conditions of mixture
Ti before compression are at 1 bar, .57° and mean index of
.. 1768 = f t.04x (t.007+2x10-'n dT compression is 1.32.
1100
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.23.10.
[ ~-(1100)2]
1768 = 1.04 1.007(Tz-1100)+2x 10'" 4
2 Given: p 1 = I bar, T 1 = 57°C = 57 + 273 = 330 K;
n = 1.32,
1768 _;.
1.04 = 1.007 Ti-1107.7 + 10- Ti -121
4

Compression ratio,
:. ~ + 1.007 x 104 Ti - 2928.7 x 10 =· 0
4
r - ~-6 '·
- V2 -
2 4
· - t.007x10' ±vc1.007 x 104) +4 x 2928.1x10
.. Ti= 2
c.v. =44200 kl/kg; Air : fuel= 15 : 1 ;

= 2356.7 K CV= 0.718 kl/kg K.

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1·59

(•) ~(1-2) (b) CombustJon equatJon of C. H11 fuel Is :

6 (l.4 -
( )(y- l) = 330 ()
T2 = T ,·r
•> Ce Hie+ 12.5 0 2 + 12.5 x a.76 Nz= 8 C02 +9 ~ 12.5 x 3.76 N2
:. C. H 11 + 12.5 0 2 + 47N2 = 8C02 + 9H20 + 47 Ni
= 585.S K
p
:. No. of moles before burning = 1 + 12.S + 47
3' = 60.S
3 No. of moles after burning = 8 + 9 + 47 =64
Percentage molecular expansion = \..f.6400.5 - ) x 100
- roJ:)
2
= S.4%

Mass of fuel does not vary during the molecular

expansion, therefore, the temperature after combustion will
v remain the same for the given amount of heat supplied. Let
Fig. P. 1.23.10 the new pressure be p'.
3

From law of process between state l to state 2, From gas equation,

0
·v1.32
Pt . I = P2. v1.32
2 p· V = nR T

lll.32 :. p cc: n; (since clearance volume and temperature are

... P2 =.Pt • ~J = l x (6) l.
32
constant)

= 10.645 bar
Assume, mass of air,
1
m. = l kg : . Mass of fuel, ffir =
15
kg

. 64
Heat supplied = Ille x C.V. =751 x 44200 = 80.28 x _ = 84.924 bar •••Ans.
60 5

= 2933.3 kJ/kg of air Syllabus Topic : Low Heat Rejection (LHR) Engine
1 16
Mass of gases, ~ = m. +Ille= 1 +15=75kg
1.24 Low Heat Rejection (LHR) Engine
:. Heat supplied = mg· Cv (T3 -T2)
16 The internal combustion engines with its combustion
2933.3 = 75x 0.718 (T3 -585.5)
chamber walls insulated · using thermal barrier coating
T3 = 4415.6K ••• Ans. materials to prevent heat losses are called LHR engines.

For cons~t volume combustion process (2 - 3) : The aim of using the thennal barrier caating is to
reduce the engine coolant heat losses. It results into higher
combustion temperatures.

The higher combustion temperatures will result into

higher power output and efficiency of the engine. According
4415.6 to some researchers, it is found that the exhaust emissions
= 10.645 x 585.5
also reduce alongwith improvement in the fuel economy.
= 80.28 bar ••• AllS.
 1-60

In case of petrol engines, the higher combustion Syllabus Topic : Homogeneous Charge
Compresalon Ignition (HCCI) Engine
chamber temperatures using thermal insulation will increase
the tendency for the engine to detonate. for this reason the
1.25 Homogeneous Charge Compreaaton
thennaJ insulation of walls of combustion chambers is not · Ignition (HCCI) Engines
found suitable.
-.... 1
There nre two types of engine i.e. S.l. and C.I. enginca ·
Therefore, the concept them1al insulation of
which nre commonly used. A spnrk ignition (S.I) engine
combustion walls can only be done in case of diesel engines. uses homogeneous mixture of fuel Md air ignitc<t by a

The NO.ll and hydrocarbon (HC) emis.'\ions in LHR spark. Such engines hnve low cost and low exhaust.
emissions but their part load efficiency is pocir due to large
engines are found to increase compared 10 conventional
heat losses. Whereas, compression ignition (C.I.) engines
diesel engines. According 10 rcsearehes carried out on LHR use high compression ra1io for auto ignition of mixtu~
engines it is found lhar the NOx emissions can be reduced having high initial cost, high part load efficiency but these
by using biodie..~I using blends of Jntropatrn. Mahnu, Necm engine have high emissions of NO. and particulate maue11

etc. in dittct injection type diesel engines. (PM).

Jn order to truce the advantages of SJ. and C.I. engines
The matt'rials USt'd ror coatings on combustion walls
and ro overcome their respective disadvantages, one of the
are ~c co:itings of pruti!llly Stabilized Zirconia (PSZ) design is the Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
of 0.5 nun thickness or 3.luminium Timnate, Silicon Nitride, (HCCI) engine.
0-..romium oxide A HCCI engine is a mix of both conventional S.I. and
C.J. engines technology. It uses homogeneous mixtures of
Ar.o:f~r rr-'thod is tk use of air gap lxrwun cylinder
fuel and air throughout the engine but using Jean mixtures as
firring .sir:c-t' air is a good insularing material. in cuse of SJ. engines. However, instead of using the
electric discharge to ignite a portion of the mixture of fuel
,r r Advantages of LHR engfne
and air, the mixture of fuel and air auto ignites due to use of
J. lnc:tc-.:1SC in power output and efficiency. high compression ratio in these engines as in case of diesel
2. Less ioaeasc: in cylindec pressure engines. The result of such a HCCI engine is the optimum
power output, low exhaust emissions and high fuel
J. ~<.od e.x.ha.ust temper.uures makes it suitable for
efficiency. Therefore. the special characteristic of HCCI is
rurbocharged diesel engines.
that the ignition of mixture occurs at several places and
4. Lu"·er .fi'{Xcific fuel consumption. bums the mixture almost instantaneously.
5. Suit.?bl.e for oper.s.tion with bi<Hfiesel since it reduces er Working of HCCI engine

These engines use direct fuel injection system in which

er Dlsadvantage·s the fuel is injecred into rhe cylinder during its suction stroke.
Whereas, rhe afr is sucked independently during suction as
I. It is no< suitable for gawline engines.
in case of diesel engines. Dy the end of the suction stroke, a
2. Incre.ases the problem of cooling of cylinden>. homogeneous lean mixture of air-fuel duly mixed is
3. Increases the problem of lubrication since lubricanlS prepared inside the cylinder. The engine uses compression
need co resists high temperatures and maintain the r.uio of more than JS.
viscosity required for low frictions. During compression stroke, the pressure and
temperature of the mixture rises above its self ignition

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I 1-61

1ernpor11iure (SIT) due to uHC or high comprcH11lon rutio. Syllabua Topic : Rotary Engine
mixture auto lgnhc11 jw1t ul TDC nlmoHt 11pontuncouHly.
1110
such un auto Ignition rcrmllJI Into high preH11urc11. 'The 1.26 Wankel Engine
combuHtlon of fuel 11ml ulr In thl11 cu11e IK with lean mixturcii + (MU. May 11, Dec.11, May 12, Dec.12, May 13,
nt Jow tcrnpcruture11 with numeleHH releWIC or energy acrOKll Dec. 13, [)ec.17)
the entire cornbu11tlon chnmhcr unlike in the ca11C of SJ, and
Un1vcrHil Questions
c.1.englnc11. The power'" produced during expanHion Klrokc
and finally the burnt gru;e11 arc exhau11t.cd Lo the 11urrounding11
during Jts exhaust stroke.
Jn thc11e engines, the cxhau11t valvcK arc clol!Cd 111ightly
early WI compared to conventional engine. It helPH to trap
ihe heal or exhaust gases in the cylinder and a small quantity The schematic diagram of Wankel rotary engine
of fuel iH injcct.cd so as to initiate lhe pr~mbu1>tion developed in 1957 is shown in Fig. 1.26.1.
reactions before the start of the next intukc stroke.

r:r Merits of HCCI engines

I. Low emissions like S.I. engines with extremely low

NO. emissions. Thus, these engines do not require
catnlytic converters for treatment of NO••
2. The HC and CO emissions are still high thus they need (•)SooctlM

after treatment to meet the required standards of E.P. LP. E.P. l.P.

emissions.
3, Power output is high with high fuel efficiency.
4. Part load efficiency of the engine is high.
s. Possibility of knocking is avoided since the entire . S.P.

mixture bums simultaneously without causing the (cl) Eipauloe ud mast

pressure difference for shock wave to travel across the Fig. L26.1: Wankel engine
cylinder. However, at high loads using high fuel air
It works on similar principle on Otto cycle.
ratio, knocking is possible even in HCCl engines.
It consistc; of three lobes rotor, the casing, spark plug,
er Challenges In HCCI engine suction and exhaust ports.
The control of combustion process in HCCl engines is The ro!Or of the engine is driven eccentrically in the
challenging since there is no direct method of initiating the casing in such a way that there are three separate
combustion as in case of S.I. and C.I. engines. The control volumes trapped between the rotor and casing as shown
of combustion in HCC( engines requires the closed loop in Fig. 1.26.1.
combustion control (CLCC). However, the microprocessors The volume trapped in each lobe perfonns the function
can be used for dynamic operation of these engines by of suction, compression, ignition, com.bustio~
controlling one or few variables like C.R. (in variable expansion and exhaust processes. Therefore, we get
compression ratio engines), the suction gas pressures and three. power strokes in one revolution of the rotor.
temperatures, air-fuel ratio, quantity of exhaust to be
In case of four stroke I.C. engines, we get one power
retained in the cylinder by varying the timing for exhaust
stroke in two revolution of crankshaft. Thus, Wankel
valve closing etc. With these controls, the appropriate
engine develops six times the power for same capacity
conditions needed for ignition to occur at desirable timings
of cylinder compared to reciprocating I.C. engines.
can be achieved.

~\\\\\\i\111'"''"~ ...- --
Sr.annMI wlTh r'A mSr..annM
 '" Working
Co111tld1.w 0110 or llN
loho, NllY AU. Whon tho rotor
1.27 Six Stroke Engine
t\llnlc~. It l11duclN tho frcHh mlxllll'O of' fool 1111d ulr
1h1\111Sh ltN Inlet 1x11'I during 1111c1lo11 1111 Hhown ht
Hcoonrchcrs in the past have tried to develop six 8IJ'Okt
111~. l.2ci,l(u).
c11glne11 Jn the curly of 20'" century. Recently, the interest iJi
With l\11·thcr 1\lt111h111 ol' m1or, Jiil l11lol. (11ucllu11) port iH dc'vclopmcnt of 11ix 8 troke engines by the researchers have
~1loscd 1111tl tho volu1110 hc1wco11 tho loho und c1111l11g IH been revived due to reduction in specific fuel consumPtion,
l'elhlCOll, 'l'hc1~lbrc 1 tho COllllll'CHlllOll of lllllltUl'O lukcll
reduced exlwunt emissions and the mechanical complexity
plnco us Nhown In 111s. 1.2<;.1 (h).

- J1111I bolhro lho Olld or Clllll(ll'CNNIOll Hiroko, tho mixture

Is ll\llllcll whh lhci help or 11p111'k provided by Hpark
of 4 stroke engine11.
The six stroke engine is an alternate to exist.ing two or
four 1Jtrokc engines.
plug. Ouo lo co111b1111tlo11 of 111lx111ro th" prc111mrc 1111d
tOlll(lCl'llllll'l' or g11so11 l1111lclo rli;ci 1111 HhOWll in Dmicd 011 the number of pistons, these are of two types
Flti. l.26.1 (c). 1111 follows :
With l\nthor movement of rotor, tho volu1110 between 1. Slngle piston six stroke engine
IOI.le uml l~nslng l11cro11sc11.
A single piston type six i;troke engine is provided with
As n result, hol 811scs c.xpund 10 develop mollvo power
udditiona) 'two valves as air suction valve or air exhaust
shown In Fig. 1.26.1 (d). Tho rotor co111i11ue11 lo move
valvc11us11hown in Fig. 1.27.1.
1111<1 lho oxl11111st lltll't 01~11s.
Alr Air
Tho burnt gnscs um dischurgcd 10 lhe sun-oundi11g11. S.V S.V. E.V. E.V.
Thus ll co111plc1cs 11 cycle. Samo opcrulion will 111ke
pince with UC 1111d CA lobes 11l11111llur1cou:;ly.
During dc.wclopmcnl singe of 1his engine Lhc problem:;
uf scnllng, scnl wc:ir urnl hcnt lrunsfcr were faced.
However, rhcse problems were 11uhscque11tly 1mlved.
Fig. J.27.1 : Four valves of six stroke engine
This engine is used in sporls cur.
Jt performs the usual four strokes of a conventional
r.r Advontogos of Wonkol Engine over
four stroke engine i.e. suction, compression; power and
\ Roclprocotlng Englno
exhaust strokes. At the end of exhaust stroke, the engine
I. lt hus high pc>wcr 10 weight rurio for snme cupacity of draws air or water during downward motion of the piston
engine. lhrough the air suction valve and it absorbs heat from the
11 hns no rcciproculing purls nnd connccllng rods. cylinder walls. Air/steam expands while absorbing the heat
2.
J fonco, baluncing pro~lcm ls climlnnlcd. and finally in the upward motion of the piston the air
exhaust valve opens the air/steam is exhausted to the
3. u hos very low vlbrntions.
surroundings.
4. No vnlvo mcclumlsm Is needed lo opcrnlo suction nnd
From above it is evident that this engine captures the
exhnust vnlvcs.
heat lost from the conventional engine. This heat is utilized
5. Volumcrric efficiency is high duo lo long suction
lo produce an additional power in the expansion stroke of air
stroke. I steam and reduces the lempcrature of the resultant final
exhaust. Jt results into increased power, increased fuel
efficiency and reduced exhaust emissions.

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 ines
1-63 Constructional Features & Worid

2- . rwo piston type six stroke engine are that these are compact. efficient having low weight
to power ratio, less maintenance and operating cost
In this design, it use8 two piston which arc opposed in
with mobile applications. ·However, its disadvantages
one cylinder like in case of opposed cylinder engine. Only
are the use of costly fuels and not suitable for large
difference is that one of the piston makes the 4-strokcs of a
conventional engine while the other piston makes 2-strokes capacity power plants.

in one cycle. The refore, one of the piston would work at half Main engine components of an air cooled engine arc
the cyclic rate of the other piston. cylinder, cylinder bead, piston, connecting rod. crank
and crankshaft. inlet and exhaust valve, cooling fins,
1bere is another design of two piston six stroke engine
in which the valve mechanism of the four stroke bearings etc.

conventional engine is replaced by the second piston. Such Engines are cla.smied based on number of strokes per
an arrangement helps in increasing the compression ratio cycle, thermodynamic cycle used. number of cylinders,
and reduces the complexity of the valve mechanism. It arrangement of cylinders, ignition system. cooling
should be noted that the replacement of the valve by piston system. fuel used, fuel supply system and lubrication
also efuninates the possibility of fonnation of hot spot due system.
to increased compression ratio. A four stroke engine has suction. compression, .
The cylinder is filled with mixture of fuel and air / air expansion and exhaust strokes completed in two
only depending upon the type of engine. Tue filling process revolutions of crankshaft. In case of S.I. engines the
is due to piston movement and the exhaust gases are mixture of fuel and air prepared by carburettor is
removed in the same way as in case of tvio stroke engine by supplied during the suction stroke and mixture is burnt
providing exhaust ports in the cylinder. The supply of fuel to by a spark supplied by spark plug.
the cylindCr is by fuel injection system. It is provided with While, in C.L engines the combustion of fuel injected
two spark plugs in each side of the piston to initiate ignition. takes place by auto ignition caused by high temperature
The increased expansion ratio for the second piston gases.
increases the power output and efficiency of the cycle.
In two stroke engines the cycle is completed in one
'78 Advantages of six stroke engines revolution of crankshaft by eliminating the suction and
exhaust strokes. These processes are carried out
(i) It can reduce fuel consumption upto 4Q%.
simultaneously during compression and expansion
(ii) It can use multi fuels like petrol, diesel, LPG etc. strokes.
(ill) There is a high reduction in exhaust emissions. Two stroke engines have the advantage of more
(iv) Provides higher output and better efficiency. uniform turning moment, compactness, twice the power
(v) Cost is almost comparable to conventional engines. produced per revolution and elimination of valve
mechanism compared to four stroke engines,
. (vi) There is reduction in weight to power ratio.
however, they are less efficient due to loss of fresh
charge dti.ring the scav~nging process.
A muffler or silencer is provided to reduce noise
A beat engine is a device which converts the chemical
caused due to difference in exhaust and atmospheric
energy of fuel into heat energy and ·subsequently into
pressures.
mechanical energy.
. Energy balance of I.C. engine is based on the first law
Types or heat engines are external and internal
of thermodynamics. Energy input to engine system is
combustion engines. Advantages of internal
due to release of chemical energy of fuel on
combustion engines over external combustion engines

' \;_;,, .....

,JJ:i;,
~.
. ·, ~-~~i ,
. ' .!~~~
l '\

. ·.~~:.~~·
·'
' /
I , ~.·': ·
' l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1-64 Constructional Features & Wor1dn of I.e. ·'':;,:,
I
=::i;;~~~~~~6=--==-===--~~~~~~~~=-===--~s
'" combustion with arr.
Out of this energy, part of this instantaneous due to time lapse in opening the v~i·· .•
. . "l\'cr
energy is lost in cooling water, exhaust gases and by and develops less power due to vanous losses. ·. ~"-~
. t.
radiation. Reminder of the energy a~ailable to push the · Fuel-air cycles are more closer to actual eye~ w~· ·~:
..I piston is called the I.P. Out of the LP. a part of the takes into account the variation specific ~~ heats,~~··
.l
I
energy available is lost in overcoming the friction
l~sscs called mec~cal l«mes. The remainder of the
.

and dissociation.
.
temperature mixture of fuel and llll', molecular ci.._ -":
. ~~ ~

. ;:-
.r • •

energy available at output shaft for useful work is Ac~ air cycles consider the variou.s losses like ~.
calledB.P.
losses, beat losses, pumping losses and rubbing ~~on .:
B.P. = I.P.-F.P. losses over the fuel-air cycles.

Mechanicalefficiency, 11111 =~:.· Effect of various factors on analysis of fuel-~ cyclca

r
are: ..•
Indicated thermal efficiency,
(a) Comp~ion ratio : Efficiency of fuel air cycle$
LP. (kW)
. 111 =-.---=~;;..;.;."'---- increase with increase in compression ratio. ·
m, (kg Is) x C.V. (kJ I kg)
(b) Air-fuel ratio : Thermal efficiency of fu~l-air
Brake thermal efficiency, Tlb = B.P. .cycles with Jean mixtures tend to be close to i~
fficxc.v. cycles compared to rich mixtures, :
• Actual thennal efficiency
Relative eftiCiency, 'lr = Air standard efficiency (c) . Variation or specific heats

Specific fuel consumption (s. r. c)

= -IT x 3600 (kg I kWh)

Cp =a+bT .

Cv=a1 +bT
} In the range of

300 K to 1500 K

cp =a+bT+cr
1be closed cycle with air as working substance which
closely resembles with actual open cycle is called an
air standard cycle.
Cv=a, +bT+cr
} Above·1soo K
temperature
·.··'

Assumptiom made in ideal cycles are : Working (i) Reduces·maximum pressures and temperatures
medium is air which behaves like an ideal gas, charging attained during the cycle.
and discharging operations are omitted. processes are (ii) Actual work developed is less than ideal or
reversible and there are no unintended heat losses. theoretical work.
The efficiency of an engine using air as a working (d) Molecular change : Reduces actual pressures
medium, is known as air standard efficiency. compared to theoretical pressure.
T2
(a) Carnot efficiency= l-T (e) Dissociation : It reduces maximum pressures and
1
1 temperatures of cycle causing the loss of work and'
(b) 11oao = l - r<y - 1)
efficiency over the ideal cycle.
_!_ ( li!..=.l)
(c) 1ld;-i = 1 - y. r<1-1i ~p _ 1 Losses in actual cycles other than fuel-air cycles are
1
a• p - l (i) Time lo~es caused by the time interval .between
(d) Tldcul =l (riY IJ[(a - l)+y·a(p-1))
the completion of combustion process and the fuel
Actual (p-V) diagram differs from theoretical (p-V) supplied.
diagram due to suction is at less than p - and exhaust is
(ii) Heat l~es due to heat transfer between the
above p_, compression and expansion processes are
working substance and cylinder walls.
polytropic, processes of suction and exhaust are not

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1-65 Constructional Features & Wor1<ing of l.C. En' In~

(ill) .Exbamt blow down 1oaes · are caused due to .-z.~ust_ em:"'"
Optimum pOWtT OUtpUt, .low eMIU ...;ons ·wiih
early opening of exhaust valve.
high fuel efficiency.
. . . (iv) . PumpbJg loss is caused due · to the pressure
Challenges to be ·met In development of HCCI ·
differential required to carryout the suction
. engine are the. controi of combustion .at all operating
process· below atmospheric pressure and exhaust
process above atmospheric pressure. conditions. ·

(v) Rubbing friction ~ due to friction between Six stroke engines is an alternate to existing 4-~troke
piston and cylinder and friction losses in bearings engines by providing two additional valves as air
and other auxiliacy equipments of the engine. suction valve and air exhaust valve. Such an engine
improves power out and efficiency teduces emissions.
Vol0metric emclency, Tl., of the engine is defined a$
the ratio of actual mass of fresh charge/air admitted
into the cylinder at suction conditions to the mass of
0. 1 What do you understand by a heat engine ? What
fresh charge which can be admitted corresponding to its
are its type and their relative merits ? ·
stroke volume. Tl ., is affected due to following factors :
[Section 1.1)
(i) Tl ., reduces due to heating of fresh charge by hot Q. 2 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
walls. external combustion engines over intemal
(ii) 11 ., reduces due to presence of residual gases when combustion engines. [SectJon 1.1.1)

Pi < Pe· However, 11 ., increase when Pi > .Pe in 0. 3 State some applications of heat engines.
supercharged engines. [Section 1.1.2) ·

(iii) The valve overlap and resistance to flow inlet 0. 4 With the help of neat sketch of a four stroke S.I.
causes reduction in volumetric efficiency. engine •. explain the function of main parts of the
engine and label them. [Section 1.2)
(iv) Tl., suffers at low speeds and it improves with
increase in speed upto certain optimum speed. Q. 5 Define following tenns used in . l.C. engines
[Section 1.3) .
An LC. engine with its combustion chamber walls
(i) Dead centers
insulated using thermal barrier coating materials to
(ii) Clearance volume and stroke volume
Prevent heat losses are called low beat ~jection
(iii) Compression ratio
(LHR) engines. It increase power output and efficiency
with lower s.f.c. and reduces emissions using biodiesel. a. 6 Write a short note on classification of l.C. engines.
[Section 1.4)
Wankel engine is a rotacy engine. It uses a three lobe
Q. 7 Describe the working of a four stroke petrol engine.
rotor which is eccentrically driven in a casing. This [Sections 1.5, 1.5.1)
engine provides three power strokes in one revolution
Q. 8 Describe the operating principles of a four stroke
of crankshaft compared to one power stroke in two diesel engine, label various parts with their function.
revolutions of crankshaft of conventional engine. [Sections 1.5, 1.5.2]

A Homogeneous Charge Compres.9ion Ignition O. 9 Compare S.I. and C.I. engines on : [Section 1.6)

(DCCI) engine is a mix of both conventional S.I. and . (i) Fuel used
(Ii) Working cycle
CJ. engine technology using homogeneous mixture of
(iii) Method of fuel injection
fuel and air throughout the engine to make use the
(iv} Method of ignition.
advantages of both type of engines. Such engine have
O. 1 O Compare petrol and diesel engines. [Section 1.6] ·

·.·. ..
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1·66 Conotruotlonol Foaturoe & Workln

0. 11 Explaln .tho working of two otroko 8.1. onglno wllh
(II) Variation of opoclflo hoat. (SoctJon 1.20.2J
tho holp of noot skotch. (Section 1.7.1)
(Ill) Molocular chongo. (Section 1.20.3]
0.12 Draw o labolod diagram of two otroko C.I. onglno
Q.23 Explain tho phonomonon of dlesoclatlon With u,. .- ~
and oxplaln Ila working. (Section 1.7.2) '
holp of graphs ehoWlng Its offocte on ffiaxlrJiurn ·
0.13 How doos a two slroko cyclo dlftoro from a four tomporoturo ond prosouro. [Section 1.20.AJ
stroke engine cyclo ? (Socllon 1.8) Show by (p _ V) diagram of a constant volume cyc1
0.24 9
0.14 What do you undorotond by olr standard cyclos ? that tho offoct of dissociation Is similar to that
, ..
What aro tho assumptions modo In tho anolysls of variation In spocltlc heats.
[Section• 1.20.4and1.20.2)
air standard cycles ? (Socllona 1.1 oond 1.11)
0.25 Explain In brief, why actual cyclo deviate& from · .
0. 15 Explaln tho working of thooretlcol dlosol cyclo and
theoretical cycle. (Section 1.21] ·
derive an expression for Its thermal efficiency.
[Soctlon 1.14) Stale tho various losses I~ actual cycles other fhaii
0.26
0.16 Why dual air standard cycle Is consldored? Explain the fuel-air cycle losses. [Section 1.22]

Its working and derive an expression for Its air What do you understand by time losses as app/fed
0.27
standard efficiency. (Section 1.16]
to l.C. engine 1 Explain In detail.
Q.17 Explain the valve timing diagram for a 4-stroke [Section 1.22.1)
petrol engine and also explaln the derivations of an
o. 28 Write short notes on :
actual cycle from an Ideal cycle.
(I) Heat losses. (Section 1.22.2]
[Section 1.16 to 1.16.3]
(II) Exhaust blow down losses. [Section 1.22.3]
Q. 18 Explain the deviations of actual cycle from (Iii) Pumping losses. (Section 1.22AJ
theoretical cycle of a diesel engine. Also, explain Its (Iv) Rubbing friction losses [Section 1.22.5]
valve timing diagram. (Section 1.17]
0.29 Describe the working of Wankel rotary engine with
a. 19 Explain the port timing diagram of a 2-stroke petrol the help of neat sketches [Section 1.26)
engine and Its actual (p-v) diagram.
[Section 1.18] 0.30 Whal Is an LHR engine ? Why Interest ls being ·
taken to develop this type of engines now a days 7
0.20 What are the assumptions of fuel-air cycles ?
(Section 1.24]
[Section 1.19)
Q.31 Whal Is an HCCI engine and what are Its
0.21 What factors are considered In fuel-air cycles ?
advantages ? Explain the working of such an
[Section 1.19]
engine ? (Section 1.25]
o. 22 Write In brief the effect of following factors
considered In fuel-air cycles : Q. 32 Whal Is a six stroke engine and Its types ? Discuss

(I) Mixture of fuel and air. (Section 1.20.1] In brief. (Section 1.27]

aaa

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S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System,

Ignition and Combustion)

~syllabus

Fuel Supply System : Spark Ignition Engine mixture requirements, Fuel-Air ratio, Simple carburettor
and auxiliary circuits (Excluding mathematical analysis of carburettors)

Injection System : Single-point and Multipoint injection, Gasoline Direct Injection.

, Ignition System : Battery Ignition System, Magneto Ignition System, Functions and Working of ignition
coil, spark plug, contact breaker point, Requirements and working of ignition advance mechanisms •
mechanical and vacuum, Electronic Ignition · Systems,Capacitor Discharge Ignition System,
Transistorized Coil Assisted Ignition System, Transistor Ignition system with contactless breaker.

Combustion : Combustion Phenomenon in SI Engines, Ignition delay, Flame propagation, Pressure-

Crank angle diagram, abnormal combustion, Auto ignition, Detonation and Knocking, Factors affecting
combustion and detonation, Types of combustion chambers.

2.1.1 Definition of Carburetlon

Definition of Carburettor, Fuel Feeding system

and Factors Affecting Carburetion

2.1.2 Definition of Carburettor

2.1 Introduction

The spark ignition or petrol engines ·use usually the

volatile fuels e.g. petrol, alcohol, benzol etc.
The mixture of fuel and air is prepared outside the
engine cylinder and partly evaporated mixture is supplied to
the engine.· The mixture prepared outside the cylinder is
2.1.3 Basic Fuel Feeding or Induction System
never homogeneous. Droplets of fuel continue to evaporate for S.I. Engines
even during the suction and exhaust strokes. Therefore the
process of formation of mixture is very important for spark The basic fuel feeding or induction system for S.I.
ignition engines for the engine to operate efficiently under engines is shown in Fig. 2.1.1. Its function is to supply
all operating conditions. We shall now discuss few . partly vaporized mixture of fuel and air to various
definitions and the induction system for S.I. ~ngines. cylind_ers of the engine.
'ff"
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~ 1.C. Engines (~U-Sem. V-Mech) 2-2

Fuel tllter
Fuel pump

Fuel
- ------
------- tank
------- Surrounding
air

Fig. 2.1.1 : Basic fuel feeding or inducdon syste~

It consists of supply of fuel from fuel tank and air from _. (I) speed
surroundings to carburettor in which the fuel is The time available for formation of mixture by the
partially evaporated. carburettor is greatly affected by the speed of the engine e.g.'
The partly evaporated fuel and air mixture from jf an engine nms at 4000 rpm, the time available for the
carburettor is carried through a pipe line, called intake process · of carburetion is in . the range of 0.0075 to
manifolds, to the engine cylinder. 0.01 seconds. In such a short period, the fuel is required to
be atomised, mixed with air. vaporized and to be inducted,
Partial evaporation of fuel also takes pJace in the
into the engine cylinder. Therefore. the design of a
intake rnanlfolds, at the inlet valve and remainder
carburettor becomes of atmost importance to accomplish the .
within the cylinder.
above processes in such _~ short period,_particularly, with
~~Affecting Carburellon regard to design of its venturi.

Factora Affecting · . . (ii) Temperature of inlet air

Carburetlon
The temperature of air plays an· important role in the
(0 Speed
vaporization process of fuel. Higher surrounding· air
(I) Temperature of Inlet air temperature increases the ' ·vaporization of · fuel and
(UI) Volatility of fuel homogeneity of mixture. However increased temperatures
reduce the volumetric efficiency, hence, the power output'.
(Iv) Design of Intake manHolds

.. . (ill) Volatility of fuel

Flg.C2.1 : Factors ~ecting carburetion
Complete vaporization could be achieved by using
Some of the important factors which affect the process highly volatile fuels, which are expensive to produce, or by
of carburetion are : using heat in intake manifolds to promote vaporization.
(i) Engine speed which directly affects the time available However, excessive vaporization of fuel decreases the
for preparation of mixture by the carburettor. volumetric efficiency (i.e. mass of mixture inducted into the

(ii) The temperature of incoming air.

cylinder per stroke) is decreased. This reduces the power
output of the engine.
(µi) The volatility of the fuel.

(iv) Design of intake manifolds.

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MU·Sem; V·Mech) . . .. .... .. - l - · •• •

· - S.I. En Ines (Fuel Su

.+ (Iv) Dtslgn of intake nuulitolds
proportions (A.F. ratio 11 tO 18 : l) as nearly as constant as
When the multicylinder . engines receive a an'aJI possible under unsteady conditions such as sudden throttle
. . p I y
vaporized mixture of fuel and air, each cylinder does not opening and closing, acceleration and deceleration, at
receive the same amount of fuel. Therefore, pro,PC?r design of various loads on the engine, starting, idling and initiate
intake manifolds becomes essential to ensure proper maximum power. The' carburettor must provide a different
distribution of fuel. proportion of fueJ and air for various conditions of running
'
Therefore, _w e conclude that proper selection of volatile of the engine.

fuel, design of carburettor and intake manifolds affects the The various requirements of S.I. engine are as under :
. carburetion process under various operating conditions of
Requirements of
the engine. $.I.engine

Syllabus ~o~lc : Spark Ignition Engine • Mixture

Requirements, Fuel-Air Ratio 1. Maximum Power

2. Maximum Economy of Fuel

2.2 Air-Fuel Ratio and Mixture
3. Starting, Idling and Low Load Running
Requirements_.__ ---·- -·-
4. Acceleration

A hydfocarbon fuel . mainly consists of carbon ~d

5. Part Load Running - Cruising Range
hydrogen as its constituents.
Fig. C2.2 : Requirements of S.I. engine
.Petrol fuel u~ed in S.I. engine is mainly octane (C8 His)
for which the chemically correct or stoichiometric Fig. .2.3.1 shows the air-fuel requirement at various .
throttle opening.
mixture of air-fuel ratio is 15.12:1 by nuw
approximately. This niixture gives most rapid . The curve (a - b - c - d) can be divided into three basic
ranges. Curve (a - b) represents the idle and no load
combustion of fuel , almost the greatest power and
I running, curve (b - c) the cruising range and the curve
reasonable economy of fuel.
(c - d) the high power range. Now we shall discuss the
Rich mixtures give more power in the ratio of 11 : 1 to various requirements as outlined above in details.
15 : 1 of air and fuel and weak or lean mixtures of
0.09
about . 16 to 18 10 d
,, : 1 gives better fuel economy. a 0.08
~
J;
12
j
Ric~ mixtures having A.F. ratio below 11 : 1 and lean j I!!
1-4 ChemicaDy cooecl 0.07
I!!
mixtures above 20: 1 canriot be burnt effectively. Ii
.aL
~
16

. 18
b

Cruising range
c
0.06
'
Ii
~

2.3 Mixture Requirements at Different

20 0.05
Loads and Speeds 0 10 20 30 -40 50 60 70
Ellec:tive throttle openng (%)
.+ (MU· Dec.15) Idle and no load rumlng range High power range

Fig. 2.3.1 : Effective throttle openhig ( % ) air~fuel ratio

requirements ·

2.3.1 Maximum Powe~

It is the function of carburettor to form a homogeneous The maximum power would be obtained if all the
mix~ of very fine liquid fuel particles and air in desired oxygen present in the cylinder is fully utilized.

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~ l.C•.En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2-4
S.I. Engines (Fuel Su S s, Ignition & Comb~ ... ;
. l(
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It is seen that air-fuel ratios in Oie range of 16.5 to ·.j

ln actual practice the mixture of fuel and vapour is
17.5 : 1 gives maximum economy of fuel i.e. it gives .
never homogeneous and it is further diluted by the
minimum specific fuel consumption as shown in
residual gases.
Efficiency
Fig. 2.3.3.

...
·,
r Full throttle
"

70

60 L--+---'---+--+-
19
11 13 15 17 16 18 20 .
10 12 1:4
Air-fuel ratio Air-fuel ratio
Fig. 2.3.2 : Effect of air-fuel ratio on power output and
efficiency at full throttle and constant speed Fig. 2.3.3 : Eft'ect of air-fuel ratio.on -specific fuel
consumption at various thro~le opeoin~
It is possible that some parts of the 0 2 present in the
cyJinder may not find fuel for burning due to non- 2.3.3 Starting, Idling and Low Load Running
hOJ!IOgeneity of mixture if the mi?'ture supplied is
The engine is said to idle when no external load is
chemically correct
applied on the engine and at this .condition
- . _, the throttle
.. It .wouJd reduce the power developed by the engine.
valve is almost closed.
Therefore a little rich mixture ·o f air-fuel ratio 12.5 to
13.5 : 1 (approximateJy) is necessary to ensure th~t all Under idling conditions the power developed by the
1
•· • ihe oxygen present is fully utilized and such a mixture engine is just sufficient to overcome the various. friction

wm give maximum combustion temperatures and losses of the engine.

· power as shown in Fig. 2.3.2. Low Joad running is usually taken in the range of zero
to 20% of the rated power of the engine.
2 •3 ·2 Maximum Economy of Fuel
At the time of starting and idling the e_ngine, the
working temi)eratures are . low. Therefore, the
carburettor · is not able to vaporize the fuel and the
mixture reaching .th~ cylinder is lean. This may Jead to
non-initiation of combusti~n in the cylinder.

To ensure minimum fuel vapour in the cylinder rich

mixtures are necessary to ~nitiate the c~mbustion.
For the maximum economy of fueJ consumption it is
Further, under the conditions· of idling and low load·
necessary that all the fuel present in the cylinder is
running the throttle valve is almost closed due to which
b~t complet,ely.
,I . ;
the pressures in the intake manifolds are much lower
To ensure the ·effective burning of fuel it is necessary
than atmospheric pressure while the pressure inside the
that a little excess air is required to be supplied to cylinder is approximately atmospheric pressure at the
ensure complete combustion of fuel since the mixture is
end of exhaust stroke.
not homogeneous.

. (
 1

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·· ·~ · r f:l1 Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2_5 &~
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Wfltll the inlet vlllve
opens during the suction stroke,
.t.aJI be back flow of residual gases into the
2.3.5 Part Load Running - Cruising Range I
~ ~· . · · · gof
· rnan1folds. Curve (be) of Fig. 2.3.J Jhow• the part load runmn
I
'ill(llke h piston moves outwards, the residual gases arc
WJlCP t C •
engine which ij in the range of 20 to 15% of rated I
...
.
dfl!WP 11
~turc
ton" with the fresh charg~. Therefore the actual
o .
inside the cylinder would contain large
power.
As the load on the engine is incrcaliCd beyond 20%
0f l j
11 recntuge of residual gnscs in the fresh charge I.e. the loud, the throttle vaJve is opened gradually with the I
• pe , d mixture is too diluted und it is nt low increase in load. fl reduces the inlet pressure and the
cyl111 er . . . . d al
perntures. Tlus diluted mixture ls not able to initiate problem of dilution of fresh charge by. the ress u
teJ'll • •
~per cornbusuon. gases ss also reduced.
...1 r to offset the dilution of fresh charge due to The air-fuel ratio increases and it ensures economical
Jn orvC
... residual gases and low temperatures, It L4i necessary running of the engine.
It is observed that air-fuel ratio of about 17 : l is kept
wsupply rich mixtures. during starting, Idling and'
Jolf 1oad running ·or engines. . in cruising range for a single cylinder engine. However.
t)sual air-fuel ratio requirements is about 11 to 12: 1 as comparatively slightly rich mixtures with air-fuel ratio
... _c,.nted by the curve (ab) in Fig. 2.3.1. of 16: 1 are necessary in case of multicylinder engines
rep•...,.. , .
because of problem of unequal distribution of fresh
.s.4 Acceleratlon charge to various cylinders.
2
Under nonnal running of engine the fuel that leaves the 2.4 Requirements of a Good Carburettor
carburettor is not completely vaporized and a part of
the liquid remains in the iritake manifolds as liquid film A carburettor bas been defined as a device which
beCause the liquid particles have larger inertia supplies the metered spray of fuel mixed with correct
compared to vaporized f ueJ. amount. of air for efficient combustion in cylinder at all
It does not create any problems under steady state operating conditions. The required operating conditions
running of engine since the fu~l of preyious stroke in have been dealt in section 23. In view of this, the
the' intake manifolds vaporizes and supplied to the requirements of a good carburettor are :
'engine iri the subsequent stroke. (a) To meter the liquid fuel so as to produce the required
_ When the engine is to be accelerated suddenly by air-fuel ratios at all operating conditions like during

opening the throttle valve, the liquid fuel lags behind in idling, low load running, cruising range and maximum

- the intake manifolds due to its large inertia. As a result · power range.

the mixture of fuel and air reaching the cylinder is lean (b) Energy to be supplied to change the fuel from liquid to
due to instant opening of throttle valve which is vapour state since the fuel in liquid form or drops will
· · contrary to the requirement of rich mixture during not burn efficiently in an engine.
acceleration. (c) Prepare the homogeneous mixture of fuel and air as far
- · In order to compensate this ill effect and to provide the as possible.
needed rich mixtures during acceleration, a suitable (d) Provide rich mixtures for ease of starting the engine.
mechanism called acceleration pump is provided in ·
(e) Provide the required rich mixture during acceleration.
the carburettors.

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. . :i ~ ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-6
S.I. Engines (Fuel Suppl Sys, ignition &
~' ; .. ~ I
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The velocity of air past the venturi vapourizes the .
. " I I . · Syllabus.Topic : Simple carburettor petrol fuel partially which is then evaporated by the
'I o

. ' heat in the intake manifolds and the cylinder walls .

. i
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2.5 Simple Carburettor A petrol engine is quantity govern~ It means that the
I
. ' ' amount. of charge delivered is according to power
'
. .
. '
!
delivered by' the engine at a particular speed. This is "
)f ••'I

achieved by a throttle valve of butterfly type.

When the throttle valve opens, more air flows through
the venturi tube and more quantity of. fuel and air is
A simple carburettor is shown in Fig. 2.5.1. It consists delivered to the engine, therefore, engine develops
of a float in float chamber, venturi and the main fuel
more power.
jet.
Reverse is the action when the throttle valve closes.
Float chamber is open to atmosphere due to which the
pressure in float chamber is atmospheric. rr Nozzle llp, h
Fuel. is supplied to the float chamber through strainer The pressure at the throat under fully open throttle
from fu~l tank with the help of fuel pump.
condition lies between 4 to 6 mm of Hg bel~w atmospheric.
The jet tube consists of main nozzle to which fuel is In order to avoid overflow of the fuel from noZzle, the main
supplied from the float chamber through a main fuel
nozzle tip is kept slightly higher than the level of fuel in
jet '
float chamber. The difference of level of tip of main nozzle
The suction of the engine draws air through the choke
tube and passes through the venturi. Since the area of and fu~I levet.'in float chamber is called nozzle lip.
cross-section at the throat of venturi reduces, the If ~ · i~ :t~~ no.zzli ~·~~:. ~d (ap)~ .is the pressure drop due
· pressure at the main nozzle reduces and the velocity of to flow_of aii, th~n th·e pressure drop available for flow of
air increases. fuel will be, . :': .. : . · : ' · ..
F .\·~ :-~ : .. • ... . . . . ..... . : \ , · · : '

· · ... (ap)r = (ap)a -Pr· h ',g ...(2;5.1)

/
where, Pr is the density of fuel.

J I
~
J I A simple carburettor has the drawbacks outlined
below:
Fig. 2.5.1 : Simple carburettor
1. It provides the required air-fuel ratio only at one
Due to pressure differential caused at the main nozzle throttle position. At other throttle positions, the mixture.
and the pressure in the float chamber, the fuel from is either richer or leaner depending upon the throttle
n~ chamber is supplied to the main nozzle which valve is opened more or less.
mixes with the incoming air. '
2. It provides increasing richness of AfF mixture as the
speed of the engine increases. -
~ 1.C: Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) · . · · 2-7 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition & Combustion)

·-- The reason for above is . that as the throttle valve is

opened ~dually, the pressure at the venturi throat
It has been brought out earlier that the rich mixture is ·
required at the ti.me of startmg of the engine due to cold
deereases, which decreases ~ensity of air with increase conditions of the engine.
in its air velocity. \l{hereas, the quantity of fuel flow In order to achieve this, a butterfly valve called choke
remains constant. Therefore, AIF ratio 4ecreases with is .incorporated. before . the venturi as shown in
~c~ ins~ of engine. . Fig. 2.6.l.

. If the speed is too low, we get very lean mixtures which

3 .; ..
. . . roay"iiot be sufficient to ignite the mixture.

2.5.2 Application of Simple Carbure~or

Simple carburettor is only suitable for sniau stationary
engines to run at constant ·speed.

- Syllabus Topic : Auxlllary Circuits

2.6 Modifications of Simple Carburettor

Various operating requirements of an engine have been ~ ~.

dealt in section 2.3 while it has been observed that the
simple carburettor, discussed in section 2.5, l, cannot meet "
Tllrotlle wive

all the requirements. Therefore, it is necessary that the Fig. 2.6.1 : Idling system
simple carburettor needs to be modified to meet the
At the time of cold ·startixig of the engine the choke is
operational requirements of the engine, these modifications
almost closed.
are being discussed below :
It lowers the pressure at the venturi which is nearly
Modlflcatlona of equal to pressure in the intake manifolds. This large .
Slmple carburettor
pressure drop between the pressure in the float chamber
and at the venturi increases the mass flow rate of fuel.
1. Starting Choke
thereby ensuring that a very rich mixture is supplied to
2. Main Metering and Idling System the engine.

3. Acceleration 2.6.2 Main Metering and Idling System

4. Part Load Running-Economic Range + (MU · .M ay 17)

r-.,,..,,.-.,....-~,.._,.--,...,_,,,,....,.,,.....,...,,.,._,,_...,,_,....,,,.,.~.,....-.......-

{Metering Pin Method)

5. Quality Control by Back Suction

or Pressure Reduction Method

6 . Compensating Devices

Fig. C2.3 : Modifications of Simple Carburettor It has been stated that idling of the engine refers to no
load running of the engine and the engine requires a
/ rich mixture.
~tatting Choke
At no load, the throttle valve is almost closed and due
~ (MU· May 11)
to this the airflow through the venturi is greatly
Universit Question .. _ ·· .~ /w.,~·' ~ ~~:~.f;<.'; :~U/·;;,;;:~~~-).;:l~~:;
reduced. It means that the pressure drop at the venturi
~f- 'Ctibki in a'~~~tor i~·:u;eci'~~rr~91d11R9:~:& is very low and the main jet is not able to supply any
fuel.

sconned w ith C;)mS<:ono«

,.
__

~ -,
.· ~,,·

~ l.C. Engines (MU-5em. V-Mech) 2-8 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys,·lgnition & Combusti~{ .".
. Z:z4 ..
In order to supply rich mixture an idling cin:uit is This difficulty is overcome by introducing an .
introduced in the caxburettor as shown in Fig, 2.6.1. accelerating pump as shown in Fig. 2.6.2.
It could be seen that the idle port is just located below It consists of a piston-cylinder arrangement with a ball
the lhrottle valve.
valve in the cylinder and a spririg.
The low pressure existing in the intake manifolds past
The pist~n is forced downwardi . into cylinder
the lhrottle valve allows the fuel to be supplied from
simultaneously when the throttle valve IS opened. This
the float chamber through the idle jet thereby enriching
. forces the extra petrol fuel into the venturi and the
the mixture of fuel and air.
amount of fuel is controlled by metering orifice. This
The air-fuel mixture discharged into the air stream past
way it supplies rich mixture temporarily.
the throttle valve is controlled by the idling adjustment
screw. The piston is raised again due to the spring force when·,
the throttle valve is again partly closed.
One or more air bleeds are provided in the upper
passages as shown in Fig. 2.6.1. ·These air bleeds A ball valve is provided in the cylinder for leakage of
prevent the fuel to be supplied from the float chamber fuel from cylinder into the float chamber f the throttle
when the engllie is shut-off. valve is opened gradually. ·
When the throttle valve opens, the pressure differential
between the idling pQrt and the float chamber reduces.
2.6.4 Part Load Running-Economic Range .
1bis reduction in pressure is not sufficient to lift the (Metering Pin Method)
fuel to additional height upto the idle jet Therefore at
part load running the idle jet becomes ineffective. In the range of 20 to 75% load, a simple carburettor
supplies rich mixture when the engine speed increases
2.6.3 Acceleratfon recause with the opell..ing of throttle valve the pressure .
differential at venturi increases. This increased pressure
differential increases the fuel supply from main fuel jet ·
with the increased speed.
In order to run the engine under maximum economy a
metering pin in the main metering orifi~ is provided as
shown in Fig. 2.6.3.

The movement of the pin rod. in the metering orifice is

controlled by a control lever by changing the
coeffici~nt of discharge and area of flow of fuel into the
main jet

It controls the supply of fuel flow into the venruri

according to the load on the engine.

er Economizer system

Some system can also be used for supplying rich

Fig. 26.2 : Acceleration arrangement
mixture for loads 75% to 100% and allow rich mixture
It bas been stated that the simple carburettor is not able to be supplied to meet high loads.
to supply the required mixture momentarily due to For this reason it is also called as power enrichment or
inertia of liquid fuel particles when the engine is to be economiser system. Since it can provide rich mixture
accelerated by opening the throttle valve suddenly. without interfering with economical operation in the
part load running.

Scanned wit h Ci:unscoi1ner

 S.I. En ines (Fuel Sup I Sys, Ignition & Combustion)'
2-9
The- maximum and minimum pressures in the float
'fbe meter or 'pin rod ·simply provides a large orifice
chamber corresp0nd to fully opened and almost closed
_opening to the main jet as throttle value is opened
positions of the control valve. This variation in pressure
beyond a certain point
in the float chamber regulates the rate o~ flow of fuel
into the venturi.

2.6.6 Compensating Devices

~ (MU ~· Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 17)

Universit Questions
..
. ·,, ... · : . . .. :' ~

;_..9..:;;~
, ..
Describe any on~ type of c<>mpe~sa\itig device'usf!!d-
. - · ~
;·''<\~;in carbu;attor' .-· . . . . . . .. l•w•r
_ . . .
-. .
~~~i~J,:'"J . :. '._ _.: ' . . ·:.· . . ' . . . <. .
· <;:a;"'~':iExplaili. the function of any two witl1 !leat sketches : · _,
:-...·. . • .· • . . ! •• ,

~\~~,,~(i) : Air.bleed fet. .-. · · (ii) . Emulsion tu~. ·.-'.:

~~~:;_':'- (iii):-Condens~/ : ·'(iv) Econo~iser system.<'.<:
Fig. 2.6.3 : Part load running-metering pin method
~~;t:·. . ·. . ·. . ;' ..( .i_<'.·i
'Q.~~- \A'.ith" the . help:' of . 'a ,_sketch -: expla!~ .in:'s.h<?rt the .
1
M•!"
*~~·.~· .:) ~:::1·»"' . • '.'·:". .,. ·.. ·. . --~ ~ ., -:··. . ~ .....
~~'~i~~c-~ worklng .<' of .: carburettor / navlng .:, . following '
2.6.5 Quality Cont~ol by Back Suction or ·-·~~·' ·-,:· ~-:~·;::;:·,:':" . .<- _.,..,.. ::..... , f\:'~· • .-·.:.,.·... ~r-: ~~-. ., .... , _;.. ....~:.}'
~~:~~~-¥~rrangements (I) Compensating iet__ ., : · - .. .. ·_,;.
Pressure Reduction Method ~, '~~:-'-'';~;~i~~·}~~'>"~t~;fi~~~;,:·?· '--,~*n:~·;-t:~,~~;~\:-~it~:iU .. ,Witl
This method provides the required air-fuel ratios in the. A simple carburettor supplies rich mixture with
increase in speed. Whereas, a carburettor is required to
economic and power range.
supply nearly constant A/F ratio over wide range of speed
An orifice is provided which communicates the float and load for its economic operation. .
chamber with the venturi above the ·throat on the choke Air-fuel ratio can be maintained either by increasing
side of the carburettor. the supply of air or by supplying less fuel with increase in
An automatically operated control valve is provided speed.
which regulates the pressure in the float chamber as
shown in Fig. 2.6.4.

j Pf-ChOke~-Altom~ali--ccootrolled valve
These are:

Compensating Devices

(I) Compensating jet method

Float chamber
(II) Emulsion tube or air bleed method

(Ill) Auxiliary air valve method

(Iv) Auxiliary port method

(v) Metering pin method

(vi) Quality control by back suction or

pressure reduction method

Fig. 2.6.4 : Quality control-back suction method Fig. C2.4 : Compensating Devices.

scanned wilh CamScunne1

 -·
·· . " ~
'

..
:·. ·

~ t.C. E~ Ines
·~

MU-Sem. V-Mech 2·10

Metering pin method (Refer section 2.6.4) and Quality //(II) I~mulslon ~be or air bleed method ·
control by back suction or pressure reduction method (Refer _ Modem carbureuors use the air bleeding device to
section ~~~5 have already been discussed above). maintain the air fuel ratio at all speeds as show.!1 Jn . ';
/._ ' -
L..7 (I) Compensating jet method Fig. 2.6.7.

Fig. 2.6.5 shows the arrangement of a Jet tubo ·

compensating jet device. It's function is to make f f f

the mixture leaner.

Open IO 1tmoephn

I. well
_
CcmpenutlOn

---~,.J....,
__.......,
,Floll
')
25mm

._,..,.__ wen

Fig. 2.6.S : Compensating jet

1-----(Submerged
Main metering
Jet)
jet

It consists of an additional compensating jet

connected to compensation well which is open to Fig. 2.6.7: Air bleed method
atmosphere. It consists of a well with main metering jet at its
The fuel is supplied from float chamber through a
bottom.
restricted orifice. I
The well is fitted about 25 mm below the petrol
When the air flow increases the fuel level in
compensating well decreases. It results into level in float chamber, therefore, well is filled with
decrease of fuel supply through compensating jet petrol. For .this reason, the main jct is also called
while the main jet increases the fuel supply. as submerged jet.
Net result of both the jets is to maintain the The jet has holes on its sides. Therefore, it is in
constant A!F ratio.
communication with atmospheric air.
The effect of compensating device on air-fuel ratio
Initially, air is drawn through the holes into the
is shown in Fig. 2.6.6.
well and petrol is emulsified.
NF ratio
When the throttle valve is opened, the reduced
throat pressure causes the emulsified petrol and
mixes with incoming air and reduces the richness
of mixture.

As the speed increases, the holes in the central

tube are progressively uncovered, thus

.....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _., Speed of engine maintaining the NF ratio.

Fig. 2.6.6 : Effect of compensating jet on AIF ratio

.....-
~·. · · -

- d Jn tho puHHugo o
• ,.111.. ry nh• vnha "'"Ou;d A huttorlly vnlvo 111 lncorporutc uddltlor111I ulr Ill
.,. (110 pl nlr now. Uy opening thlH vlllvo,
... Fig. 2.0.8 11how11 tho prlmilplo of oh· hlcod ll)'tilom ndmlttod. nt tho
<llrfcrcnl111
1
10 1n11lnt11ln nh...1\101 rnllo whh !l~od. H nltm 1-cducc11 tho pro:mu'C tho 11111Hl'I now
1hm11t of vo111url, thoroby • rcduc~t0 con 11tunt NP
,,,fk.,.. t
Mlklurtl IO 1111\ltllll
1
ruto of fuol. ThuH It mulntn ns '
~ -nvotu.vww rntlo. · rtlonul to
Tho oponlng of buUcrl1y vulvo ls 11ropo
lll'H!Cd.
d In ulrcru R
'l'hm method IN "cncrnlly use I r air.
mi>e•i.~ut on o
curburcUorH for nltU11dc co

Typos of Corburottors
ond Automotlvo Corburottor-

2.7 Types of Carburettors

· d f ucl flow, tho
}'lg. 2.6.K : Auxiliary valve method De['H!nding upon tho dil'cctlon o f 111r un
carburettors nre clnssincd us :
As 1he throttle vnlvo is opened, lhe dccrenso in (I) Updraught cnrburcttors
pressure at the throul of tho venturi Clluscs lho (ii) Downdraught cnrburcttors
auxiliruy vnlve spring to push down tho nir vulvc. (iii) Side draught or horizontal carburettors.
This nllows tho udditional utmosphcric uir from Fig. 2.7.l(n) shows the updruught carburettor .in
surroundings to bleed pust the uir vnlve into the which the nir enters the carburettor ugninst the gruvity
main noi.z.le. It prevents the mixture from from bollom in the upward direction.
becoming over rich. The disadvantage of such a curburcttor is that it has to
lift the sprayed fuel droplets by air friction.
The opening of the uir valve is proportionate to
Since the fuel droplets have the tendency to separate
speed of the engine, therefore, the fairly a conslunt out from uir stream due · to high inertia, it becomes
NF ratio is maintained. necessary to design the jct tube and throat of relatively
smaller area in order to ·increase the air velocity to an
.. (Iv) Auxiliary port method extent it curries the fuel particles along even ut low
engine speeds, otherwise, the mixture reaching the
An auxiliary port system is shown in Fig. 2.6.9 engine will be lean.
which is similar to auxiliary air valve system.
~ ThrotUe valve
t aI f Jettube

\ I I I
Auxlllary air port \ \//

Butt8111y valve Ventur1

Fuel from main jet

(a) Updraught · (b) Down draught
III
Air
Fig. 2.7.1

Fig. 2.6.9 : Auxiliary air port method

 . . .. ,,
•I

~ I.e. En Inoa MU·Som. V·Moeh

cm111g11h~mmrn 111fows the fllllfK'I' 00\Y of 11tl~hlfl' t!VCll hi l11W (lftt(ltl()
. l~·10 -
lifK'<'d • 111111 111 11to 11111110 111110 Ilic '~ml1111rf1<1r 11

- trnl'ollnhl)' 11n:t'11,~ ll.1lv.

f!lg. 2.'/. lfr) 111tow11 1h4'l ~ldC' clrnuJ1hl e1trhur.,ll11r, r1
cot;slslMof 11 ho1l1011111I jcl wtic. !iud1 n c111hu1r1111r ho•
iho 111 1vun11111c whc1c u111la l1t11111c1 11pm:o Iii llmir<'cl 1111d
itlllo the rc51s11uir<1 to t11JW 111 mJucrd 1h1(' 10 cll111h1111lor1
of oner Ir.hr 1111ulr1l 1U111 l11 lho l11111ko pns~n!ic~.
(c) Side druughl
H~. 2.7.l : 'l)IK.'S or curbu~th.11'8 2.0 AutomobUo Corburottors

However, with 1'\!l:1tlvcly smaller c1'\lss-:-~1io11 of Jct So111c of 1hc lt111XJrl1111l typo of 111otkt11 cnrhurt·Uor*

tube, the curburcllor cnnnot supply the mix1urc 111 the used in nu10111obllcs nrc !

required rnpiJ mte ul high engine :;1>ecds. Typo• of Autornobllo

Carburoltor•
Due to this the updmught curhurcllors huve now
become nlmost obsolete. 1. Solox curl>ur'utror
Fig. 2.7. l(b) shows the down-dnmghl rarburcllor.
These ure usually installed nl u level higher than the 2. Corlur cml.Jurtitlor
intake manifolds.
3. S.U. cmburollor
In these carburettors tl1e now of mixture Is ussistc<l by
the gravity in its passage into intuko manifolds. This fo'lg. C2.5 : 'l'YIH.':> of Aulomobllc 01rhuttUorN

2.8.1 Solex Carburettor

... (MU• Mny 13)

Univers1t Question . . ..
~ };~°': ' 'l' • ·::· \ • .. • -
'.< ,• ..%· ~ .....~. ~ ~ ~ : ~ l,
i' '·~
'... .•· '

~O.~~' . fain·with·a neat sketch.the constructton·and workln of a Solox Catburottor.

The solex carburettor is one of the well known cm·burellor for cusy s111rting, good pcrfonn:mcc 11nd lls rcllubillly. It ls
used for various Indi:u1 Curs :md Jeeps.

It consists for various fuel and air circuits. These nro :

Fuel end air circuit•
of Solox Carburettor

(I) Normal running

(II) Cold starting and wanning

(lll) Idling and slow speed operation

(Iv) AcoolaraUon

Fig. C2.6 : Fuel und air circuits or Sole.'( Carburettor

The schematic diagram of a Solex carburettor is shown in Fig. 2.8. l. It is down dmught type c:irburcllor.

SCaoMed wl1h CamScanner

- - - --.--- .,.. ~
 ~ i.e. engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) S.I. Engines (Fuel Supp , Ignition & eombustion)
2-13
.,
Starter Jet (k)
Aoceleration pump \n)ector (s)
.----+.14--- Pilot jet (n)
Bl-starter· Venturi (c) Pict air bleed
I Fuel from fuel tank :
Air . ·\
orifice (o) t. AcceleratlOn
pt.mp

Pump)el(u)

Emu1Sion~:3E=f=~=:!llE::::::::::=::;:::f:~~~:;;:;:~~
tube (d) Maln)et(b)
AatdlscO) .

Throttle valve {h)

...
~Idling sctew (p)
Idle port (q)
Starting
passage(/)

Air-fuel mixture
. '
Fig. 2.8.1 : Solex ~burettor
.I

the passage which opens just below the throttle

.. (i) Normal running
valve at (l).
In normal running circuit, the fuel is provided by
Depending upon the position of the starter
the main jet (b) and the air by the choke tube or
lever (m) either bigger or small holes of flat disc
venturi (c).
come opposite the passage.
The fuel from the main jet enters into the air bleed
emulsion tube (d). For starting richer mixture is required. So in the
start positi?n bigger holes are the connecting
The correct balance of _air and fuel is automatically
holes.
ensured by air entering through air correction
jet (f). When the throttle valve is in closed position the

The metered emulsion of fuel and air is discharged engine suction is applied to starting passage (l).

through the orifice (g) drilled horizontally in the The air enters from the starting air jet (k.) and fuel
vertical pipe in the middle of venturi tube. ~m starter petrol jet G). This mixture is

. . (if) Cold starting and warming

sufficiently rich ~o start the engine.

After the engine has started, the starter lever is

The unique feature of this carburettor is to provide
bro~ght to the intermediate position, thus reducing
progressive starter.
the amount of petrol, till it reaches the nonnal
The starter valve is in the form of a flat disc (i)
running temperature. After this the starter lever is
with holes of different sizes. These holes connect
brought to the off position.
the starter petrol jet G) and starter air jet sides to

-~~~~\'<!..~-'--=,__ _____ - - -- - - - --
~ l.C. En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2·14 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Su

. . (Ill) Idling and slo~..........

"I""'"" nano1ng -+ (Iv) AcceleratJon

In this circuit, the pilot jet (n) is taken from the Jn order to provide extra quantity of fuel duJin
8
main jct. acceleration, this carburettor is provided With
. a ··
diaphrag~ pump system. ·
At the idling, the throttle (h) is almost closed and
hence engine suction is applied at the pilot jct. When accelerator pedal is pressed for acceler....
...:on,
the pump lever (t) connected to it is also pressed.
Fuel is drawn there from and mixed with a small
Due to this movement, the fuel is compressed 8J1d
amount of air from pilot air bleed orifice (o). This
it flows through the pump jet (u) and acceleration
mixture is conveyed down the vertical passage and
pump. injector (s) to mixing chamber.
discharged into the . throttle body through the
idling screw (p). · When the force on lever is removed; the
diaphragm retains its original position due to
The idling screw pennits variation· of the·. slo~
running jet's delivery of petrol and allows the spring.

richness of the mixture. Due to this movement of diaphragm suction is

created, thus opening the pump . valve (e) and
admitting.the fresh fuel into the pump.

2.8.2 Carter Carburettor

A sketch of an American make Carter carburettor is shown in Fig. 2.8.2. It is a down-draught type carburettor.

·- Petrol fuel enters into th~ con~entional type of float chamber (1). The air enters from the top through the choke valve
0

(12) which is .kept fully opeo during the normal running of the engine.
. To accelerator pedal

Air

Idle or low speed jet (2)

Plunger (18)
To accelerator pedal
Nozzle Cm
Inlet ched<.
valve (14)

Secondary venturt (9)

Third main venturi (10)

Float chamber (1)

Metering rod jet

Afr fuel mixture to engine

Fig. 2.8.2 : Carter carburettor

Sconned with camscanner

 MU-Sem. V-Mech) .. 2-15
. l f the engine, it
carter carburettor has three venturies, the smallest During Idling or no load nmn ng o
. . d" · the throttle
venturi called primary venturi. (8) lies above the fuel requires a rich mixture. In idling con iuon, ·
level in the float chamber and the other two called valve is almost closed ~ shown in Fig. 2.8.2.
secondary (9) and third (10) main venturies lie below The engine suction is appli"ed to J'die port. . (6) ' due to
.
the fuel level as shown in Fig. 2.8.2. this the fuel is drawn through the idle jet (Z) and the arr
The suction in primary venturi. is adequate to drav/ through bypass (11) and a ii~h inixture is suppJied. .
petrol even at low speeds. During low speed ope~tion, the throttle valve is
fuel from float chamber _enters the venturi through the opened further.
nozzle (17) at an angle in upward direction·against the The main nozzle aiso starts supplying fuel. Therefore,
air stream securing an even flow of finally divided at low speeds the fuel is delivered both by the main
atomized fuel. venturi and through the·low speed port (7).
The fuel and air . ifil,xture descends through the Acceleration pump circuit is used to supply the
secondary venturi which is surrounded by a blanket of required mixture momentarily when the engine is to be
air stream, finally, it passes through the main venturi to accelerated by opening the throttle valve suddenly·
the engine cylinder. ' . (14)
Pump consists of a p1unger (18), mlet check valve .
Use .of multiple venturi ensures that the fuel reaching and outlet check valve (15). Plunger is coruiected to
th~ engine is in atomized form evei;i at very slow acceli rator pedal by ·throttle.control rod {13).
speeds causing the s~ooth running of the engine:
. '

When the engine is suddenly accelerated, the plunger

The fuel circuit consists of a metering rod (3) actuated moves down and forces the required extra ~el through
by a mechanism
. , connected to the main throttle. jet (I~) into the choke tube. . .
The metering rod has two or more steps of diameter. When the accelerator 'pedal is released, the plunger
. . . .
The difference in area of metering rod jet and metering JDOves up and draws the fuel from _float chamber into
rod controls the amount of fuel drawn into the engine. the pump through inlet check valve for the next
' . .
operation.
Corresponding to maximum throttle opening at
", • ' I '
maximum speed. the smallest section of the metering 2.8.3 S.U. Carburettor
rod is in the jet, therefore, the maximum quantity of
fuel flows to mix with the maximum amount of air Generally the carburettors are choke type e.g. Solex,
flow. Carter and Zenith carbilrettors. Whereas, the S.U.
The starting circuit consists of a butterfly valve called Carburettor completely differs from these since it is a
choke (12) in the air circuit. . ~onstant vacuum or depression type of carburettor
with automatically variable choke.
When the choke is almost closed, the pressure at the
Fig. 2.8.3 represents the sketch 'of a horizontal .type of
nozzle is nearly equal to suction pressure in the engine.
S.U. Carburettor.
This large pressure drop between float chamber and at
the nozzle increases the mass flow rate of ·fuel while I~ consists of a piston (I) which is always loaded by a
the air flow rate is minimum. It ensures the supply of helical spring, a piston rod (2), the piston r?<I guide (3)
rich mixture to the engine at the time of starting. and the float chamber (10) of a conventional
carburettor.
Once the engine is started, the spring controlled half of
the choke valve is sucked open to provide correct J'he lower end of the piston rod carries . a taper jet .
amount of air. needle (7) which is inserted into the main jet (9). The
. . flat portion above the piston is call~d suction disc (12).

SConned with CiJmScooner

 :: /:~-;]
·,_. :~~
S.I. Engines (Fuel Suppl sys, Ignition & Combu~~-~ '.:~!.':
m .1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-16

Piston rod guide (3) . . ._..,.

.Pl~ton rod (2)
Suction chamber(4)
\ .
Piston (1j Suction disc (12)

' .
Alr-reclifier tiole (8) sudion air entnince (11 ) ...

Air pas5age (5).

Taper jet needle (7)
'• • 1 •

"' Float chamber (10)

.i .

·. ·FJg. 2.8.3 : s.u. carburettor . · · ·

. .. . ., . . . _ It allows more fuel to flow into the_mai~ stream due t~
The piston assembly mov~ up and down alongwith .. . d. Thus approximately the constant air-
taper needle by operating a lever from the dash board. . , mcreas~ !et ar~a. . d at different engine speed~. '
The mov~ment of · the piston · controls the air fuel ratio is mam~ne . , _ ·. : . .
. passages (5). Fuel Pumps for S. I. Engines
!· ...
I'· . The portion abov~ the suction disc is called the suction
"'
chamber (4) which connects the·air passage by means 2.9 Mechanical .i=uei ·Pump for SJ.
.: _o f suction air entrance (11). Engines
,/
The lower portion of the suction disc is connected by '. 1 ,

Fuel from tank .;

. an air rectifier hole (8) to tlie atmospheric air. The air
passage has a butterfly type throttle valve (6).
The movement of piston controls the air-fuel ratio. for
all the operating conditions of the engine. J .

The pressure in the suction chamber depends upon the

throttle opening while the pressure below the suction
disc: is atmospheric.
. The position of the piston depends upon its weight and
the vacuum existing (according to throttle opening) in
.
the I suction chamber, therefore, a variable cross-
sectional area of air passage is obtained depending
upon the piston position.
Fig. 2.9.1 : Mechanical fuel-pump
ThiS carburettor bas· ~nJy one jet ~d no separate
idling jet or accelerating pump is required. The function of a fuel pump is to draw the fuel fiom the
At the time of starting, the rich mixture is required. tank through pipe line and supply to the carburettor.
This can be achieved by pulling·the jet downwards with
The schematic diagram of a mechanical ~.el pump for
the help of lever attached to it which is operated from
spark ignition engines is shown in Fig. 2.9.1:
the dash board in the car.
As the throttle valve is opened, more air is allowed to The diaphragm ann of the fuel pump is usually driven
flow under more suction due to which the piston moves by the eccentric on the camshaft.
upwards and increases the effective jet area.

scanned with CamScanner

~·

r!if
B2..1.c. ines {MU-Sem. V-Mech)
.. & Combustion)
2-17 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition
1l»e pump consists of a flexible diaphragm which is · . · tum sttoke the
When the lever is disengaged on its re .
operated by a pull rod through a diaphragm lever. . . . hi h . eases the pressure m
diapbragm is pulled up w c mer
\\1bC1l the lever is engaged and pushed upwards it pulls the chamber. It closes the inlet valve and the fuel flows
doWD the diaphragm in its casing. It creates a Partial out through the outlet valve io the carburettor.
,racuuro in the upper chamber which results into the
Some S.I. engines use electrical fuel pump'.
fiow of fuel from the tank.

Electrical Fuel Pump

2.10
Sectional view of an electric fuel pump is shown in Fig. 2.10.1. Whe~ the breaker points come in co~tact~ the fuel from
tank via intake valve (1) is drawn into suction chamber due to the suction created by the movement of diap~gm upw.ards.
Now as the breaker points are separated, the diaphragm moves downwards under the spring force, thus it pushes the. fuel
ftOID pumping chamber to the carburettor through the delivery valve (2).

E-:- From ignition switch

Solenold winding

Spring
,A.r(nature

Fuel tD carburettor

Diaphragm
Fig. 2.10.1 : Electric fuel pump

Syllabus Topic : Gasoline Direct Injection 3. Distribution of mixture· is non-uniform to cylinders in

case of multi cylinder engines due to resistance to
2.11 Gasoline Injection in S.I Engines mixture flow in unequal length of intake manifolds.

(Drawbacks of Carburettor System) 4. Economy of fu~l is affected during idling and low load
running of the engine.
Modem tendency is to use gasoline injection in S.I 5. It limits the use of compression ratio, however, the C.R
engines inspite of development of efficient carburetors by fuel injection can be increased by 1 to 1.5.
which are cheap and reliable.
6. Possibility of back firing at low speeds particularly in
Reasons for use of gasoline injection system are due multi-cylinder engines.
to the following inherent drawbacks of the carburetors :
7. Exhaust emissions are high.
I. Low volumetric efficiency due to restrictions of
8. Problem of ice fonnation at low temperatures.
mixture flow across the carbure and other metering
elements in air passage.
A gasoline injection system eliminates most of the
abov~ drawbacks of a carburetor.
2. Non-supply of exact A.F ratio at 31! ~oads.
."
 ~I.e. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 2·18 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Su

. .
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th end of compression stroke. Whereas, the -. · . fi

In case of C.I engines the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, be ore
e · "fi Jd .
. .. inlet ort or in the· intake mam o s m 1ow pressure
fuel m case of S.I engines is injected during suet.Jon stroke near the P . . .
. . . . f der in high pressure lfiJCCtiOn system CaJJC(f
IDJection system called indirect injection, IDI system or directly mto the cy m . . ,, .
direct injection (DI) system. · '·
Thus the fuel injection system can be classified as follows:
Gasoline Injection System
I
Multipoint
Gasoline Mllllifold
Port Fuel
injection direct · injection
Injection
injection System
in to (MPFI)
cylinder
(GDI) Continuous Timed I
Continuous Tuned
(P.Fl)
Port Throttle

'
'•.
.. injection injection

I '
I
voltage signals which is analysed and adjusts the air-fuel
2.12.1 Continuous Injection System ratio and injection timing.

' In this system, a rotary fuel pump under a pressure of 1

,.
to 1.5 bar injects the fuel through a nozzle continuously into
air supply.
The amount of fuel injected is governed by the air
throttle opening. The fuel supply increases with the increase
in lhrottle opening. No timing device is necessary in this
system. Various types of continuous injection system are:
(a) In case the fuel is injected near the inlet port, it is called
continuous port fuel injection (PFI) system. The
(a) Semi • direct injection
timing of injection is controlled by electronic unit
(Close to inlet valve)
(ECU), depending on the load and speed of the engine.
It is shown in Fig. 2.12.l(a).
(b) In continuous intake manifold injection systems, the
fuel is injected at pressure of 2 bar as shown in
Fig. 2.12.I(b).
(c) In gasoline direct injection (GDO system, the fuel
pump injects the gasoline directly into the cylinder as
shown in Fig. 2.12.l(c). The system uses an electronic
control unit (ECU) and a solenoid operated fuel injector
to meter the fuel. (c) Direct lnjectloa
(b) .IDC.ke mlllllold Injection
The ECU uses various sensors located on the engine
components. It receives inputs from sensor in the form of Fig. 2.12.1 : Injection methods in S.I engines
pt
i .
~ 1.c. En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2-19

various sensors used are : er Advantages of GDI system

s.naon uaed In ContJnuoua (i) Improves volumetric efficiency of the engine.
ln)ectlon Syatem
(ii) Improves atomisation and vapourisati~ of fuel and it .is
(I) Throttle poslUon sensor independent of reduce gap spacing speed
(iii) Ease of cold starting and low load running.
(iv) Specific fuel consumption is reduced i.e. it gives beUCr
vehicle mileage.
(v) Variation is A.F. ratio is reduced.
(iv} Engine exhaust Temperature aenaor (vi) Exhaust emrnions are reduced.
to measure 0 2 content In exhaust
(vii) Gives better performance on gradients.
(v) Manifold pressure sensor
er Disadvantages of GDI system
(i) High initial cost.
(ii) Higher maintenance cost
(iii) Injector choking is possible.
(viii) Humidity sensor This system is not employed now-a-days because of the
strict, restriction on exhaust emissions and its high foel
(Ix) Knock sensor . · consumption.

Syllabus Topic : MPFJ System (Single Polnt and

Ffg.CZ.7.: Sensors used in Co~tinuous Injection System
Muhlpolnt Injection System)
(i) Throttle position ~nsor located on throttle plate to
sense its movement. . 2.13 M.P.F.I. System for Modern
(ii) 1be engines coolant temperature se~r to sense the Automobile Engines
temperature of coolant. It helps to adjust fuel-air supply
~ (MU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 17)
at the time of cold starting and idling.
tllJ11rE;ft1'Y''' '(;t11E•)!J...1~~. '·?~,~~ ;~·)/>:~X%~:~~;!#_.¢Y;'-;-r~ ;~~V'/;~:;v.·: <~-.:i ..~.
(iii) Air Oow sensor located at intake manifold to monitor ~_,,i,l'Y,/%-f'.f.:~W~·f,{>"(~kf•,
.8•-- / d/ , " "• f
_.J',?f ;-,; " /,,·/'"t' ••'"''" ~ 1•.
._•. ,.!</,• . ,,_ 4 ' .,
,Jv'"'Y. "f·
K .;;_;/'•

"'1¢e,VVrite'snoif note.on·=- MP.A tor $1 engines..~ -,:<::·'.'~;;.:~~

the air flow rate.
(iv) Engine ·exbauSt Temperature sensor to measure Oi
;'ft~i ·
..o... .
,i,. ·
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.~µ,~:~;~;;:~~1~~'.~f ::;:,~.~: 5• ".s··~''""~,. ~-'
n:MPA m bnef. .,.~·;,·.,.,,. ~ .. ,-- -'-'"'· .. ._
..

content in exhaust. M.P.F.I. means Multi Point Fuel Injection system is

(v) Manifold pressure sensor mounted on intake one in which each cylinder has a separate fuel injector to
supply/spray fuel into cylinder. Whereas, in a single point
manifolds and it helps to adjust flow of air-fuel miiture
fuel Injection (S.P.F.I.) system, only one centrally located
in to the engine. fuel injector is used to supply/spray fuel tO all cylinders.
(vi) Air inlet temperature sensor mounted on intake M.P.F.I. system is the ultra modem technology which
manifolds to sense the temperature of inlet air and is used in modem automobile engines. In the beginning, this
. . system was developed only for aeroplane engines, but now
helps to adjust air-fuel ratio. this system is widely used in light vehicles. This system is
(vii) Carmhaft position sensor mounted on camshaft which the combination of electrical, electronics, computer and
mechanical science. ·
senses the rotation of camshaft and adjusts the fuel
Daewoo Matiz is the first vehicle equipped with
injection timing. ~P.F.I. system in Indian automobile indmtry.
(viii) Humidity sensor located on intake manifolds to M.P.F.I. system uses pressure from an electric fuel
measure humidity of intake air. pump to spray fuel into engine intake manifold. It provides
correct A.F. ratio at all operating conditions of the engine.
(ix} Knock sensor mounted on cylinder head to detect The suction pressure of that engine is used to spray fuel into
. . .
detonation. engine in this system unlike carburettors in which engine
vacuum is used to feed the fuel.

--·---- - --- --- - - - - - - - - --

 .· ~
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~ l.C. En Ines (MU·Sem. V-Mech} 2-20 Si Engines (Fuel Su S S, lgnitiOn &

er M.P.F.I. system has folfowlng main

.·.'
components
,,
1. A computer call~ EJ~~onic· Cont~I unit (EClf):
Jt controls the ign.ition tiDllllg and quahty of fuel lo
. be
injec~.
I,,!" ' ' . A set of sensors to monitor ambient, COOiant illd
2
Intake
inanlfold
exhaust gas temperatures, exhaust 0 2 content, infakt
Intake . pressure, throttle positi~n, speed etc.
port
3. A solenoid injector .= The general layout of MP,p.J.
system is shown in Fig: 2.13.1.
In the fig. 2.13.l, a single injector is mounted on~
intake port of each cylinder. Fuel is sent under pressure by
the fUel pump from fuel tank. The fuel is distributed to C<lcb
of the injectors. Fuel injection is carried out simultaneously
in each injector once in every rotation. This is shown in
Fig. 2.13.l by variou~ stages ~.e. stages (1) to (4).
Intake Intake .
manifold

-
valve
s;;:::::;f:::;;:::::~::;;:::=:o~~ 2.14 Classification of M.P.F.I. System
.___J- Cyltlder heads
(b): Stqe2 The M.P.F.I. system is classified into two types :

Classification of
M.P.F.I. System
-AJr
i) D-M.P.F.I. system - ___...--"

1
ii) L-M.P.F.I. system

Fig. C2.8: Classification of .M .P.FJ. System

Intake Intake
valve manifold
2.14.1 D-M.P.F.I. System
Intake
port
..
This system is the manifold fuel injection system

In this system, the vacuum in the intake manifold is

I

I i first sensed.
I -Air
In addition, it senses the volume of air by its density.
I
'. ~
The block diagram of D-M.P.F.I. system is shown in
•,' ·
Fig. 2.14.l.

As air enters into the intake manifold, the pressure

Intake Intake
valve sensor detects the vacuum and sends information to the
manlfokl
ECU.
Cylinder heads The speed sensor also sends signal about RPM of the
(d): St.ge4 engine to the ECU.
Fig. 2.13.1 : General layout of M.P.F.I. system

\ 1

Se.:lnncd with C.:.mScarmcr

 . . 'ti' & eombustion
MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2·21 S.I. Engines (Fuel Su I S s, fgni on .

2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of ·

M.P.F.I. System

~ Advantages
· . l.ed to each
1. More unifonn A.F mixture will be supp 1 •
10
cylinder, hence the difference in power developed.
intake each cylinder is minimum. Vibration from the engtn~
0
rnantfold equipped with this system is less, due to this life
engine components is improved. .
2. No need to crank the engine twi~ or thrice in case of
cold starting as happens in the carburettor system.
3. Provides immediate response in case of sudden
acceleration/deceleration.
4. Since the engine is controlled by ECU (Engine Control
Fig. 2.14.1: D-M.P.F.I. system Unit), more accurate amount of A.F mixture will be
supplied and as a result complete combustion will ~e
. . L·M.P.f.I. System place. This leads to effective utilization of fuel supplied
2 14 2 and hence low·emission level.
_ This system is a port fuel-injection system. 5. Power developed by the engine is better compared to
In this system the fu~l metering is regulated by the carburetion system.
engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters 6. Specific fuel consumption is· 1ow and mileage of the
vehicle improves.
the engine.
7. Provides better volumetric efficiency due to fewer
_ 1be block diagram of L-M.P.F.I. system is given in restrictions in the intake system.
Fig. 2.14.2.
rr Disadvantages
_ As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow
. sensor measures the amount of air and sends the signal 1. System is costly.
to the ECU and the speed sensor sends the signal of 2. System· needs elaborate arrangement requiring large
RPM to ECU. number of components and sub-systems.

_ 1be ECU in turn sends the signal to ·the injector, in

order to regulate the amount of gasoline to be injected
into the manifold. Ignition Requirements and It's Function

. '
Air
2.16 Introduction to Ignition
Requirements of S.I. Engines
Intake.....,_......,.~
manifold rr Definition of angle of spark adyance

Gasoline

sensor
Fig. 2.14.2 : L-M.P.~.I. system

Sc.:mncd witli C::i ~ncr

 ·.:1
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..:
~ . 2-22 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supp S s, Ignition & Combt ..... _ ,·!,
W l.C. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) ~"Oil

. ·1'

Io order to initiate a self sustaining flame front in the

combustion chamber, it is necessary that the spark must
~feet the burning of few molecules of the charge,
· change its chemical state and release chemical energy.
This .chemical energy released is further transferred to Based on the above discussion, the basic ignjtioq
the neighbouring molecules an~ their ignition is further requirements can be listed as follow~ ;

,···
. . initiated.
1. I t should have source of electrical energy.
' The burning of require~ molecules to produce a flame A method of producing high voltage from the source to
2.
front depends upon the gap between the electrodes of produce a spark across the electrod~s of the spark plug '

~
d yet limit the current flow to mcrease the life Of ' .
spark plug and the intensity of spark.
spark plug. The usual voltage requirements ·are between
Therefore, the basic requirement of the ignition system
8000
v to 20000 V depending upon the compression ,
j~ to supply the minimum necessary energy to the spark
ratio and operating conditions of the engine..
to initiate the combustion of fuel so that the flame is 3. . A system is necessary to supply high voltage to each
established in the combustion chamber under all spark plug at the correct timing in each cylinder of
operating conditions. multi cylinder engines. A distributor is used for this
pwpose. ·
It is observed that a spark to jump across an air gap
4. An adjustment of spark advance with variation of load
between two electrodes lmm apart, a voltage 3000 Vis
on the engine and its speed.
necessazy under atmospheric conditions.
s. The intensity of sparksupplied should be sufficient to
This voltage to produce a spark across the electrodes initiate combustion between the specified limits
depends upon the resistance offered to flow of current because too high intensity may bum the electrodes and
between the electrodes. Therefore, the voltage too Jow intensity may not ignite the mixture proJ:>erlY to

requirements for producing the spark depends upon the sustain a flame.

gap between the electrodes, the density of charge which 2~ 16.2 Types of Ignition Systems
further depends upon the compression ratio and the
Types of
suction conditions of fresh charge and the air-fueJ Ignition Systems
ratios.
(l) Battery-coil ignition system
It is observed that within the range of A.F. ratio o{ 12:1 -
(ii) Magneto ignition system
to 15:1 which are normally used in S.1' engines, a spark
energy of 10 kl is sufficient to start the combustion (lll)'Electronic Ignition system

process. Fig. C2.9 : Types of Ignition Systems

These systems will be dealt in details subsequently.

- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- ---- ----- --- l

----------------------------~
rfil .Engines . , ..' 'ti & eombti~tion) :
_ (MU~Sem. V-Mech) .
',
~1.c.
2-23:··. S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, lgm on -
,-:
-
.

Syllabus Topic : Battery Ignition System - Function and Working Contact Breaker Point

Ignition CXlil Seoondlwy

...

Fig. 2.17.1: Battery-roil igrution system

Most of the S.L engines use the battery and coil ignition system of contact breaker type shown in Fig. 2.17.1.

The ~tial components of battery ignition system are : -+ (i) Battery

Components of The required electrical energy for functioning of the
battery Ignition
system is provided by a battery of 6 or 12 volts.
(i) Battery It acts as accumulator and it is charged by a dynamo
driven by the engine.
(ii) Ignition coil wi1h a ballast resistor
Due to electrochemical reaction, the battery is able to
convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
{ful Ignition switch
The battery must be mechanically strong to withstand
[rv) Conact breaker the strains to which it is constantly subjected.

(v) Condenser
Two types of batteries are used for S.I. engines,
namely, the lead acid batteries suitable for light
(Vil Distributor commercial vehicles and the alkaline batteries
suitable for heavy duty vehicles.
Fig. C2.10 : Components of battery ignition
 " ..,
"'·
......

, I nltlon & ~.~ -_

M I.e. En Ines MU·Som. V·Mech 2·24 S.I. En lnos Fuol Su

operated for long period• 111 low speeds or In CllAc Ilic '.
breaker remains Jn closed position. ,
The ballast rcslNtor is made of iron. It• clectrit{d .
resit;uincc incrca-.cs r11pidly after a certain temperature .
is reached.
Due to the addilion11f resistance in the primary circuit, it :
holds the primary current down to safe value. However,
Fig. 2.17.2: Cell connccilon tor J2 V baUery during tJie cold sUllting of the engine this resistor is by .
A lend acid battery consisrs of number of cells passed to aJJow more primary current to flow in the
connected in series. prirtUll}' circuit.

Ench cell produces a pressure of 2 volts when fully H.T. To dilltlbutor

coll
charged Fig. 2.J 7.2 shows how the six cells of a 12 Y To Ignition switch To contact breaker
battery are coupled together in series. For their series Contact brealter (C.B.)
SWltch ~re (S.W.J letmlnalto
connection, the positive of one cell is connected to terminal to contact braaker
lgnlUon swtlCh
negative of the next cell and so on.

-+ ·(U) Ignition coll with 11 ballast resistor

The ignition coil shown in Fig. 2.17.3 consists of soft

iron strips bound together by an insulating material
which acts as a central core.
The core has primary winding made of thick enamelled (a} JgnitJon coll with ballast resistor
. wire having JOO to 200 turns while the secondary
winding is formed by the relatively very thin insulated
wire having about 20000 turns. This entire unit is
. assembled in a sheet metal container and forms a neat
compact unit.

On the top of the coil assembly is a heavily insulated

terminal block which supports three terminals.
(b) Ballast resistor
Two smaller tenninal blocks marked S. W. (switch Fig. 2.17.3: Ignition coil with blast resistor
wire) and C.B. (cont.act breaker) are coupled to primary
winding. S. W. is Connected to ignition switch and the ~ (lii)lgnition switch
C.B. is connected to contact breaker, condenser and the Battery is connected to primary winding of ignition coil
cam as shown in Fig. 2.17.3. through an ignition switch and ballast resistor.
With the help of ignition switch the ignition system can
The secondary winding is connected tn H.T. (high
be turned on or off at will.
tension) central terminal to the central terminal of the
distributor. ~ (iv) Contact breaker

A ballast resistor is provided in series with primary Contact breaker is a mechanical device for making and
breaking the primary circuit of the ignition coil as
winding as shown in Fig. 2.17.3(b) to regulate the
shown in Fig. 2.17.4.
primary current. It helps in preventing the damage to
the sp~k coil from overheating in case the engine is
~­
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~ ,.. r:..gines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
1.v·""'
2-25. s.1. Engines (Fuel ~u~i:>rv Sys; ignition·& ~mb~stic>~· ·
r · ~..,;na • . . I

[· r .. ;..s,.,.-·~ Qr ·
Working
.I' . The workiiig of the ~ysterii is ·~ follows :
r
: · · · · ·· ·· " · · ects
f ·. - The ignition swit.ch provided connects and disconn
Movable point
fro~ the batter}' so .tb;u"·~e. engine
0

FiXed point
the ignition system
. ' ~ '. , I '

c~ be._started or stopped at will. .

Whe~ the ignition switch is on, the contact breaker
pointS are closed. This all~WS the c~rrent to . fl~W 'fro11l
. . . ' . . . " . ·.'. . . ii
. . ~attery through primary winding of the ~gruu~n co
Fig. 2.17.4: Breaker point
' and· back' to battecy thro~gh 'earthiiig (fraIIle of. the
. . . ' . . .
·ec;nsisCS of a fixed metal point of hard metal,' usually engine).
Jt • • be . .
f tungsten. This pomt ars .against another metal
It dev~lops a magnetlc field across the primarY win~g ..
~int which is on .a spring loaded pivoted arm..
and lnduces ~ b~~k · e.m.f. which _oppo~s· the bat,terr
f.aCh con~t ~int has a circular. flat face of 3 mm current. The effe~t is to slowly build up the current in
, di~eter_ each. . . the ·primary winding and delays the .building up' of
When the contact breaker po~ts .~ closed, the electric .magnetic field.
' ciJlYCDt flows and when they are open, the circuit is
A voltag~ is always induced m". the s~ondary winding
broken and the flow of current stops. ·
<0 but the e.m.f. is too low to produce a spar~ at the spark, ,
... (v} eooden.ser plug.

It consists of ·sheets of metal foil separated by an When we· w~t a spark i~ the engine, the break~r point ·
inSuJating material (e.g. mica) placed face to face. . is operted by the c~- fitt~~-~~:distributfil :-~~ This
opens the p~ ~i;cuit.. ~d
, the~~agn~_tic..field
. in the
ane sheet of metal foil is · connected to condenser ...- ,•

primary coil collapses. .

. taminal. next to th~ metal case of the condenser and so
The resulting induced current still flows in the same
on alternatively.
direction as the· batteri . ~urrent and lt ch~g~s the
1be condenser terminal is connected to one side of I '

condenser.
contact breaker and the· casing to the other side of
The flow of current is reversed when the .battery
contact breaker and usually earth so that the condenser
voltage ~?mes less .· than the. voltage. across the
remains in parallel with the contact breaker.
condens_er plates. · . .
.. (vi) Dimibutor
The quick reversal of current in the primary winding .
- The distnoutor includes the contact breaker points and reverses the magnetic fi~ld .in the coil_causing a very .
the mechanism for automatically advancing or high voltage to be induced in the secondary winding
retarding the sparlc timing in accordance with the depending upori. the ratio of number of turns of the ·
engine speed for optimum power to be developed by , secondary to the primary winding. This induced voltage
the engine. is of the order of8 kV to 20 kV.
.·
a Function •'
When the contact breaker in the primary circuit is
/
/
/ opened, the distributor rotor connects with a contact to
' ..
- The function of the distributor is to distribute high the spark plug and this high induced voltage jumps
·tension current to the individual spark plugs as the rotor
across the air gap of the spark plug producing a spark.
presses it, the contact breaker opens, in the correct
. sequence (firing order) at the correct time.

Scanned with CamScanner

 • ..
·~.:"'i,
. . . ;t_.

• Ignition & Combu~ :

~ l.C. E~glnes (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-26
S.I. Engines (Fuel SuPel S

Syllabus Topic : .Magneto Ignition System :~

~ (vii) Condenser el!'ect Functions and Working ·

As the contact breaker points separate in the distributor,

the flow of current from the battery through the 2.18 Magneto Ignition System --.......:
primary w_inding of the coil is intenupted. ~ (MU - May 13, Dec. 1
, _ . , ...
, I •,,w~ l•~-' ' :< .,._·-v.-x;;••~,,_..,...
/' / • ,f

- ~~~.!~ ~r ·":,,....)~ .-t{./.~'<f'.hJ. ~, -: :.vltt-1..,.: ',;4(;

3)
Instantly th.e magnetic field begins to collapse and this "L§•ff[44tf.Ut:J
·Wi'n, .., ... - . --- ·~· ·#··,,i(/.·~J-:·:--. fr"·'f/ ~- tiP{~',\~~!:.~,._
/":~,.~-. :,..• .:,:.. •~11; ... ~:~... "1.., .. ,
collapse attempts to re-establish the flow of current. ·:·a,.~;~;,(1·w
·.(·ri
" te h,o..rt~ '~oti 0,;s·"Magneto·1gn1t1ori
:. \ ~.... •· ' v.t<,•'
'T
·-sYsf' •i<I'(>!- "/'l.,)o<"

~ the condenser is not provided, the current would be ~:.' :,.;r' f(~://; .~;.{f..: :.~./~--~~/'(:(:-:·~;:;~:/::~?,;:·ft;-,
~:,;: :;::i.\i;"_-,_::~w:1;th
,E;xpu;u .. ·>n·~~~t·~k~i6hJ~':tti-e~:Woikl,
\'''/( 'l'n.~iti
;.
ili](of'
re-established which would result into a heavy arc I
('/ - ·'{,f /.f'' ~' ,,! /~ •, v:< .t ,' "•
c •'' / •?/.,;(,;/l,/•./.,F, ;V1>;<.;"
~ d -;./'·f
'f •0. • .< I,,.. ;><: .. _;.
co~Y.~i"
c ,,. , ;
,/;
{;·~~
""-" "'·""' \'·-(:1 1 •• neto' ·•Qn ont- an .,
~itiory; ~ .. ::~9 ,,, ,,·;;v-~,. ..,,.,_,.,,t~ ;p;t:;/:;,:.v./;~:e<-'¥~ ~0~1~:
across the separating contact brerucer points and the -<'·'!~:;..;: ' es'·-f,~<,.ii;;;t:;,i.<0'
;g
,1,i· ·
CfVanta .. :X:v··d"dlsa
·"·-res an "'dvan· ta '"' • ~~ ,,,..,,•.",.'< • • ""
energy of the ignition coil will be consumed by the arc.
This may bum the contact breaker points. The magneto is a generator of an electric current

The condenser prevents the arcing across the contact The magneto is driven by the engine.

breaker points and prolongs its life. In this system. the magneto replaces. all the components
of coil ignition system except the spark plug.
r:r · Functions of condenser
A magneto may either give low tension or high tension.
(i) To minimise arcing and pitting of contact breaker
Usually, high t.ension magneto syst.ems are used in the
points. .
engines.
(ii) To intensify the spark.
A magneto when rotated at high speed by the engine is
2.17.1 Advantages and D.l sadvantages of capable of generating high voltages which is sufficient
Battery Coll Ignition System to overcome the resistance of air gap of spark plug and
therefore produces a spark.
r:r Advantages
A magneto consists of an armature built up of
1. It is cheap. laminated soft iron plat.es and wound with insul~ted
2. It provides better spark at low speeds. copper wire and a laminated soft iron pole pieces
3. Variation of ignition timing can be achieved easily attached to permanent magnets.
without affecting the spark intensity.
er Types of magneto system
4. Maintenance cost is negligible except for battery.

5. It is used in car and buses. Types of magneto system

~ Disadvantages
(a) Rotating magneto type
l. It is heavy due to battery and occupie~ more space.
(b) Rotating armature magneto type
2. Provides weaker spark as the speed of the engine
' '. . increases since the primary voltage decreases with (c) Polar magneto type
increase in speed.
Fig. C2.11 : Types of magneto system
I 3. The engine cannot be started if the battery is
'i
./ discharged. ~ (a) Rotating magneto type
I
4.
/
J
Maintenance cost of battery is high. In rotating magneto type, the armature is stationary
and the magnet revolves. The advantage o( this system
I is that it is not subjected to centrifugal forces.

Scanned w ith CoimSconner

 . &combustion) _.
rff1 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Supply 5 5 • 1 nltion

..
Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-27
lS12.i 1.c. .
.· · tatine annature magneto type (c) Polar magneto type
-t (I>~ flo . . th the annature and
tatinl armature magne~ type, the armature In the polar magneto ~ bo .
Ill ro . f 1 ieces rotate.
l
revo v~~~s~be~tw~ee~n~tb~e~po~les~o~th~e~ma~gn~et'.:_~~~~.L.~~ma~~n~e~to~ar~e~stati~·o~n~ary~an~d~tb~e~po~e!p::::=---~~--­
al components of the syste"'
EtS8ntl .
ti' · · gneto type.
.
. fig. 21
.
s.t shows the schematic diagram of a high tension magneto ignition system of rotaung ma .

-~

·' CBiTi
"::' E
Armature .

Rotating magnet
· · (001y 2 pole·~ .sh~)

Contact
breaker

I
Condenser '(\Ignition Primary ex>il
J_ ~ SWitch Secondary ex>il

-:- E -:- E -:;- E

Fig. 2.18.1 : Magneto ignition system

It has the following essential parts : In this system, as the magnet revolves a rapid change of
(i) An electrical generator with permanent field magnets magnetic flux in coil takes place.
and rotating armature which produces an alternating
current Magneto flux varies from a positive maximum to

(ii) An induction coil with primary and secondary windings

-negative max.inium and back again. This rapid·variation.
being wound on the armature. of magnetic field induces a current in the· primary
(iii) A contact breaker to interrupt the generator primary winding of the coil.
circuit and the condenser.
However this rate of change of flux is not rapid enough
(iv) A distributor to distribute high ·tension current to spark
plugs. to induce high voltage requked for sparking. Therefore
for rapid breakdown of magnetic flux, the breaker
"" Working points and the condenser are proyided into the circuit as
- The principle of working of this system is similar to in case of battery coil ignition system.
battery-coil ignition ·system explained earlier except When the current in the primary circuit reaches its peak
that the magnetic field in the primary and secondary value, the contact breaker points are opened by m~ans
windings is produced by a rotating permanent magnet of cam mounted on the magneto shaft. Now the circuit ·
in the armature. operates in the same way as the battery-coil ignition
systeDL
 .
- " ·~
-·:.-·,
' .. : .
.; ·,_·>·,~
~ I.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) · 2-28
. - . .

· S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition & Cornbtist1?.m.\ -' .

i •. • . : -_,-~ . ;.

er .Appllcatlon of magneto Ignition system Fig. 2.19.1 shows ~e variation of break~r cwre~t .Vs_'_··.
1· · It is
. used m
· racmg
· car and aeroplane engines since the speed of the engine for the battery ignition ' and · _.·
I

: . l magneto system provides a strong spark at high speeds. magneto ignition systems.
.. · I
~ i 2. It is preferred in two wheelers because of its low It can be seen from Fig. 2.19.1.' that the maximum
! weight and low maintenance. current at break occurs at about 1000 sparks per minute .
in case of 12 y battery ignition system.
I 2.18.1 Advantages of Magneto System
·I
I In case of magneto system, the current generated is low .
l I. Less maintenance
I at low starting speed and as the speed of the engine
I
l 2. Light in weight and occupies less space
'' increases the flow of current also increases. Due to this,
I
3. Provides high intensity spark at high speeds. there is always a difficulty in starting the engine With
. : r
' 4. System is reliable.
this systems.

2.18.2 Disadvantages of the High Tension At times. a separate battery is needed to obviate· the
Magneto System problem of starting. Since the magneto system is
I. Since wirings carry high voltage current, there is a suitable at high speeds, it is used in racing cars, aircraft
strong possibility of leakage which may cause misfiring engines etc. This system is though c~stly compared to
of engine. ignition coil sy;tem but it is highly reliable.
2. The system· requires extensive shielding to prevent
leakage of high voltage current.
·. ·;I
3. At low speeds it develops poor quality of spark at the
;
I
I
time of starting.
.I Because of the above disadvantages, there is an attempt
j I

ii! to develop low tension magneto system in which the

secondary winding is changed to limit tbe secondary voltage

,i to a value 350-400 V and the distributor is replaced by a ·2000 4000 6000

I
I brush contact. The high voltage is obtained with the help of Sparks per minute
I

I step up transformer. All these changes. have affect of

Fig. 2.19.1 : Breaker current Vs Speed
limiting the high voltage current in only a small portion of
· ignition system _wiring and avoids the possibility of engine . Because of the poor starting char3cteristics of the
misfire due to leakage. magneto system and due to the fact that voltage

Comparison of Battery Ignition System generated is affected by the changes in spark. timings,
and Magneto Ignition System invariably the battery ignition coil ·js preferred over ·
magneto system in case of automobiles.
2.19 · Comparison between Battery Coil
and Magneto Ignition Systems

+ (MU· Dec.17)
. MU-Som. V·Moch 2·2D
~ 1.c.En
1088
.
· 1900 t)Otwoon bnttery~ll lgntUon and Lowtr mt.lil1 limc between f aitures.
,,. cot11P8"
gnoto lgnltlOh--eyatem•
. J •. a( (icqueot

~~.COU
"" ..-·-
To ovcrromc .11.bovc dtffku Od
muJntcm1nce or brwct cootacU.
.
. ~~· c>f po-•ct"
· • . tiugcd eu:..
~

srr'.:. . :. ,,! ..·.u-cto . . ·. ·.~-

. .Jpltlon -.M.-&lltt~.lgnfJJ(m .
.: ' efficiency, ~lllr1ing dlfficuldet if b:dtay as dlie
. .· . ·. - .;
J-;fces
~ ' r. I' ,' solid Jta/.I' uc--
~ .... '
#
. thr modem m1tomohllu uu IM 1() 1QM>il18 ·
\
~~rovides high It provide ti low for 11:11/tlon .ay1ttm.
1. sity spark 111 low intcn11ity tipark ul low
inlCJl· . · Typn of aoUd stM.o
spCCl1~
. uml low 1ntens1ty i;pccds and high
· k ul high speed!! of interniity spark al high
dwlcea for Jgntuon aylt.Mn
spar .

[_.-
z. ---
tho engine.
It needs excessive
nutintcnancc of hallcry
system.
!ipecds.

It docs not n~ any

maintenance since the
battery is elimfoatcd.
(f)

(Ii)
Tra.n~l!.ed coJ i!Jr-1'.iOO ~ (TC1 ~)
Capacity D~ l~ u~JltTl (COt e_r-!em) '

i.-- .....----- . Fig. C2.12 : Types o( solid state devkes (or ignltloo
3, system 1s less reliable System is more system
compared to magneto reliable compared lo
system. battery coil system.
Syllabus Topic : TransJstorized coll Asalsted
~Cost of system is low.
i-- Ignition System
Cost of system is high.
4.
~
System is lighter in
5. System is heavier due to 2.20.2 Transistorised Coll Ignition (TCI)
battery weight. weight. For this reason
it is preferred for System
aero-engines.
..- TCI system has now almost replaced tbe conventional
6. Variation of ignition Variation of ignition
timing can be achieved timing battery ignition system for automobile applications.
cannot be
easily without affecting achieved easily This system has been found to offer decided advant:iges
the spark intensity. without affecting the
in handling the increasing voltage required for high
spark intensity.
~
performance of the engines, longer spark plug life.
1. It occupies more space. Occupies less space. reduced wear, maintenance of ignition system and high
- reliability.
Syllabus Topic : Electronic Ignition Systems
r;jf- Components and Working of TCI system
2.20 Electronic Ignition System Fig. 2.20. l shows the schematic diagram of TCl system
which retains the contact breaker point of the
+ (MU - May 12)
conventional design.
Universit Question
In this case the contact points are connected to the base
of transistor which is further, coruiected to the primary
windings of the ignition coil. Therefore, in this method
2.20.1 Limitations of Conventional Ignition the current flow in the primary circuit, through the
System
contact points is reduced to approximately 1/10th of the
- Pitting of contact breaker points leads to time errors original value o~ a conventional system.
and consequently the loss of power. It results into
frequent maintenance problems.
- Bouncing of the moving arm of CB points at high
speeds leading to weaker sparks. ·
- Lower spark voltage at high speeds.

Scanned w ith CamScanner

in: ,~, ,

I"·'\
J
" I , '

:-:1
I' 1 1

' i

~.I.e. En Ines MU·Sem. V·Mech

i .•

2-30 S.I. Engines (Fuel suppl S s, I nltion & CombiJ811~·L,

Soooodlly Winding
5 llabus Topic : contact TCI system With " -.
Y contactless Breaker · · . " ·

" Primary wi1dtng

2 1 TCI system with Contactless
2.20.•
~~y
twtldl
1 f
Ballast
raslllor Breaker .,'•
(R 1)
· ·.The advantag~s of using an electronic switch in Place ·
' I
t
I
Blltely
+
= Emil!«
(E)

Tranlll•lor
·ofmechanical contact breaker are: . . .
(i) There is no erosion and wear due to absence of any
. .

'
contacts.
(ii) Accurate ~p~k timing is available at all operating ,
CO!locto.-
(C) speeds.
(iii) It is maintenance free. . , ·
(iv) Build up time for the ig?ition coil. can be Varied by .
changing the dwell pen~ to suit the conditions.
Fig. 2.20.1: Transistor Coll Ignition (TCI) System Advantage is that we get ~gb ene~gy output from coil
at high speed without h~vmg any nsk of HT erosion at

______..,
In thi$ system, the emitter (E) of the transistor is low speeds. ·
connected to the ignition coil through ballast The layout of the contactless breaker system is shown
resistor (R 1) and the collector (C) to the battery. in Fig. 2.20.2.

When the C.B. points open, the base circuit is disrupted

and the current in the primary circuit decays causing
the nonnal induction operation.
However, the base circuit being much smaller as •' . .·.. ');~~

compared to the primary current, it reduces the ~~l~~jtJij

Ignition Distributor
magnitude of current flow in the C.B. points switch assembly'
.I considerably.
It improves the life of C.B. points. The current build up
is faster as the inductance of primary ?Oil is reduced.
Solid st.Ste central module
er Advantages of TCI system
Fig. 2.20.2 : Layout of TCI System With Cootactless
'1
1. Higher ignition voltage and a long duration of spark Breaker
2. Reduced wear of C.B. points. It has the distributor unit which is similar . to
conventional system except that it is provi~ with an
3. Consistency of spark voltage over the entire speed electronic switch called a pulse generator. This electronic
range switch replaces the contact breaker of TCI system
4. Increased dwell and less contact bounce. The pulse generator of solid state control module
generates an electrical pulse to signal when the spark is
c:r Disadvantages of TCI system required. Therefore, this control module makes and breaks
electronically the primary current for the ignition coil by
1. Sxstem requires the contact breaker points of the amplifying and processing the signals received from the
conventional system for timing the spark. However, the pulse generator.
wear of C .B. points is reduced due to low breaker In addition, the solid state control module senses the
currenL speed of the engine from the pulse frequency and
accordingly it varies the dwell time according to the speed
2. The maximum speed of engine is governed by the of the engine.
limitations of contact breaker mechanism. System can use various types of pulse generator like
inductive pulse generator developed by Bosch, Hall pulse
generator which works on the principle of hall effect etc.
 2-31 S.I. En Ines Fuel Su

-
·- . .. , ...
-~ ~ .

..

-=-Battery
+

~E
Fig. 2.20.3 : Capacity Discharge lgnitJon (CDI) System

- 1be condenser i~--~harged to this output voltage of the starting of engine.

converter throu~h the charging resistance._ 6. Secondary induced voltage is independent of engine -1
_ 1be resistance is so designed that it controls the· speed (refer Fig. 2.20.5), therefore probability of
required current in the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) engine misfiring even with fouled spark plugs is
and it also increases the damping in the spark plug. eliritlnated.
3
1be condenser is discharged when the SCR triggering
........
device sends a pulse and produces a high voltage in the ci.
secondary which subsequently jumps across the air gap ! 2
between the electrodes of the spark plug producing a
I '
' spark. ~

0
2.20.4 Advantages of Electronlc System over 1 2 3 4 6
.. Conventional System Engine speed x 1000 rpm

The advantages of electronic ignition system over Fig. 2.20.4 : Comparison of current drawn between
eonventional battery coil ignition system are.: conventional and CDI systems
COi system
1. Avoids contact break points and their frequent
maintenance.
2. Gives better cold starting ~ince the syst~m draws high
current at low speed and low current at high speed, just
. the reverse of conventional system.
3. System provides constant- voltage to spark plug at all
· speeds.
4. .Improves the efficiency of the engine.
S. Current drawn from battery is less at low speeds and Engine spee_d x 1000 rpm
. increases with the increase in speed. of the engine as
·shown in Fig. 2.20.4. It improves the low speed Fig. 2.20.5: Comparison of secondary voltage induced
between conventional and CDI systems
efficiency of ignition system and allows easy cold

Scanned with CamScanner

 r-.

";k"\?J;:i;1.c;·;E~n~gl~ne~s~M~U=-S~e~m~.~V-=M~e=ch~);::=;::;;:::;::d
Syllabus Topic: Spark Plug l:'./
2~-3~2~x.~
\~\ -\=~. S ~ . I ~ .
e ; n ~ g ~ l n ~ e s ~ F ~ u e ~ l ~ S
6
~ u~:s~s·:':n:lt~lo~n~ & ~ C ~ o ~ m ~ b u ~ s ~ u ~
Fig': 2.21.l(n) shows the cross-section ofa spark plug.
,.

It consists of central porcelain insulator through Which ·

2.21 Spark Plugs an electrode pn5ses. ,.

~ (MU· May 1&) it has external contact at the top to wire from ign.ition
Universit Question ,
'f"
r .. " ; ;;~. ~ •, ,'' • ,• • •.· '
, ..'· coil.
' r.. ~··· .. .~) ~\' ·' . . . . . : ' ··.. ; . . ,, ·...
:.~;:~:~)Y.hat ~.r~:tha 'reqUlfem~ntS for spark plu'g·7·" There is metal screw which is fastened into the cylinder
·~)~"~ ~..--:::·... ~.
.. ~ .. .. ......· --~~·~; .:· { :-.. . ~.. '~ '
head. ~ .........
· Insulator and the metal screw arc gas tight sealed.

rA-o.---- Poroelaln "'" Definition of spark gap

.Insulator
:on ..the -. bf?ttom. ·of·~tal ;sc~ew ,:a.·:.inetai
w
~~--Central electrode
DEFlKITIOll
;to~ is~elded..IJ!h~ch:is. ~~nt a~ l~.s JUsi
,.belotf ~~· ~entral ~~~~r,~°1;,.;~:'f //'M:z~ ~(lP.
Gas tight seal called sp<:irk gap. · . .' " . .. · ,. . ,,.-· #:, '< .
The spark plugs are designed to ~ater for various
____________ls r1< requirements of the engine. to give good spark. The
I.!:::::== ~----------J pa gap significant parameters are :
Metal tongue (i) Two or four stroke engine
(a) Spark plug
(ii) Compression ratio
(iii) Cylinder head design and location of spark plug

(iv) Mixture density

(v) Speed of engine
(vi) Cooling arrangements
(vii) Octane value of fuel.

'?:9.. Function
Insulator (Ceramic)
Its function is to receive high voltage ignition current
from secondary coil of ignition system and. to supply
Sealing compound spark to combustion chamber of engine cylinder which
jumps across its electrodes.
Special
conductive Rust resistant
2.21.1 Types of Spark Plugs
seal sheD
Center Spark plugs are classified as :
Captive gasket
eleclrode
I. Hot spark plug 2. Cold spark plug
I
Readl
Internal seal
(Gasket)
The above classification is based on the operating

Location-
L Insulator nose
(Core nose)
temperature at the tip of electrodes.

r- ~::::====E--- Spark gap r:r Definition of cold plug

spacing
Ground electrode
DEW
FlNITI
JJ~" ;~;~~~(P!.#c :o/:~i(a ~$fo<;-r{ dnU" ilitcii:'C:~ilirdi
(b) t J
""'
~electrode ci:nJ··ms!!
. 'fl..·?.' • ,;,,,~·: ,y,,
· ;:'z""'tr~:',~·-"·1
·'1'~~"*n·~~·'4".''' ·.:~,,.;:r:,:
Cl. or. w~ ir,un(·c®ler.,. an<l.
·'t •'• / k"'f '"·},,"
,:.
Fig. 2.21.1 ~::. • '.').">";:} ,,-,,,~ t (.f..\"1 ;;t,; o,f. ' f,>''.~!-1'-.·-"((j rilY).'i'i '~-../. '(.
·J' is· · nown aircoldp. lug .f ':i"';'.::c·,.:,/.t:~~ .;«'9~: 1!if
·•'-<'\•
· · ·· · . r·t.·,.~(~·~.:;l"ft:>- ·f ~1~~~~J

$conned with Ca mScanner

 - · . . & Combustion
·~ t.C. En ines (MU-Sem..V-Mech . 2•33 S.I. En ines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition
. Id be. rovided such
p,

It requires that spark advance sbou

. . bo t 50.100 after .
that the peak pressures occur at a u . · .
. d "tb ·a mechanism
t·.' ' TDC.Most of the engines are fitte WI · -
- d'
which is the integral part of the is utn'b tor to regulate
.

The temperature .at the tip of electrode .depends :upon the optimum spark advance.
the magnitude of beat transferred which in- tum The two mechanisms used f~r this purpose ~e : :
depends upon the length of heat transfer, path and the
area exposed to combustion heat. . Claaslflcatlon of spark
advance mechanism
The bot and cold spark · plugs are shown in
Fig. 2.21.2(a) and Fig. 2.21.2(b). (i) Centrifugal spark advance mechanism

A bot ronning spark plug has much lower rate of heat (Ii) Vacuum spark advance mechanism
uansfer as compared to cold running spark plug.
Fig: Cl.13 : Cl~ification of spark advance i:nechanism
2.22.1 Centrifugal Spark Advance .M echanism

The speed advance is obtained by attaching the ~reaker

to weights as shown in Fig. 2.22.1.
I

As the engine speed increases, the movem~nt of

weights under centrifugal force advances the angular
(a) , (b)
position of the cam relative to the drive shaft.
Fig. 2.21.2 : Types of spark plugs
In this new position, the points open at an earlier time
A cold plug has short heat transfer path compared to
than before and therefore the spark is advanced.
bot plug as shown in Fig. 2.21.2(a). Thus a cold plug
will have short insulator tip compared to hot plug. It
avoids overheating of cold plug from combustio~ Fly weights
chamber.
~ Advantage of hot plug

Tue hot plug is used to avoid cold fouling when the

combustion temperatures are low during the idling and :cam
low load running of the engine.
~ Advantage of Cold plug

Cold p~ugs are suitable for high speed engines. lt

avoids pre-ignition in the engine.

Syllabus Topic: Spark Advance Mechanisms- Yoke

Requirements and Working, Mechanical and
Vacuum Type Mechanisms Fig. 2.22.1 : Centrifugal spark advance mechanism

2.22 Spark Advance Mechanism 2.22.2 Vacuum Spark Advance Mechanism

It bas already been discussed in section 2.17, that the Jn this mechanism, as shown in Fig. 2.22.2, the vacuum
spark advance (Refer Fig. 2.26.1) must be correctly advance is obtained by attaching the movable breaker
regulated automatically to ensure maximum power and plate to a diaphragm which is held . ill full retard
efficiency at varying loads and speeds. position by a s ring.

.~~-······---
scanM<I ....m c amsca!Y'lef
 "'"' =·•.rmm>"N"'Wlllllll
' ' ·· ' ..-r~,~~~·

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2-34 s.1. Engines (Fuel Sup Sys, Ignition & Comb "\,,l,~~~.
~ I.~
Firing Order and Effect of Ignition Advance .. ·• ,~:.
Movable breaker plate Performance of the Engine · . °!':!· . _
~ :',
2.23 Firing Order for 1.C. Engines : ~·:

er Definition of firing order of the engine ~"·

~
The main factor considered for deciding the order
Pipe llneto firing the engme· cyl"mders are the balancin or
Intake manlfoic:ls 'b . g Of
reciprocating parts to reduce v1 rations, engine cooling
Fig. 2.22.2: Vacuum spark advance mechanism and the development to back pressure.

The breaker plate is supported in bearings so that it can By balancing the rotary and reciprocating Parts, the
tum with respect to distributor housing. unbalanced forces and couples transniitted to be~,.;ft
-u1gs
The spring loaded side of the diaphragm is connected of the engine shaft are reduced. .Considering a four
cylinder in-line engine. If the firing order is kept in lin
through a vacuum line to the intake manifolds through . e
the carburettor. as .1. 2, 3, 4, .. .,the exhaust of cylinder 2 will overlap
with the exhaust of cylinder 1. It would need the size or
er· Working exhaust pipe bigger in size otherwise the back pressure
on engine cylinder will increase and reduce the net
The working of the ~ystem is as follows :
work output.
(i) In the idling position, there is no vacuum advance.
Thus the firing order of the engine is d~cided baSed on
(ii) As soon as the throttle valve opens, it swings past the
the above considerations. For a four cylinde~ engine the
opening of vacuum passage. The . intake manifold
firing order is usually kept as 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3. The
vacuum can then draw air from the vacuum line and the
firing order 1-3-4-2 is more common in use.
air tight chamber in the vacuum advance mechanism.
Firing order for a six-cylinder in-line engine·used are:
This causes the di~phragm to move against the spring.
1-5-3-6-2-4, 1-5-4-6-2-3, 1-2-4-6-5-3 and 1-2-3-6-5-4.
The linkage to the breaker plate then rotates the breaker
The firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4 is commonly used.
plate. This movement carries the contact points around
so that the cam. as it rotates, closes and opens the 2.23.1 Effect of Ignition Advance on
points earlier in the cycle and .supplies spark at the Performance
spark plug earlier in the compression stroke. As the -+ (MU· May 15)
throttle valve opens wider, there will be less vacuum in
the intake manifold and less vacuum advance. At wide
open throttle, there will be no vacuum advance at all.
This will not be the case in the centrifugal advance
mechanism.
. Following are the effects of ignition advance on the
In most S.1. engines, advantage is taken of combination
performance of the engine.
of both the centrifugal and vacuum spark advance
1. Ignition advance must be such that the peak pressure
mechanisms.
occurs almost just after TDC (Refer section 2.29) to
obtain maximum power from the engine.

sennnOO with ComScann«

 ~ · En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2·35 S.I. En Ines Fuel Su
0
~1-· •xwres .is quite
. rate specific fuel consumption · first decreases and The combustion problem of sueh JJlJ
Z• B . F'1g. 2.23.1.
tlJCD increases as shown m complex and intricate.
. h cam'ed out in case of
. 1'be angle 0 ~fore TDC at which bsfc is minimum is However, the researc es
combustion of homogeneous mixtures in spherical
called the optimum angle or advance. At this point the bomb by igniting the fuel by a spark at a point have
. tfJeJ'lllal efficiency of the engine is maximum.
shown that there is a development of a name defined
.
as gas rendered luminous by /'b 1· o' chemical
1 era ion ~
. · · ·( n and
energy, which starts from the pomt of JgDl JO
spreads continuously in outward direction.
H the flame travels from the point of ignition upto the
end of combustion chamber without any change in
-20• -1e· -12• -a· -4" o• . speed and shape, the combustion is said to be no.rmaL
(TDC)

Angle of spark advance '9' r:r Definition of auto-Ignition

3,
FJg.2.23.1

The angle of ignition advance must be used as

recommended by the manufactures. Increased spark
w
DUDaTIOll

advance increases the spark plug temperatures due to r:r Definition of self Ignition temperature
increased maximum pressure and temperatures. It may
result into pre-ignition and detonation in SJ. engines.
(Refer section 2.31).

The auto-ignition of fuel is affected by various factors

like density of charge (mixture of fuel and air); its
· Combustion Related Concepts and Brief on temperature and pressure, turbulence and the air-fuel
Mechanism of Combustion
ratio.

2.24 Combustion Related Concepts . and r:ir Definition of flame front

Definitions

- The internal combustion engines derive their energy in

the form of heat by combustion of homogeneous
mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
An enormous amount of research has been carried out,
r:ir Definition of Spatial velocity
both theoretical and experimental, regarding the
burning of this homogeneous mixture, but in actual
practice the mixture inside the cylinder is never
homogeneous.
- The reasons for such existent of heterogeneous
mixtures in the cylinder may be non-uniform It has two components viz. transformation velocity and
distribution of fuel and air in the combustion chamber gas velocity.
or due to ~e dilution of mixture by the left over Former is defined as the relative velocity of bum d
residual (burnt) gases in the clearance space of the gases with which the flame front moves from burned ~o
unburned gases and it is the velocity by which the
cylinder of its previous stroke or for other reasons.
unburned gases approach the burning zone.

Sconned with CamSconneJ

 _·.·. 5;1
. ·. ~;~;'!

' ..J/1
~ LC. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2·36 S.I. Engines {Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition.& .Comb~~~

According to this theo:, a self sus~g chetiticai.·;.

·process consists
.
of different . reactions
•
. in "'"' ..
'!!Ch .
intennediate products are ~ormed m one step and 1hesc
are destroyed in a succeeding step. · _-

The intennediate products formed .. are .Called c~ ·

The main constituents of most fuels are carbon (C) and
carriers which may be free atoms like (H or 0)• lllay
hydrogen (HJ and their burning involves the rapid
be free radicals like hyd~oxyl (OH) and aldehydcs
. oxidation of C to CO or C02 and of H 2 to H 20 . Usually
(CHO) or . organic compounds like formaidehyde .
the combustion processes talce place in gaseous phase. (HCHO). A chain action consists of three Phast.
The requirement for initiating a combustion process namely
'·
are the presence of a combustible mixture of air and
(i) Initiation phase ·
fuel, a means for initiating the combustion, the
· (ii) Propagation phase
fonnation of a flame and its propagation across the
combustion chamber. (ill) Termination phase.

During its initiation phase the chain carriers are folllled

2.25 A Brief on Mechanism of
as follows:
Combustion H 2 ~ 2H
~ (MU • Dec. 13) 02 ~ 20
Un1versit Question H20~0H:f-H
.a.:-
.' Above reactions may take place either due to molecular
collisions or thennal dissociation or excitation from an
The term mechanism of combustion refers to reaction
electric spark.
by which the fuel is transformed chemically to
During propagation phase the combustion of fuel takes
combustion products e.g. consider the combustion of
place with propagation of flame front and release of
octane (Cg Hui) in presence of air,
heat energy. Simultaneously, during the period the .
Cg H 18 + 12.5 0 2 + 12.5 x 3.76 N2
chain branching reaction take pJac~ e.g.
~ 8 C02 + 9 H 20 + 12.5 x3.76 N2
OH+H2 ~H2 0+H
There are various theories which have been proposed
H+02 ~OH+O .
for combustion of fuel.
O+H2 ~OH+H
According to one of the theory, if above reaction is to
take place in one step, it is neces.sary that molecule of It could be seen that one (OH) group is destroyed by ·
combining with H2 but two new chain carriers are
octane fuel to collide with 12.5. molecules of oxygen.
formed which may start their own chain reactions and
But, from theory of probability it has been shown that
the reaction process may accelerate at explosive
the probability of one molecule colliding with more
velocity.
than three molecules is negligible. Hence, ~y compl~x
reaction involving more molecules must occur as a During the termination phase the chain breaking
series or chain reaction. reactions take place by absorbing the chain earners e.g.
cold combustion chamber absorbs chain came'rs to
Another widely accepted theory of combustion is
form soot on combustion walls.
known as chain reaction theory.

&:1:1m1t'<.I w 1lf1 Ct1m&:11r111t1r

 ·1
I
i

. NI MU·Som. V·Moeh
92.,.1.c.E · .
'{'he
ftl'fimc:ntAl r~1ul1.J tu.vc ._hown lhat at low
elt:~· Ii lnhiat(.d with the help ot • ..-cry tugti i~ ~k
"' ~.rJtllrt aml rret-'-~lt.A the forn~i~'tfl or chain PfO\'ldcd by a s.pnt. plug fcW dc,81tt1 bd{.)fl; &he end of
~leis 1, \"Cl')' r.luw with nc1ttl&lblc chuan liranc:h1ng
«nnprc~.,lon Jltloke.
. lhe
rt.t'd~t. 'Oil• 1'JtMi: bum_~ the fe..- rnolcculc.'l of rn.i.itutc rn
.,..l"lliurcs nho\ll 400"C, the rutc of reaction I• \'kinhy of ,~t. pp alld initi*-• the ~
/\I tcn1,-
biJh ..,.,_uM'
,.,...,.. tho chnln hrn.nchlng rcac1ionJ1 bec<nn11; fifC>Ce-" by tr~,fcr of t~ w mokctJ!a in
si"°'IOCJ\t. neighbourllOOd.
1'1ll'ft,I (lo.,
_ we concludo tlml tho combuMlon rciactlon•"'
Once a flame l~ cre:a1td. 1he ar.!vulC(:mC:tLt "' W'- ~
de!"~ upon : into the unburned mix.rure will &paid upon the me of
lil Rote ('If fonnution of chain carriers. he-at transrcr bet\liccn the fhmc and surrounding
envelope of unburned .nllxrure, tanper:illUC ~
.. Rate of dcsuuction of chain carriers.
lU)
pressure.
'") Tcntpcn1ture, pressure and density of the
(Ill
c;tplosivc mixtures. Though the mechanism of fbme ~cm is
unknown but the presence of flame it.self is the
Another accepted theory of combustion is known as
evidence of chemical rcactioo between the fuel and nit.
bydroXYlatlon theory which is based on kinetic theory
of gases.
A-Spm'&
ll suggests that the initial combustion of a hydrocarbon " e- 1gri15ai 1ag
ec-Prtr~c1r .....
roolccule with oxygen results into formation of
alcohols which in tum reacts with more oxygen to form
an aldehyde.
These aldehydes may either breakdown in CO and H 2 ____....__.__.______..___ -.J!.:::::..----__...._.__~':.":----e

10 eo 50 ~ 30 20 10 10 20 30 4D 50 so ro
or may completely burn into C02 and H 20 in a chain Comprnsicn _ __.,._ _ _ ~

reaction. Fig. 2.26.1 : Combustion stages in S.l. Engines

Syllabus Topic : Combustion Phenomenon In
To study the combustion phenomenon of these engines
s.1. Engines - Ignition Delay, Flame Propagation,
Pressure - Crank Angle Diagram the experiments were carried out by Recardo using a
quartz cylinder and employing high speed photography.
2.26 '<;9Zn Stages in S.I. Engines
·°\/""" + (MU - May 12, May 15, May 17)
The results arc sho\\'D on pressure (p) and crank
angle (0) diagram in Fig. 2.26.1. In Fig. 2.26. l curve
Universit Questions '
" ABMN represents the motoring curve i.e. when the
Q, Explain ·~arious stages· of combustion In S.t engi~es
. . ' Uiliiii engine is not firing and ABCD represents the actual

a.- Explaln:ln detail the various stages of combustion in combustion curve.

S.I. engi.ne. , W Point A represents the point of ignition where the spark
.a. Draw and explain the stages of combu~tion In SI
is supplied by a spark plug.
engin~ and effect various E'ngine "para~eters
the of
on combustion. .. ' " ... , .' mm ~ Definition of angle of spark advance
- In case of spark ignition engines, the combustible
DmXITlOllw
r----i The crank angle before T .D.C. at the instant
mixture of fuel and air is supplied in a desired ratio ' spark is given is called· angL? of spark
I

with the help of carburettor and the combustion process -advance.

Scanned with CemSCanner

 . · ·~
. ..
., ' ~.
.. .·~· ~.:" l ~

~R\?~r~1~.c~.~En~g~in~es~(M~u~~Se~m~.~V-~M~ech~)---------~------2~-38~~·---~s~.1.~En~~~·n~es~·~(F~u:el~~~~·~'g~n-itio_n_&~~· .
17' Various stages of combustion which is transferred fro~ burned to rin~ c~ ..
the flame propagates across the combustion chanibcr at . .
Based on the experimental results th~ combustion in
S.I. engines takes place in three stages as follows : high speeds. (almost at constant speed) in thC range Of

(15-35) m/s.
Stages of combustion
It is difficult to distinguish between these two Phases Of
combustion i.e. the phase of ignition lag and 0~
1.Period of Ignition lag or preparation phase
propagation phase.
2.Flame propagation phase
However, the start of second phase is considered ""~
3.After burning or flame termination phase
an appreciable pressure rise can be seen on (p ·• O)
Fig. Cl.14 : Stages of combustion diagram at point B and the second phase ends when ~

. . 1. Period of ignition lag or preparation phase peak pressure is attained in the cylinder i.e. at point C.

The experimental results have shown that there is a The slope of curve BC represents the rate of Pl'CSs11rt

certain interval of time between the instant of spark is rise.

given at point A and the instant the first tiny flame It should be noted that the rate of heat transfer to
reappears at point B which corresponds to the point cylinder walls is low at the beginning of this Phase
where there is a noticeable rise in cylinder pressure due
since only the small part of the burning mixture comes
to combustion.
in contact with the cylinder walls.
This time interval corresponds to period AB and this
The rate of heat energy released during combustion
period is called ignition lag or ignition delay period.
depends on the intensity of turbulence and the air-fuel
The angle turned by the crank between the points A and
ratio.
Bis called ignition delay angle.
~ 3. After burning or flame termination plwe
Ignition lag represents the period of pre~ame reactions
in which the chain carriers are formed as explained in
Actually the combustion is not completed at point c
though it represents the completion of flame travel.
the chain reaction theory of combustion.
It is due to the fact the burning continues .due to left
The ignition lag depends upon the molecular structure
over fuel and the reassociation of dissociated gases
of fuel, temperature, pressure, density, air-fuel ratio and existing in the combustion chamber.
the proportion of residual gases in the mixture.
This combustion beyond point C c.ontinues during the
-+ 2. Flame propagation phase · expansion stroke and it is called as after bUrning
representing the third stage of combustion upto
Once the self sustaining flame appears at point B, the
pointD..
flame travels outwards and burns the fuel in layers.
The flame velocity decreases during this phase of
Initially the rate of burning of fuel and flame speeds are combustion.
low with small rate of pressure rise. The effects of engine variables on ignition lag and

However as the combustion proceeds, the pressure and flame propagation are being discussed below.

temperature keeps on rising with heat energy release

Seonned wi1h CamScanntK

 .r ·. · Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech ...

t
2-39 S.I. En Ines Fuel Su
~ 10. En
~ Topic : Factors Affective Combustion i.:.. fc energy
The increased temperature increases the ....,.,e 1
,...SY'"~t of engine Variables on Ignition Lag · the rate of
1.1. fu ..- and flame Propagation of molecules which tend to mcrca.')C .
i: collisions and also the mobility 'o f reaction.
)" .

t ,_...~ttect of Engine Variables on Therefore ignition Jag reduces with increa.c;ed

1
,,. · ~~tlo~n~La;_...:::9--.~~~~~~~~ · temperatures. The cffeet of pressure and temperature on
f
ignition lag is shown in Fig. 2.27.1.
. vunous engine variables which affect the ignition
'fbC . · .. . (II) Compression ratJo
BS follows :
Higher compression ratio increases the · pressure and
Isl arc Engine vartables
affecifng Ignition lag temperature of the working substance.

(i) Pressure and temperature Therefore, the effect of increased compression ratio is
similar to inc~ased pressure· and · temperature as
(ii) Compression ratio
discussed above i.e. increased ·~ompression ratio
(iii) Mixture strength decreases the ignition Jag.

(iv) Residual gases .. (lll)Mhture strength

(v) Nature of fuel

It is observed that the ignition Jag is minimum,for about
10% rich mixtures as shown in Fig. 2.27.2.
(vi) Speed
Stoichiometric mixture
I
(vii) Electrode gap
I
• Lean I Rich •
Fig. C2.15 : Engine nriables affecting ignition lag mixture I mixture

I
-t' (I) ~and temperature I
I
_ At high pressures the molecules are nearer and their I
rate of collisions increases. It helps in forming the I
chain carriers and reduces the ignition lag. I
I
o .......--..---.----4----T"----r-------
18 40 60 80 100 120 140
Mixture strength (% STOICH) - - -
t 15
Fig. 2.27.2 : Effect of mixture strength on ignition lag

. . (iv) Residual gases

The residual gases in the combustion chamber dilutes

the mixture charge, consequently increases the ignition
lag.

Therefore, higher the amount of residual gases in

4000 6000 8000 proportion to fresh charge, higher will be the period of
Temperature (K) - - - ignition lag.
Fig. 2.27.1 : Effect of p, T on ignition lag
 ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-40
tion of electrode gap and ·cOm~~
. . (v) Nature of ruet flame as fu nc · ,· . ""II

ratio.
The ignition lag depends on the chemical nature of the the voltage required at the SI>ark pt. :.
.i..n
It is found uU&t • Ill& .
fuel. roduce spark is found to decrease \V" .
electrode to P · · 'lit
It is found that the fuels with higher self ignition
. fuel-air ratio and with decl'Casc ';
increase ID • IQ
. . tio and the load on the engine.
temperatures have comparatively higher period of compression ra
ignition lag.
2.28 Effect of E_ngine Variables on Flalbe
-+ (vi) Speed
Propagation ----.......
·
It has no effect in terms of time period but ·it shows in
terms of crank angle turned. Undcrstandi ng the effect of engine .variables on sn.....
r"'ll

of name prop agation has a large beanng on smoath ~

Therefore with higher speeds the ignition advance t'1on of the engine. These factors arc bci~
abnonnal opera "'8
should be increased.
discussed below :
-+ (\ii)Eltttrodc gap
Englno variables affecting
The air gap between the electrodes of n spark plug is Flamo Propagation
important from the point of establishment of nucleus of
(I) Compression ratio
flame.
lf the elcc-trode gap is too sm:i.ll, quenching of the finmc (Ii) Intake or suction pressure

nucleus may cx"'t'ur nnd the ran~e of working with rongc

(ill) Intake temperature
of air-fuel ratio is reduc:t-d.
(Iv) Air-fuel ratio
It is fwther affected by compression ratio, it is seen tbnt
the dC1:..~ !=-ap required reduC'CS with the incrc.:i.~ (v) Engine load
comprc:$Sioo ratios..
(vi) Turbulence
'-~
(vii) Engine speed

(viii) Engine size

Fig. C2.16: Engine variables alTecllng Flame Propagation

-+ (I) Comp~lon ratio

Higher compression ratios results in high density of the

f..0
mixture with higher pressures and temperatures.
These factors increase the number of collisions of
c~_.....~~-,.~~~.,...~~~T-~~---'-- molecules and the rate of heat transfer, therefore,
o o~ o'.s 0 .75 t .O
~ ga;i (trrn) hjgher compression ratios will increase the flame
speeds.
Flg,. 2.27.3 ! meet c.r dttt.rod.e gap on wr-fuel ratios
f-or a rompre~~ion ratio of 7 or higher a gap of -+ (II) Intake or suctJon pressure

0.625 mm. i.\ generally found ri.alisfactory. For It is similar to case of increased compression ratio,
Fig. 2.27.3 g ives the re.quired air-fud r.Jtio for swble
increase in intake pressure increases the flame speeds.

- ------· Sc:mned with camscanner

~
".
. . & Combustion)
2-41 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply S s, Ignition
. . . ·s the formation of
High velocity of incoDllDg cause all' ·. · . ·
small vortices and these are ~lieved to persist dunng
J{jgher the intake temperature, higher is die flame
compression and combustion processes.
speed· ·
These vortices i~crease th~ rate of heat transfer, ~ence,
-t (lv) Air-fuel rado
increases the flame speeds.
Chemically weak mixtures will give low temperatures ~Ac · are directly
It is found that the. flame s~ .
beCause of lesser chemical energy released. the g ine speed 15
proportional to engine speed. If en .
It reduces the rate of beat ~sfer and results into low doubled, the time required by the flame to traverse
· fiarne speeds. across the combustion chamber will be halved.
On the other band the rich. mixture will not have
. : uired by
Since the engine speed is doubled and tune req
_;..i,. le
sufficient oxygen to bum due to which carbon is burnt flame to travel is halved, it follows that the crwu.. ang
to co instead of C02 with less heat energy releases, (0 oc: N x Qrequired for the flame propagation will
again the flame speeds are low. nearly remain the same.
Therefore the correct or stoichiometric mixture will
-+ (viii) Engine sl.1.e
result into high flame speeds.
Generally the engines of similar design run attbe same
H~wever, due to dilution of fresh charge by the residual
piston speed. It follows that the smaller size engine will
gases, in practice, slightly rich mixtures are needed to
run at higher speed compared to larger engine, the
give high flame speeds.
proportion of .their engine. speeds being equal to
. . (v} Engine load proportion of their sizes.

With the increased loads on the engine, the cycle Since the pisto~ velocity is kept same for similar
pressure also increases, hence the flame speed engines, it would give the same intake air velocity,
increases. degree of turbulence and flwe speed irrespective of .
their sizes.
. . (vi) Turbulence
Consider tWo similar engines, one engine being double
The flame speeds are low in non-turbulent mixtures.
the size of other engine. The distance require.d to be
Due to turbulence the relative motion between the travelled by the flame in case of smaller engine would
burned and unburned charge increases and it intensifies be half that of the larger engines and the flame speed is
the rate of heat transfer between them. same for both the engines.
It results into higher flame speeds. It follows that the time required for flame travel for

The extent of turbulence present in the cylinder larger engine will be twice that of smaller engine.

depends upon the speed of the engine and the geometry Since the smaller engine woUld run at twice the speed
of the cylinder head and piston. of larger engine, the time of flame propagation in terms

. . (vii) Engine speed of crank angle turned would be same in both the
engines.
The piston speed is proportional to engine speed. Since
the inlet velocity of air is proportional to piston speed, Therefore we conclude that the crank angles turned by
it follows that the air velocity at inlet wiJI increase with the similar e_ngines for flame travel across the
increase in engine speed. combustion chamber will nearly be same irrespective
of their engine sizes.

Scanned with ComScanner

 ..
.· ,.
•,

I nlllon & Combu ... · ·

MU-Sem. V·Mach) 2-42 ' •tlori : .

m Syllabus Topic: Abnormal Combustion into high power output of tho engine whh high l'lllo or .

hcut losses.
2.29 Rate of Pressure Rise
Tho high rnto of prossuro rlso cnuses rough ru~ning or
tho engine duo to vlbrotlons nnd jerks produced on Iha
The rate of pressure dunng
. the combustion process hus
. a considerable m
· fluence
· on the peak pressures obtuined crankshaft.

and consequently it affects the power output nnd the However, In c1L~O tho mto of pressure rlso is very high,

smooth runmng
· of the engine. it muy croute the undosirublo situation of abnol'lttat
combustion called detonation.
The rate of pressure rise depends on the rate ut which
(Refer next sccdon 2.30).
the mass of mixture bums in the cylinder and the
ignition timing. Curves 11 and UT represent tho cusos of normnt nnd low
rates of combustion respectively.
Fig. 2.29. l shows the pressure-crank nngle diagram for
In these cuscs it ls necessnry to inllinte tho combustion
three different combuslion rotes.
enrlier in tho compression stroke since these cnscs
Curve-I represents the high rote of combustion s1nrting
require tonger limo for combustion of mixture
at point C with its peak pressure occurring closer to top
compurcd to the c11so of high rnto of combustion.
dead centre.
In these CIL">CS the power produced is reduced since lhc
Such pressures exert a l:irgc:r force.on the piston during
expnnsion work is reduced us it is evident from
its almost the entire expansion stroke, hence, results
Fig. 2.29.1.

Points A. B ond C
roprooont tho 8lart
Rllle ol pressure rise : of prossuro r1ao.
2S
1 - Hlgh l1lte
2 • Normal rate
3-Lownm

20

15 I
I
I
I
I
10 I
--T-'t--
C I \ ',,
: Motoring ' , ,
s I
I
c:urve ' ,......
II -----
. .
I
~.20~~~~B0~......;.;~-40l-......;.;;__TD~C~....;;...~4~0~~~00l-~__.:_J120
Compression 1 Expansion

Crank angle (Degrees)

Fig. 2.29. 1 : DitTett11l rates or combustJon

~nncd w ith C:imSc.,,..mcr

~-
- '

~IC Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-43 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System, Ignition and Comb.)

-::-Concluslons . . 'tion of
the ~l~y period and it would assist bi auto-1gru . .
froJD the above· discussion,·it is evident.that high rates fuel.
of coJDbustion, though develops high outp~t, it may The p~s of auto-ignition may follow several paths.
eause the undesirable condition of detonatio~. In case the flame is propagated from the point of
_ In vie~ of .this, . the engines are so designed and ignition in outward direction ·at normal · velocity of
I

operated in such a manner that approximately one-half propagation of (10 - 35) mis.
of the total pressure rise takes place by the time piston In such a case, the combustion and expansion of each
reaches at TDC. layer of mixture occurs at a unifonn rate .and more or
_ It results into peak _pressures and temperatures reaching less in unison with unifonn pressure rise throughout the
very close to the beginning of expansion stroke, combustion chamber, though the pre~sure ri~ is rapid.
approximately 10° after TDC. It refers to normal combustion.

_ It ensures smoo_th ~g of the engine with a very - However, in some cases a part of the . fuel may
sOlall power loss due to high rates of heat transfer and auto-ignite with rapid release o.f energy which is_much
· expansion work. more than the nqrIDal combustion because of multiple
flame fronts. Such combustion is called abnormal
- Syllabus Topic : Auto Ignition, Detonation and
combustion.
Knocking In S.I. Engines
-2.30 Theory of Detonation .and Knock
- . This rapid release of energy may. cause two types of
vibrations as follows :
- (i) In case a large amount of mixture auto-ignites, it will
give rise to a very rapid rise in pressure through the
combustion chamber.
If the pressure equalization takes place as soon as the
pressure rise. occurs, the gases will give a direct blow
on the engine structure.
- Ears will detect a thudding sound from this impact
_ Experimental results have shown that the auto-ignition
and as a result give rise to free vibrations of engine
parts. It is called knock.
of the fuel does _not occur simultaneously as soon as it
reaches to its self ignition temperature or higher (ii) The localised pressure difference arising due to

temperatures. instantaneous explosion of a part of mixture will cause

high pressure waves to travel across the combustion
r:r Definition of delay period
chamber at sound· velocity if the equalisation of

m pressure in combustion chamber is not fast enough.

These pressure waves travelling across the chamber at
very high velocity will be reflected back and forth
several times by the cylinder walls (as echo in room).
These gas vibrations can force the walls of the chamber
to vibrate at the same frequency as gas. An audible
sound or ping may be evident. It is called detonation.
- It is difficult to separate these factors, however, higher
It is very difficult to separate knock and detonation.
the pressures and temperatures of the charge lesser is

scanned ....·n:h CamSeanne-r

 . i :·:~
.. · , .:·
' '; . .:

S.I. 8llCf ~:-

~31 Detonation In S.I. Engines ff the combustion process b normal the PfeSsure or ·..
tr.j .
gas will aJmost be equal to ~ pressure WhcQ ~
.+ (MU .Doc.13' May 16' Dec• 16) flrunc fronl is about to re3Ch ID this end gas. .
..
l!lil~llllri•lil~!IMI ' " ,.

1f the ignirion Jag or ignition delay of the unbusncd t1ld .

. Q.. •Deeabo tha
~ phonomonon (>f dotornitlon In Sf . ga.~ is consumed before ~ fl~ ~ont reaches it, 'be
enginoa With ttlO holp or P • o and p • pk>to. y · d part of the charge will auto-1grute bccawc it . ·
en . . ua.
,
l·J~!IEI much higher temperature r.h.an its M!ff ignj~
~ a.
.
. What Is detonation ? emm temperature.
0. DeScribo
the phenomonon or knocking In S.l. 11iis auto-ignition of end gas is completed in ~
-~es wi~ the help of p-0 ond P-V Plots. negligible time and causes a viole.nt press11re iUc due lo
' ..
'
••1'1-lill extremely high rate of liberation of chenticaJ cncr8>'
In an S.I. engine once the spark is supplied at the spark and almost at constant volume.

plug and a flame nucleus is fonned, the flame travels This rise in ·pressure of end gas is almost (3-4) tinq
across the combustion chamber in an orderly manner. the anticipated peak pressures with normal combustion.

1be pressure keeps on increasing continuously and This large pressure differential caused by the
unifonnly throughout the combustion chamber. auto-ignition of e~d gas results into severe Pf'CSsurt
~aves travelling across the combustion chamber at
lbe peak pressures are . nonnally attained when the
very fast speed.
flame reaches far side of the combustion chamber.
The pressure wave is reflected back and forth scvcn1
Let us focus our attention on last part of the charge
times by the cylinder walls and sets the engine pans
called end gas in the combustion chamber as shown in
vibrating, giving rise to a pinging or ringing sound and
Fig. 2.31.1.
the detonation is said to occur.
The flame originating at point A travels across the
We conclude that detonation will take place lo ~
combustion chamber upto point E. The end part of the
of S.I. engines if,
gas is represented by DED'. This end gas has
experienced rapid compression during the compression (a) End part of the charge reaches to its self ignition
stroke and later on by advancing flame front. Therefore temperature and its delay period is over.
the pressure, temperature and density of end part of the (b) The flame does not reach the end part of the
gas is high. charge.

p
8 p
\ \
\
\\
' '
\\ \
\

\ I I
I I I
I I I
@ I I I
I I I E End charge
A I I I
I I I
I I I
I I f
I I I
I /

v 8' C' TDC

(p - V) diagram (p - 9) diagram

Fig. 2.31.1 : Combustion with detonation in S.I. engine

Scanned w it h CamScanf'\er
 . . mb
~ l.C. en Ines (MU-Sem. V·Mech) 2-45 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply S stem, Ignition and Co ·

effect of Detonation In s.1. Engines its temperature to a great extent. It may alter th.e
electrical characteristics of spark plug and render It
tteets of Detonation In S.I. Engines useless.

+ (MU-Dec.13, Dec.15, May 16) . . 4. Noise and roughness

.~ ' ·~ '~·

ti4t.JUl•mt+,1([.]M : ': .: ... ::. .. ·. '" .: . g~

' , I ·;., I • • • ' •

i•' I' :: ·~ The vibrations in the cylinder cause .the engine

~ . ,,·, • .···· · .. " ' · .. • .,
1.b.:.; .·e,c~~!n th.a p~enomenon ·of a pre-lgnhi.on. Expl.al~,: parts to· vibrate and the engine runs rough because of.
; ::_~ -h~~ , pre-Ignition leads to detonation .
I .,' :: .,\, . ' ' , • ' .
and Vtee '. ~ :
. •
this vibratory motion.
; ;-: t"''. ·ve'fsil:. . . :· l11JMFI
. . 5. Power and efficiency
·0 ~,, ~:writ~ ·~. n~ie on e~te~ts .on det~natton: ' · ·1..14al0-I
•

.Q: "
I·~~ ' "'.... ( I • ,'

What are Its effects?

''·~ ' . ~·• I , ~
·
' \ • t' t J ( .~.
, . :. ·
"
·· ·
Due ~o high rate of heat transfer i.n case of detonating
engine the power output and its thennal efficiency
following are the harmful effects of detonation.:
.. decreases .
Effects of Detonation
In S.I. Engines ~ 6. Pre-Ignition

Due to high rate of heat transfer and increased

1. Mechanical failure
temperature .of hot gases, it may cause local heating at
2. local melting of piston and rings certain spots in the combustion chamber and especially
3. Ov~f't!eating of spark plug the spark plug may become red hot. In such a case it
will ~t as ignition source to ignite the mixture of fuel
4. Noise and roughness
and air before the supply of spark, thus causing
5. Power and efficiency
pre-ignition. This pre-ignition may lead to auto-ignition
6. Pre-ignition and detonation of the engine causing severe damage to
the engine before the pre-ignition is detected.
Fig. C2.17 : Effects of Detonation in S.I. Engines
Pre-ignition can be detected by shutting off the
.. 1. Mechanical failure
ignition. If the engine continues firing, it is possible that the
High rate of pressure rise and the severe vibrations of engine is subjected to pre-ignition.
engine parts may lead to their mechanical failure like
erosion of piston crown, pitti~g of cylinder head and 2.32.1 Surface Ignition
valves etc.
Surface ignition relates to the combustion detonation in
.. 2. Local melting of piston and rings S .~. engines caused by factors other than the spark. Hot

surfaces are formed on the spark plug electrode, hot

Because of ~pid release of heat energy in a very short
interval of time, the heat transfer rates increase and carbon particles deposited on the surface of combustio~

give rise to high .temperature gases compared to normal chamber or hot exhaust valve head etc.

combustion. These high temperature gases may cause These hot spots/surfaces may initiate combustion
local melting of piston and rings. without a spark.

.. 3.. Overheating of spark plug , Surface ignition may occur before pre-ignition or after
the normal ignition. It is not necessary that the ~urface
Due t~ vfolent gas vibrations, the hot gases flow
repeatedly in and out of spark plug cavity and increase ignition will cause detonation.

,- -- - - - -- ·-- ·--·
~. l.C. En lnoo MU·Soi'n. V·Moch 2·46 8.f. En Inoa Fuol su S tem, I ltlon and~. · ·.

Pollowlns uro the cffectK of Hurfuce Ignition : Syllabus Topic : Factor• Affecting Detonauon
Effoota of aurfac.
Ignition
2•33 Effect of Engine Variables on.
'
Detonation In S.I. Engines
(n) Run·on nurfnco lonlllon ---~~~~==-=:.;.:;;...~:.--------......

fl has been seen that the deionation in S.I. engine let$

(b) Aun uwuy nurfoco Ignition
in lf the end part of the gaA auto-ignites before the flaznc
(o) Wiid ping front reaches it. The tendency IO detonation will be r~
if the fuel hall Jong ignition Jag, high S.J.T. and high tlaznc
(d) Rumblo
11
pcc<ls or reduced time for flame travel. Therefore the <>nsct
l•'lg. C2. I8 : EITcclli of Hurfucc Ignition of detonation is very dependent on the properties of fuel.

-+ (n) Run-on 1111rface lanltlon Hen~, those engine variables which tend to incr~
the ignition lag and increase the flame speeds would tend to
It relu1e11 to engine which kcep11 on firing even if the reduce the detonation tendency.
Ignition aystcm Is shut-off.
The faclOrs are :
-+ (h) nun awny 1mrfucc lgnltJon Effect of Engine Variables on
Detonation In 5.1. Engines

It relates to continuous firing by the engine because of

1.lntake temperature
the very high hot surfuce temperature. This may cause
2.lntake pressure
server detonation, melting of piston/piston rings or
even the engine may catch fire when the intake valve is 3.Compresslon ratio
open. 4.lgnltlon advance
. . (c) Wiid ping
5.Coolant temperature

Wild ping relates to occasional and sudden knocking of 6.Englne load

the engine. It may be caused due to ignition by some
7.Englne speed
fragments of glowing deposiLc; which breaks away from
surface of tJ1c combustion chambe;. This occac;ional 8.Air-fuel ratio

wild ping will stop a..c; soon this break away fragmenLc; 9.Engine size
of hot particle leaves the engine alongwith exhaust
1O.Combustion chamber design
gases.
11.Location of spar1< plug
-+ (d) Rumble
12.Type of fuel
Engine ls said to rumble if the abnormal pressure rise
Fig. C2.19 : Effect of Engine Variables on DctonatJon in
due to 1mrfoce ignition causes detonation, low noise and
S.I. Engines
vibrations of the engine. It may be caused due to
. . 1. Intake temperature
ignition at sever.ti hot spoL'> formed on the surface of
combustion chamber before or after the normal spark. Increm;cd intake temperature reduces the delay period,
therefore, increases the detonation tendency. However,
it should be noted that the increased temperatures also

Scu r 11~ with Ct11 r6c11111~

fg[ 1.c.·Engines MU-Sem. ~-Mech) 2-47 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supp S stem, Ignition and CorTib.)
.. increases the flame speed, ·thereby, reducing the speeds while the effect on the delay period is
detonation tendency;
negligible.
:sut. the effect of increase temperature h
as more Due to this the increased speed of the engine reduces
ronounced effect on delay period comp"-..1
P . ...~to flame
the detonation tendency. '.
speedS due to which the detonation tenden is
increased with increase.in intake temperature. cy . . 8. ·Air-fuel ratio

It has been mentioned earlier that about 10% rich

mixtures have the minimum delay period and the flame
· intake pressure increases the density
. Increased . of
speeds are high.
charge and reduces the delay period but ·
· mcreases the
f]a01e speed. The overall effect . is to increase the But, it is obser\.ed that the effect of slightly rich
detonation tendency. mixtures on delay period is more do~ant compared
to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency
.+ 3, Compression ratio
increases.
Increased compression ratio increases both th
. e pressure . . 9. Engine size
and temperature and reduces the delay period, hence,
the tendency to detonation increases. Similar engines of various sizes have the delay_period
. nearly the same. However, in case of larger sized
.+ 4. Ignition advance engines the flame has to travel longer distance of
Advancing the spark timing incre~s the peak combustion space compared to smaller sized engines.
pressures of the cycle and thus reduces the delay period Therefore, the larger engines have more tendency to
of end part o_f the gas in the combustion chamber, detonate compared to smaller engines.
hence, te_ndency to detonate increases.
+ 10. Combustion chamber design
.+ ·S. Coolant temperature
In general, more the Compact .combustion chambers,
Raising the coolant temperature will increase the shorter will be flame travel and combustion .time,
cylinder wall temperature and reduce the heat transfer hence, it will give better anti-knock characteristics.
rate between gas and cylinder walls. Also, if the combustion chamber design is such that it
- Increased temperature of the gases would reduce the promotes turbulence then the flame speed will increase
delay period and increase the detonation tendency. which would reduce the te~dency to detonate.
For above reasons the combustion chamber are
. . 6. Engine load
designed nearer to spherical shape to redu~ the
Higher loads on the engine increases the heating of the distance of fl~e travel and shaped in such a way to
engine and reduces the delay period. Therefore the promote turbulence
increased loads increases the detonation tendency of
. . 11. Location of spark plug
the engine.
It is for this reason the spark igni~on engines are never In case the spark plug is located centrally in the
overloaded. combustion chamber, it reduces the length of flame
travel, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate. The
. . 7. Engine speed
flame travel can also be reduced by using two or more
Increase in engine speed increases the turbulence in the
spark plugs.
combustion chamber thereby increa5ing the flame
 ~ l.C. En Ines MU·Sem. V-Mech) 2-48 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System, Ignition and Comb.).
-+ • • Methods of control of Delo.nation an(t
12. Type or fuel 2 33 1
Knocking In S.I. Engines
The fuels with lower self ignition temperature or with
its greater preflame reactions will have more tendency
The detonation in s:1..engines can bC controiled by

to detonate. following methods :

Fuels of paraffin series have maximum tendency to 1. .By tet!!ding the spark timing.

detonate and of aromatic series have minimum By increasing turbulence by way of increasing the
2.
tendency to detonate. speed of the engine.

The naphthalene series fuels come in between the two. By m8.king mixture of fuel - air supply too rich or too
3.
wever it will reduce the power output and
Table 2.33. l gives the general summary of engine ean. Ho
1 ,
efficiency of the engine.
~ariables affecting the. detonation in S.I. engines. .
Table 2.33.1 : Effect or engine variables on detonation in By reducing the pressure· in the intake marufold.s by
4.
S.I. engines throttling.

5. By increasing octane rating by fuel by ad~g the .

dopes.
6. · Use of water injection in the cylinder whlch will reduce

-
the flame temperatures and increase the delay period. .

1. Intake reduces increases increases

Syllabus Topic : Types of Combustion Chambers
temperature for S.I. Engines .
2. Intake reduces increases increases
pressure 2.34 Objectives of C~mbustion Chamber
3. Compression reduces increases increases Design for S.I. Engines
ratio

4. Advancing reduces negligible increases + (MU· Dec. 14, Dec. 15, Dec.17)

ignition
advance
5. Coolant . reduces slightly increases
temperature increases
6. Engine load reduces increases increases

7. Engine speed negligible increases decreases

8. Air-fuel ratio increases reduces reduces
beyond 10%
Jean
mixtures
A combustion chamber needs to be designed to meet
9. Engines.iie nil time increases
factor the general objectives of developing hlgh power output and
hlgh high thermal efficiency with smooth running of engine and
10. Turbulence negligible increases reduces minimum octane number requirement of fuel with least
emissions. In order to achieve these objectives, following
11 . Distance of negligible increases increases
.. flame travel factors are to be kept in mind while designing the·
combustion chambers of S.I. engines.

scanned with cnmsconner

-·-
~1.c.E
2.35 DHforon1 Typd of Combu•tlo~,.
1tn1th of f1arM lratrl from tho • J)Att plug th ti-.::
1. :~~ l"1lnt ~houl~ be hpl ml11lmu111 to avullS
Jr(tlllltlon piol1lern.
Chamber• for SJ. EngJM• tn -· -
< lfTJAJJ.fU.ill (f~l);kLIS
• ,. 1\•c:S tho pl"oblcm of l<X'ution t>f •f)llfk )'IUJ cirM.I J!cw hllf KJfl.¥M lypri of SJ , ((
10 0
JI of C<ltnh\uli\lll cJuunbct. U~u111Jy lllO ~patl, Jlllltlll med 1uc l1th1HcUe&~'"~'j liG~ :
~1\11~-.-:iitcd 111 thc centnal locntlon 01· In ~m.c r'l\C\ durtl
art k ptug 11 arc uM-d . Also, tho ~lu•pc uf' l'ombu•tlon
~r-1' "'"fli sjl(IUIJ bo 111t for M po&1dhle •11IK"rlc11I to
ctilllt\V•·
rt<fik.'C the length of flume trnvc:I.

·hic''O high 1'1.e00 or nam~ pro5u1pUon an

., 'f1.1 "' . •
... uatc amount uf turbulence nlso en~ures mhrc
_ , i....i
llU'·I
ll(llOOS('n<'ous nu:r.turo' ' away tt.e layer of
by scourmg

5tag n"'' 0
~nt 1.11L.<; clinging to the chamber walls. However
. '
....csivc turbulence should be avoided since it
~~~ .
increases the heal transfer losses to cylmdcr walls and 2.35.1 T·Head CombuatJon Chamber
affccts the thermal efficiency of the engine.
. ,..l~, h '™'.-n iu
. . l.
should have small surface to volume rJ.tio to ll1is rype of rombIDUOO C1w.u 1~
3 11 . . . 0~...ntrte
· minimise heat losses. A hemispherical shape provides Fig. 2.35.1 . It w.u u~ by ford in 1900 bul 1f U
minimum surface to volume ratio. today.
It should provide large area to the inlet and exhaust
4.
valves with ample clearance around the valve head. It
(i) It needs rwo c;im shafts to Of)C'tUlt' e:ich vtJ.,·c
reduces the pressure drop across the valves, therefore,
improves the volumetric efficiency. Use of sleeve separately.
valves are said to have low tendency to detonate tus more tendency to
(ii) Long flrunc tra\'cl, thcll:forc. it
compared lo poppet valves due to absence of any high detonate. Compression ratios wen" limited to 5 : I.
temperature area.
(iii) Has high surfac.c:-\•olume nuio.
s. Exhaust valves should not be located near the end gas
location of combustion chamber to reduce the
possibility of detonation since these valves are hottest
spot in the combustion chamber.
6. The combustion chambers should be so designed that it
can burn largest mass of the charge as soon as the
ignition occurs with progressive reduction in the mass
of charge burned towards the end of combustion. Intake

7. Exhaust valve head is the hottest region of combustion

chamber. It should be cooled by water jacket or by Cyli'lder

other means to reduce the possibility of detonation.

8. Octane number requirement of fuel increases with bore
at the same piston speed when other factor remaining Fig. 2.35.l: T-head cornbu<itlon chambers
the same. Combustion time and cylinder inner surface
temperature also increase with bore. For this reason the 2.35.2 L-Head or Side Valve Combustion
S.I. engine cylinder diameters nre usually limited to Chamber
lOOmm.
Original fom1 of L·head combustion chambc~ used
9. Thickness of cylinder walls should be unifonn to avoid
upto 1930 is shown in Fig. 2.35.2. The top surface o f the
non-unifonn expansion.
combustion chamber is in the fonn of a nut slnh. It~ intake

ni.......__.

Scom.00 with CornScDn ner

 '.::.: . J

~I.e. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 2-50

S.I. Engines (Fuel Suppl System, Ignition Bild ~ / ::

The Recardo com~ustion . chamber ovcn:Otncii ·lbe:~

valve and exhaust valve are kept side by side with spark
disadvantages expenenced m the ~head COfllb~ .. .
plug location above 'the valves. Length of the combustion .
chamber covers the entire piston and val~e assembly. chamber.

Combustion Recardo combustion chamber provides a lurbulctit

head. ,.

_....._......- Spark plug

Combustion
chamber

Extiaust

Fig. 2.35.2 : L-bead combustion chamber

rr Advantages of L-head combustion chamber

(i) Easy to cast. Fig. 2.35.3 : Recardo turbulent combustion cluunber

.(ii) Easy to cany out maintenance. r:r The salient featur~s of this combustion
(ill) Easy to lubricate the valve mechanism. chamber
I.

(iv) Cylinder head can easily be removed, therefore,·

1. Combustion chamber provides high turbulence.
._decar~nizing can be carried out without disturbing the
' Because at top dead centre position only a thin layer of
val~e gear mechanism. - .
charge exists between the piston crown and combustion
r:r Disadvantages of L-head combustion chamber
chamber, due to this the whoie charge is pushed back in
(i). There is a loss of velocity of intake air since it bas to the combustion chamber during the compression
take two right angle turns before reaching the 'cylinder. stroke, therefore, it provides additional turbulence.
It results into poor turbulence.
2. Combustion chamber ensures a more homogeneous
(ii) Distance to be travelled by flame is more and it is super mixture of fuel and air by scouring away the layer of
imposed by poor turbulence, therefore, tendency to stagnant gas clinging to the chamber walls.
detonation is more. Compression ratio is limited to
4: 1. 3. The piston comes in dosed contact with the
combustion chamber head in .this design, it reduces the
(iii) Mixing of air-fuel is unsatisfactory.
effective length of flame travel. Hence, tendency to
(iv) It has low power and low thermal efficiency.
detonation is reduced.
2.35.3 Recardo Turbulent Combustion 4. Because of contact of piston with chamber the mass of
Chamber end gas is negligible. Therefore impact of detonation
will be negligible even if detonation occurs.
The design of combustion chamber .as suggested by·
Recardo in the year 1919 is shown in Fig. 2.35.3. 5. The detonation tendency is further reduced since the
However, modifications have been carded out in the end gas is a thin layer and it is cooled by comparatively
design given at Jater stages. cooler cylinder head.
''

Scanned with C;iomScanoef

~..::~·; ~·:·.:·.: l _ __., •: · ; •
• .'
. ~- . .- '

,. , ·- :
.. -.. '· ~: . " .,
·"' ....
~ --".' ' :·
·..
.·:__ . .. ·' .;:

<'~~i.c~·JE~n~l~ne:s~(:M~U~-Se=m~.~v~-M~ech~~~·-·---.-~2~-~s1~~·~s~.t~.E~n~ln:e:_s~(F~u:e~ts~u!Ep~pt~s~~st;:.em~,l~n1:~0~.~~8:"~.d•C~o:.m:b::.'. .
. 6,.· ··Sp.id<
• ·~
is C~ntrally IOcatec1, in the «>tnbustkin
~~.;.mbcr.·: the le.ngth. of flame trave.l is reduced. It results ·.
plug The c~e at the eiid of compressicin so-o~e is pushed
· · · squish which
into the combustion spac~. known as . ·
.into rcltliced tendency to detonate. , - . provides additional turbulence. ' ...

n.: Modem S.I. Engine Combustion . the valves ·.are provided

. . .· a .smg
.m . le row
2"" ' Since . in the
· .chambers .
head, it reduces the size of the valv.es.

Because of this the disadvantage. o f thi s design is that it .

After the period of 1950 the combustion chambers used
. o f the engine with.
reduces the breathing capacity
. are either over head valve, also called as I-head,
increased pumping losses.
eombustion chambers or the F-head combustion
cbaJDbers. ·Overhead combustion chambers were first . difficulty,
To overcome this . t he m odem. engine design

introduced in Ambassador Car in the year 1959. .

use relatively larger piston d 1amete rs compared to
stroke length.
The overhead and F-combustion chamber designs are
based on principles of Recardo combustion chamber
with certain mOOifications.
~park plug

" The advantages of overhead valve combustion ·- -+-- Combustion

chambers on L-head combustion chambers are space
as follows

1. Use of large valves or valve lifts and reduced passage

ways provides better breathing of the engine, it
increases volumetric efficiency of the engine with
reduced pumping losses.

2. It gives less tendency to detonate due to reduced flame ,, .. ..,

_

travel ,.:. ';•

~
,.,_
-,

3. Less force on head bolts and reduced possibility of

Fig. 2.36.1 : Bath tub combustion chamber
leakage.
'5. Advantage
4. Exhaust ''al'-e is incorporated in the combustion
It is simple and easy to cast.
chamber hCad instead of cylinder block. Therefore, heat
failures limited to be.ad only.
2.36.2 Rover Head Combustion Chamber
S. Uses low surfacc-,·oJume ratio, it reduces the heat
Fig. 2.36.2 shows the Roverhead combustion chamber.
losses and increases power output and efficiency.
This design possess all requirements of a good
Few of the imponant combustion chambers of combustion chamber.
O\'Cfbcad Val\•c type and F-head type are described below.
The shape of combustion chamber approximates the
2.36.1 Bath Tub Combustion Chamber hemispherical shape giving lesser surface to volume
ratio, hence, better power output and efficiency.
- This type of combustion chamber is shown in
Fig. 2.36.1. Both valves are mounted on the head with Spark plug is located at the centre which reduces the
length of flame travel.
spark plug on one side of the combustion chamber.

scanned with CamScannef'

 · ~ l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V-Mech) 2·54 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Sup tern, I nltlon and~) .,
·'

r:r Methods used for determination of volatlllty of A curve is plotted between the percentage Voltlibt \
fuels of fuel evaporated and the temperatures as sho ·
. fi 'ii\ '
'
,,1• Following methods are used for determining the
in fig. 2.37.2. This curve 1s re ClTCd as i Asn.t
, '• I
dlstJllatJon cun'e.
t i··. I volatility of a fuel.
' '·

- ··. ! • I. ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) 1. Heavya1

2. Light dlaliltia ™-
distillation test. 3. Kerosene ''"""I
4. Noo.~tlla
2. Reid vapour test. S. Volatie~
6. Aviation O&Sclfile
' ' ' p
' 1. ASTM distillation test i
~
The apparatus used for ASTM distillation test is !
." i · shown in Fig. 2.37.1. It consists of a burner, 100 j
I,';' I
'•< • cc flask, thermometer, a condenser and a 100 cc
• 1 , i
i• graduated cylinder.
.,
; l • Heat is applied to 100 cc of fuel in the flask 00 20 40 60 80 100
under test. The vapour formed in the flask are percent evaporated
condensed. Fig. 2.37.2 : ASTM distillation curve

·~:
i;:'
;
..
:

'
I

' 1
2. · Reid vapour test
:· .
Volatility of gasoline can also be related in terms
of Reid vapour pressure since the vapour prcSSUre
of gasoline increases with temperature and it is
also dependent on its composition.
The Reid vapour pressure apparatus is shown in
Fig. 2.37.3.

Pressln gauge

Fig. 2.37.I : ASTM distillation test

The temperature of first drop of condensate in the

cylinder is recorded as the initial boiling point.
Since the gasoline is a mixture of various Air chamber
hydrocarbons of different boiling temperatures
and due to heating the boiling temperature
continuously rises, the evaporation of the fuel
'I ' t• ·• •
takes place.
: ·: :'i
The vapour temperatures are recorded for every 10
.:.::·: j;.'..
Gasoline chamber
cc of condensate in the graduated cylinder. At the
:
: ' I

' ( ',
end when the last drop is condensed, the end
point temperature and the mass of the residue in
! '

f'r;, the flask is recorded. Fig. 2:37:J : Reid vapour pressll.re apparatus
! 'I
~ ' f
". I
. '.5 . ~ .
:(.' /!··!
, ~L :._I!
 . •,· ~ ~ ... ...
. , _· ~ - .
. ..

. . . . 2~55
· As per the standards laid down during·' th . · .
· . · · • e test the 1.
Starting and warm up ·
chillCd oil ·equal to 0.25 times the volume of air
. chamber is kept in the gasoline chamber immersed In a S.I. engi~e, a rich mixm're of air-fuel ratio of .·
in a water bath of 38°C. 12 to 13: l is considered tO be suiuilile for easy
A Bourdon pressure gauge is connected at the starting of the engine.
.. . top,
the readmg on 1t represents the sum f · However, a certain amount of fuel must vapourise .
o vapour
pressure of the fuel and rise in pressure of air and · at low temperatures (slightly lower than
water vapour in the air chamber due t h · t' surrounding temperature) for initiation of
. . o ea mg of
air. '
combustion and easy starting. '
The increased vapour pressure of the air chamber The temperatures corresponding to 10% ASTM
can be calculated and subtracted from th curve has been accepted as an indication of
e gauge
pressure reading to give true Reid vapour starting ability of the fuel.
pressure
of gasoline fuel at 38°C.
As the engine warms up after starting, the
The Reid vapour pressure test indicates the temperature of the engine will gradually increase
tendency of fuel to vapour lock and its value upto its operating temperatures. Duration of this
should not exceed by a gauge pressure equal to warm up period is related to 50% volatility of the
0.475 bar in summer conditions. fuel on ASTM curve.

3. Equilibrium air distillation (EAD) test Lower the boiling temperatures, lower will be
the warm up period for flexible operation of the
The ASTM distillation curve cannot be directly
engine.
co-related with the performance of fuel in the
engine because the fuel is evaporated in pres~nce 2. Engine acceleration and normal operation of
of air in actual engines in the intake manifolds, the engine
whereas, in the ASTM distiliation test the fuel is
In order to obtain good acceleration and normal
evaporated in the presence of its own vapour.
operation of the engine, the fuel evaporation rates
Therefo~, an EAD test apparatus is used to should be high to produce better . mixing and
simulate the engine conditions and the air distribution of the. fuel in the engine cylinder.
distillation curves for the gasoline are obtained
It is found that acceleration is better when boiling
~hich are used in practice to forecast t~e engine temperature is lower at 50% evaporation rate and
performance.
normal operation range is governed by 50 to 70%
evaporation rates.
2.37.3 Effect of Volatility of Fuels on
Engine Performance 3. Crankcase dilution

The performance and fuel economy of spark ignition Liquid fuel droplets in the mixture of fuel and air
engines is vastly affected by the volatility of the fuel. will dilute the engine lubricating oil and reduces
In fact, the volatility of the fuel will influence the its viscosity.
design of engine, in particular, the design and shape of
It tends to increase the engine friction and
the intake manifolds.
deteriorates the quality of lubrication due to
The effect of volatility of the fuel as represented by
weakening of . the oil film between the mating
ASTM distillation curve shown in Fig. 2.37 .2 can now . parts.
be related to various problems of S.I. engines as
follows.

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 · ·~
. -~·-

~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-56 S.I. Engines (Fuel supply System, Ignition and~: .

To reduce the problem of .c rankcase dilution, it is It results into poor operation of the enghle . ·: .
. . ._ .and
necessary that the ASTM curve at 80 to 95% poor fuel economy. .

evaporation rates should exhibit low temperature The gum content 'in a fuel should not exceed ~ ·
range. Using crankcase ventilation can minimize than 5 mg per litre of gasoline.
this problem.
8. sulphur content
4. Vapour lock High sulphur content 'i n the fuel is undesirable

- · An engine is said to be vapour locked when the because it forms hydrogen sulphide, s.ulphuric acid

interruption in the liquid flow occurs due to its and other compounds in presence ·of water Vllnr.u
""t"' r.

vapourisation.

Depending upon the amount of vapourisation, it

These formed compounds may corrode fuel line
.
muffler and other metal parts of the engine.
' '
will reduce the amount of fuel flow into cylinder Since sulphur bas low ignition temi>erature, the
(vapour occupies more volume than liquid). This presence of sulphur · in the gasoline tends to
reduction causes the loss of power or the complete increase the tendency for detonation.
stoppage of the engine. The sulphur content in gasoline is not allowed
To avoid vapour lock. the percentage of volume to exceed 0.25 % by mas.s.
evaporated at low temperatures should be small,
For requirement·of motor gasoline, IS :' 2796-19if
which is contrary to fuel requirements .for case of
must be referred.
starting, wann up and normal operation of
engines. 2.38 Rating of S.I. Engine Fuels - Octane
Based on the experience it is estimated that the · tJdfuber ·
vapour lock may start if the ratio of volume of
vapour released from the gasoline to the volume of
liquid remaining in the fuel exceeds the ratio 25.

5. Evaporation loss

The loss of vapour from venting holes of storage tank

depends on the volatility of fuel at surrounding
temperatures.

6. Antiknock properties

The properties of the fuel should be such that it resists Fuels differ widely in their ability t~ ~sist ~e knocking
• •• ¥-

the tendency · of detonation in S.I. engines. The ' and detonation _in S.I. engines. It is expressed in terms
antiknock property of the fuel depends on its self of octane number.
ignition temperature, molecular structure and the
Fuel rating specifications require the standard engines
chemical composition.
operating under prescribed standard conditions. 0

7. Gum and Varnish deposits

The rating of a particular fuel is compared on the
The deposits of gasoline with high gum content standard engine with that of a standard reference fuel '
due to unsaturated hydrocarbons in the gasoline which is usually the combination oLis070Ctane (2,2,4
will cause piston ring plugging, sticking of valves,
- ,,-· .
trirnethyl pentanefand n-hepatane (Cr H 16) by volume.
clogging of carburettor jets etc. , , ..----- '

--·---------~
...1····· . . _·..: .<~.- . ..-.
...:. . . ' .

. ~ 1.c. Engines (MU-S~m. V-Mech)

. . . - ,. ' · ' .
2~57 S.t Engines (Fuel Supply System, Ignition and C~nib;f'. .
. j\rbitrarilY the iso-octane is aSsigned a ~ting of 100 KL;.~-~-P- of test fuel · ~..( 2.38.1)
. octane .number since this fuel has. minimum biock.i~--
: . .PN = KL·1.m.e.p, of iso-octime
- ' . g
.tendency and ~e ~~h~pl:llne is_assigned a rating or" zero In ~rtain cases the knock rating of fuel . ~an be
octane beCause of its high tend~ncy to knock. ' improved by .adding tetra ethyl iead ~L) and _w hen

((1ie percenta~e volume of iso:o_c~ _in ·_t~ mixturtt of. added to iso-octane it shows improved , anti-~OCk

iso-octane ~ '!-h_eptwu; r~present~ the_ octane characteristics.

number rating,ofa fuel. ,/ . . . -- - If 'x' ml of TEL is added to a U.S. gallon ~f iso-octane,_·
,,_..:..--- - -
- -- --- -
If a fuel is assigned a knock rating of 80, it means the the octane number (ON > 100) . is expressed as

fuel bas ·the same tendency · to knock under standard . (100 +x) ml ofTEL.
operating conditions as the mixture of standard fuel Another method of octane ·scale is given by Wiese, and
having 80% iso-octane and. 20~ of n-heptane fuels by expressed as,
volume. PN-100 ...(2.38.2)
ON = 100+ 3
Hence the octane number rating of the fuel is an
expression which indicates the ability of a fuel to resist
2.39 Highest Useful Compression Rat_
io
knock or detonation in S.I. Engines.
,.... (HUCR)
2.38.1 Method of Determination Octane Rating
For a particular fuel, the highest useful compression
of Fuel
ratio represents the compressi6il"Iiti~ at which the fuel
Octane rating of fuels is determined by testing a fuel on can be use~ in an. engip.~ witho~t detonation on ~
a variable compression co-operative fuel research specified ~tandard test engine under standard oi>erating
, (CFR) engine under specified conditions. conditions and the ignition with · mixture strengths

The fuel to be tested for knock rating is used in this adjusted to give best thermal efficiency.

engine to produce standard knock by varying the HUCR rating of certain fuels determined in Recardo E6
compression ratio under standard operating conditions. engine are given.in Table 2.39.1.
Knockmeter reading is noted. Table 2.39.1 : HUCR of Fuels

Then the various proportions of iso-octane and n-

heptane are tested to produce knock with same
conditions. The percentage volume of iso-octane in the 1. Iso-octane 10.96
mixture will represent the octane number rating of fuel.
2. n-heptane 3.75
2.38.2 Performance Number (PN)
3. Benzene 14.6

Certain fuels show even less tendency to knock than 4. Toluene 15.0
iso-octane fuel i.e. they have octane number more than
100. In order to extend the octane scale, the knock
rating of fuel is measured in terms Army-Navy
Section - I : Fuel Supply System in
· performance number represented by "PN".
S.I. Engines
It is defined as the ratio of knock limited indicated
mean effective pressure (~.m.c.p) of the ~uel under test The process of preparation of mixture of atomized fuel
to the knock limited indicated mean effective pressure and air is called carburetion.
of iso-octane.

-
 . . .. ' ,~,
W l.C~·E~gin~s (MU-Sam: V-Mech) - 2·58 - s.1. Engines (Fuel Suppty S stem, Ignition arid r..2'.;~~:._~ .
~,., '1 ' 1.-

The device which _supplies the metered spray of fuel

(iii) Auxiliary air valve · · · -· . ·· ·· '.-_- .. ,,;_>
.-' ...: -.. .. ";
~··
··.' c·, 1·
: ·~ ~
mixed with correct amount of air for efficient (iv) Auxiliary air part . ·~ ·c.·

combustion in cylinder at all operating· conditions is

•\
· .. . ...,,
~ • t

(v) · Metering pin method for part load runiting. .··'

called carburettor.
(vi) Quality control by back ~uction.
Fuel feeding system for S.I. engines consists of fuel . '
SeCtlon II : Spark Ignition Systems .·
tank, carburettor, throttle valve and intake manifolds.
- '

:Various mixture requirements of S.I. engine are:

B~lc requirement of the ignition system is to Sllpply
(a) Maximum power : Rich mixtures with air-fuel minimum necessary energy to spark plug to initiate~
ratio 12.5 to 13.5 : 1 combustion of fuel under all operating conditions.
(b) Maximum economy Lean mixtures 16.S to
The main ignition systems are :
17.5: 1
(i) Battery coil ignition system,
(c) Starting, idling and low load nannlng : Rich
(ii) Magneto ignition system,
mixtures 11 to 12: 1
(iii) Electronic system
(d) Acceleration : Rich mixtures provided with the
help of accelerating pumps. The crank angle '0' before TDC at which span is
supplied to the engine is called spark advance. It plays
(e) Part .. load running-Cruising range : Lean
an important role in developing optimum power.
mixtures 17 : 1 for single cylinder engines and
Factors affecting the spark advance are C.R., air-fuel
16 : 1 for multicylinder engines.
ratio, speed, load and turbulence.
Main components or a simple carburettor are float
chamber with float, main fuel jet, venturi and the choke _A battery ignition system consists of battery for

tube. Drawback of this carburettor is that it supplies providing electrical energy for functioning of system,

rich mixtures with the increase in air speed. . an ignition coil for developing high voltage, ignition
switch to tum the system on or off, a contact breaker
Starting choke, when closed, provides rich mixtures at
the time of cold starting of the engine. for making and breaking the primary circuit of ignition
- coil, a condenser and a distributor to distribute the high
Idling system _consists of an idle port located just
tension current to individual spark plug.
below of throttle · valve. During idling, the low
pressures existing in intake manifolds helps in A magneto ignition system consists of an electrical
providing the rich mixture through idle jet _ generator ·with permanent field magnets and rotating
·Acceleration system consists of an accelerating pump armature, an induction coil, a contact breaker and a
whose plunger is controlled by spring force and distributor.
supplies excess fuel through metering orifice. An electronic ignition system overcomes the problems
Various compensating devices are used to maintain of · conventional ignition system. These are of two
constant air-fuel ratio with variation in speed since a types:
simple carburettor tends the supply richer mixtures
(i) Transistorised assisted contact (TAC) system : It
with increase in speed..
provides high voltage at all speeds, longer spark
Modern . . carburettors use the following
plug and contact breaker points life.
compensating devices :
(ii) c apacitor discharge ignition (CDI) system
(i) Compensatingjet
The function or a spark plug is to receive high voltage
(ii) Emulsion tube or air bleed ignition current from secondary coil of ignition system

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~:::·· ·
--·

~i.e. En Ines (MU-sem. V-Mecti) . 2•59 .s.1. Engines (Fuel suj)ply sisteni, Ignition and cOmb.) -~
and .to supply spark to. combustio~ chamber of the advance should be increased. . .
engine which jumps across itS electrOdes. These are
. (vi) Proper ~lectrode gap of a .spark plug .<0 ·625 nun
~Id plugs and hot plop.
. - with C.R. = 7)
Cold plugs are suitable for high speed engines. · peed of
. . . Effect of engine variables_for increasing 8

_ These plugs also help in avoiding pre-ignition in S.I. Dame propagation are :
engines.
(i) Increased C.R. (ii) Increased intake p, T
_ The order in which vario~ cylinders of a multfoylinder
. (iii) Slightly rich mixtures
in-line engine are supplied spark is called the firing
(iv). Increased load (v) · Increased turbulence
order.
_ The main factors considered in deciding the firing order (vi) Increased engine speed

are the balancing of reciprocating parts to reduce (vii) No effect of engine size.
vibration, engine cooling and back pressure. Detonation is the name given to pinging sound due to
_ firing order of 4 cylinder engine is usually 1-3-4-2. gas vibrations caused by abnormal combusti~n of end
charge of S.I. engine due to auto-ignition. Whereas,
Section Ill : Combustion in S.I. Engines
knocking refers .to thudding sound heard due to direct
blow on engine parts ·caused by sud~en pressure rise
A Dame is defined as gas rendered luminous by due to combustion of initial part of the charge in C.l;
liberation of chemical energy.
engines.
The temperature at which the fuel will ignite itself Knocking and detonation leads to local melting of
without flame is called self ignition temperature
piston and ring, mechanical failure of engine parts,
(S.LT.) and this process of combustion is called auto·
preig~ition, . overheating of spark plug with loss of
Ignition.
power and efficiency.
Even if a mixture reaches to its S.LT., there is a time
The main objectives of combustion chamber design
lapse before the mixture bums due to certain preflame
of a S.I. engine ~re :
reactions in which the chain carriers are formed.
(i) -Minimum length of flame travel
The crank angle before TDC where the spark is
supplied is called angle of spark advance. (ii) Proper location of spark plug

In SJ. engines the combustion stages are : (iii) To develop adequate turbulence

(i) Period of ignition lag or ignition delay period. (iv) Minimum surface to volume ratio

(ii) Period offlame propagation. (v) Provide large area to inlet and exhaust valves

(iii) Period of after burning. (vi) -Location of exhaust valve away from end gas.
Effect of engine variables for reducing the ignition Type of combustion chambers for S.I. engines are :
lag~: (i) T-head (obsolete today)
(i) Higher pressure and temperatures (ii) L--head or side valve type
(ii) High C.R. (iii) Recardo ~rbulent combustion chamber
(iii) Slightly rich mixtures, about 10% rich. (iv) Bath tub type
(iv) Lesser residual gases. (v) Rover head type
(v) Speed has no effect but at high speeds the ignition (vi) Wedge head type

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 • es (Fuel supply System, Ignition 8nd "_,._:, ...·
~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. ·V-Mech) 2-60 S.I• Engm =:"no.) .
Explain · why rich · mlxtUre is required . for' Ifie
Q.12
(vii) F-hend type following:

(viii) Special type like for Jngunr engine. (I) Idling

(II) maximum power .
\ .- .Exercise. · ·I (iii) sudden acceleration. . . _
[Sections 2.3.3 and 2.3.2 and.2.3.4]

Section I : Fuel Supply System In Explain the reason for Increase in thermal efficiency
S. I. Engines 0.13
with weak mixtures in S.I. engines. .

(Sections 2.3 and 2.3.2)

a. 1 What do you mean by carburotlon? [Section 2.1.1)

What are the requirements of a good carburettor ?

a. 14 Give your comments and explain a petrol ?ngine Is
Q.2
a quantity governed. [Section 2.5] .
(Section 2.4]

Q.3 Explain the fuel flow path In petrol engines. a. 15 Discuss the working of a simple carburettor With the

(Section 2.1.3) help of a neat sketch. What modifications are

EXplaln the various factors affecting carburelion. required In simple carburettor to meet the
Q.4
[Section 2.1.4) requirement of cold starting and low load running Of
the engine 7 [Sections 2.5 and 2.6.1 and 2.6.4]
Q.5 Explain the following :

(i) Rich mixture (ii) Lean mixture a. 16 What do you understand by the tenn compensation
as applied to carburettors 7 Explain Various
(ill) Stoichiometric mixture.
methods of compensation. [Section 2.6.6)
What are the limits of burning the rich and lean
mixtures in S.I. engines? [Section 2.2) Q.17 What do you understand compensation in
carburettor 7 Is it necessary · to provide
Q.6 What are A.F. ratio requirements of a spark Ignition
engine under varying operating conditions ? why ? compensation system is the carburettors ? With a

[Section 2.3) neat ·sketch explain the working of compensating

system. [Sections 2.6.6 and 2.6.6(1))
Q.7 With the help of a neat sketch explain the working of
a simple carburettor. Why is this type not used in Q.18 What is meant by slow running jet 7 How does It
actual S.I engines? [Sections 2.5 and 2.5.~]
compensate the A.F. requirement of S.I. engine ?
Q.8 Sketch a typical induction system of a petrol engine [Section 2.6.2]
and explain the A.F. ratio requirements of a petrol
engine from no load to full load. Q. 19 What is a choke and throttle valve ? What are their
functions? [Sections 2.5 and 2.6.1]
[Sections 2.1.3 and 2.2 and 2.3)

0. 9 Explain with the help of neat pencil sketch operation a. 20 What is an emulsion tube ? How does it help to

of a carburettor having starting, idling and main jet control the unifonn A.F. ratio with increase in speed
system. [Section 2.9.1) to engines ? (Section 2.6.6(11))

a. 10 Explain the mixture strength required while Q. 21 Discuss various types of carburettors. [Section 2.7]
accelerating and at the time of cold starting.
[Sections 2.3.4 and 2.3.3) a. 22 Explain the working of a solex carburettor.
[Section 2.8.1)
Q. 11 What are mixture requirements for steady state and
transient conditions for the S.I. engine ? a. 23 Draw a neat sketch of a Carter carburettor and
[Sections 2.2 and 2.3)
explain its working. (Section 2.8.2)
~-
. ··.. ·:. . ·~:.." .. .. . .
.· ,
.... . ., .,
... - .
...
~

! :.. ·
·, .
::..":1·· ..... , . .
~ 1.C. Engines (MU"Sem; V-Mech) 2.61 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System, lgniii~n and :~~b:> ·.~ .
•'. •. . Q. 24 .·. Explain the workl~g of ~ s.u..Carburettor With .· the ' Q. 40 Explain the concept of firing order. .
· help of a neat sketch. [Section 2.8.3] · [Section 2.23]

Q. 5 Explain the working of _an electric fuel pump used for Q. 41 Discuss the effect of
ignition . advance on
2 31
s.1. engines. [Section 2.10) perfonnance of S.I. engines [Section 2.2 - 1

Section 111 : Combustion In S.I. Engines .

section II : Spark Ignition System

Q. 42 Define combustion, flame, fla!lle front and auto-

a.26 . Enumerate the requirements of ignition system. With
ignition. [Section 2.24]
the help of a diagram, explain the working of battery
ignition system. [Sections 2.16 and 2:111 . Q. 43 Give a brief account of chain theory of combustion.

Q. 27 What are the disadvantages of battery ignition (Section 2.25)

system ? How can these be overcome ? Q. 44 Explain with the help of (P - 0) diagram the
csectlons 2.11.1and2.20.11 combustion in S.I. engines. Discuss · how the
Q. 28 What is the purpose of providing condenser in the detonation and pre-ignition effect the combustion in
ignition system? [Section 2.17(vll)] , S.I. engine. Discuss the factors which influence .
detonation. [Sections 2.26, 2.31, 2.32(6) and 2.33)
o. 29 What are the essential components of battery and
coil ignition system and explain the working of such Q. 45 Explai_
n main stages of combustion in S.I. engines.
a system with the help of a neat sketch. [Section 2.33)
[Section 2.17]
Q. 46 With the help of a neat sketch, explain the
a. 30 With the help of a neat diagram explain the working combustion process in an S.I. engine. Explain also
of a magneto ignition system. What are the the variables affecting it.
advantages of this system compared to battery [Sections 2.26, 2.27 and 2.28)
ignition system? [Sections 2.18, 2.18.1and2.19]
Q. 47 Write short note on ignition advance. [Section 2.27] ·
a. 31 Draw a neat sketch of a spark plug and explain its
Explain the auto-ignition theory of detonation.
Q.48
operation. [Section 2.21)
[Section 2.30)
a. 32 Compare the battery ignition and magneto ignition
. Q. 49 How detonating combustion can be recognized in
systems. Why a battery system is used in cars ?
S.I. engine? [Section 2.31)
[Sections 2.19 and 2.17.1(a)]

a. 34 Why is it necessary to have variable spark timing ? Q.50 Write short note on effects of engine variables on
[Section 2.22) detonation of S.I. engines. [Section 2.33)

Q, 35 Why electronic ignition system are preferred over Q.51 Explain abnonnal combustion in S.I. engines with
conventional ignition system? [Section 2.20.1) (p - 0) diagram. [Section 2.26)

Q, 36 Give merits and demerits of electronic system over Q.52 Define ignition lag and knocking.
conventional system. [Section 2.20.4] [Sections 2.26 and 2.30)
Q. 37 Explain the working of TCI electronic system with Q.53 What are harmful effects of knocking ?
the help of a neat sketch. State its merits and
[Section 2.32)
demerits. [Section 2.20.2)
Q. 54 Pre-ignition is a cause as well as effect of
0. 38 With the help of a neat sketch, explain the working
detonation - Justify.
of COi system. [Section 2.20.3)
[Sections 2.32(6) and 2.31 J
0. 39 What do you understand by spark advance ?
Q. 55 · Explain the influence of following factors on the
Describe any spark advance mechanism used in
process of combustion in S.I. engines :
automobiles. [Sections 2.22 and 2.22.1)
(i) Mixture com?osition

ll!lftoa._ _
--- -----·-" · - ---· ·~"~~·- ---·-=-=--·-----------

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 · :·· · ~
. : . . ··.:~
.· . ·.-:....~ ..~

~ l.C. En Ines (MU·Sem. V·Mech 2-62

(II) C.R. State and explain any four fypes_of combuatlori .
Q.68
(Iii) Load chambers used for S.I. engines. ·
(Iv) Speed (Section• 2.35 and 2.36.4)
(v) Shape of combustion chambers. With the help of a neat diagram explain Recardo•a
Q.59
[Sections 2.27(111), 2.27(11), 2.28(v) and 2.27(vl)] turbulent combustion chamber design.
0.58 Enumerate the requirement of an Ideal combustion [Section 2.35.3)
chamber for a S.I. engine stating the significance of Q.60 Explain the types of combustion chambers Used In
each requirement. Sketch any one combustion S.I. engine and compare them why maximum
chamber of a S.I. engine. diameter of s.I. engine combustion chamber la ·
[Sections 2.34 and 2.35.3) limited. [Section• 2.35 and 2.36) ·

0. 57 Explain the requirements of combustion chambers

for S.I. engines and any two types of combustion
chambers.
[Sections 2.34, 2.35.1 and 2.35.2)
Cl[JQ

..
·~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--_,,,~-~,-~~~~
 .. .
r.1 ·

Compression·Ignition Engines

syllabus:

fuel Injection Systems : Air injection systems, Airless/solid injection systems, Common rail, Individual -pump,
. systems. Injection
distributor and umt . . lly controlled unit· fuel
pumps, Fuel injector, Types of nozzle, Electromca
Injection system

- · phenomenon in C I engines,
Combustion : Combustion - Stages of combustion,
- ·
Delay penod, Knocki ng,
· Pressure-
_
crank angle diagram, Factors affecting combustion and knocking, Types of combustion chambers.

- Therefore, the fuel "injection system becomes the m~st

vital component in the working system.
The performance of the engine i.e. its power output,
fuel economy, efficiency etc. is vastly affected by the
Requirement and Layout of Fuel Injection performance of the fuel ~njection system.
System in C.I. Engines
3.1.1 Requirements of a Fuel Injection
System
3.1 Fuel Injection System In C.I. Engines

In case of compression ignition engines only air is

sucked during its suction stroke.

After compressing the air in the compression stroke,

the fuel is injected under high pressure of about 70 bar\. "'
and above before the end of compression stroke with The main requirements of a fuel injection system for
the help of fuel pump. compression ignition engines are :
The C.I. engines demand that the fuel injection system (i), Meter the correct quantity of fuel to be injected per
.... · cycle as per the load and speed of the engine.
should be able to atomise the fuel into fine particles, to
· the f ue1 as per ' ----(ii) _Timing the injection of fuel correctly during the cycle
inject the fuel at desired rate to provide
so that maximum-power is obtained at minimum fuel
the load and speed on the engine, to distribute the fuel consumption.
uniformly throughout the combustion chamber and the
(iii) The rate of injection of fuel should be controlled such
injection system should start and terminate
that it results into desired heat release rate during· the
instantaneously. combustion process.
 ~tee · .
· · n Ines MU
(' ) ·Sem. V-Mech 3·2
l,VIt h .
s ou}d atom·
(v) l'he s •se U1c fuel in fine particles. . .. The fuel injection systems for di
Pray Path~ . ese1 .
rapid tnix' rn should be such that it results into .divided base on type of fuel delivery ~ f, . en&~ea:..· .
(vi) 1' •ng of fuel with nir. . . oUow8 >., ~ -
ypea of lnlectlon · · :_: :. .'..~
o ensure the u . - Systems · .: .·· • ·
the comb . nifonn distribution of fuel throughout. ·. ·. :.
(vii) T UstJon chamber. \
: o ensure unit . (a) Air Injection System
· each c I' onn distribution of metered f ucl into
·' Y mder of n mutt' 1. .
(Viii)Th . . i.cy mdcr engine.
e Injection 0 f ~
inst · J uet should start and terminate
antuneousJy It h
d.r . · s ould avoid any dribbling of fuel
op1ets Into cylinder.
3.1.2
Layout of Fuel Injection System

+ (MU-May 15)
:!IJ#•9t1lli;•iit¥Jliml .-. ,• .. •J: '.<'-
v ~-~~.} '::.:What are the co , , . . : .. - . . . . .. .. :.. , :·:' .; ·:. ·~;.
c • • •• ": ' . : .. ·: ':.

:, . :'.': · · ·· - . · mPonents (at least four) of general '

> ·:·· . diesel f I · . · · ·· " · "· · ,. . · ·:
-~:,.:- .~ J.'.... - ye__Injection system? State' In brief function~
., ~-'· ',",'.' Of ::1 . ~:'.·<r ,-':;::'
each ofttie·ri,,, ':··:'. _ · ·:_'.('.iimf.li?:i Fig. C3.1 : Types of Injection Systems
'
·· Labelled la f
. . yo~_t o fuel system in C.I. engines is shown Syllabus Topic : Air Injection Sy ~
m Fig. 3.1.1. · stern

3.3 Air Injection System

pumps
Fuel line to cylinder
Fuel injector
with nozzle

In case of air injection, the fuel is injected by

high pressure air at about 70 bar into ~e co::::
chamber. It needs a compressor to supply compreSSed .
To cylinder
and the fuel pump to draw the desired fuel from fuel ill!
Cam shaft dr1ven . d to the IDJector.
both to be supplie . . lanl:
from engine .
Fig. 3.1.1 : Fuel injection system c:Jr Advantages

Types of Injection Systems 1. It provides good atomisation of fuel.

2. Heavy viscous fuels which are cheap can be used.
'· 3.2 Types of lnje·c tion Systems 3. Fuel pump needs to develop only sma11pressure.
!.
+ (MU - Dec. 13, Dec. 14) rir Disadvantages

~::·;, :
0

'." . •: • .'.: --_ . -/ - ---· -.: .:v,~};;:'.{{:: -~:· --\ri~i :~~~:~t;~:,~;~~~--~·;~r;~. 1. It cannot be used for portable engine due to
requirement of air compressor and, if the system~
{'a; :~ ; .. · Give · brief classification of .dieser injection system'1 used it reduces power output and mechanical
t'.~:'.;): :.· ~ith ~xpl~nation of'imy· o~~· ~ys~e~:· ','l~ita,61' efficiency.
,. "':y; .__ .. -Y. _ • , . < -..;_ :'·· ··' ·~ ~ >>-··if--•··< x..,,.. ~- -.-:«>-'

lcf'::·:;: ·:. With ' neat .sketch ..explairf compression'.: i'ndOc~d; 2. . Air compressor needs extra maintenance.'
1~,;\'\;,~~~:,_-_:_,. . . ··:. ·: . .'. ' . . . : . ·<"..,.: ·:-,..~ , .: ,,_·:.,_~.::-' <:.:)':; ):~i/,;.
i~?i?]i!¥'.-~; swirl and dMded co,mb,~ st!pn ;._~llal'Jl_be_r,:<~1~91t~t~% 3. System is bulky and expensive.
:}1£.1:~W'- .'.'its adJanta9es anci 'ciisacivanta9·es. <~:,::;_;~,: l •lMH' This system is not used now a days.

scan ned w ith Camscanoer

 . ition Engines
~ l.C. engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
compression lgn •
3_3

--;;nabUS Topic : AlrlesSJSolld Injection Systems

. and Its Types·

solid lnjectlol) or Alrles.s Injection

system

In case of solid injection system, fuel is direct!

inj~ted into cylin.der without the aid of compresse~
' i
aif. for this reason, this system is · called solid or
airl~ mechanical system.

In this system the air is first compressed in the cylinder

to. a high temperature due to high compression ratio
eOlployed by C.I. engines. . 'ded 1'nto two groups :
Fuel injection 'system are d 1v1
High t~mperatures of air help in vapourising the fuel 1. Mechanical injection
when injected.
2. Electronic injection.
SinCe, the fuel does not vapourise at ordinary
temperatures, also, the fuel supplied needs to be Mechanical hyection is further classified as :
atomized and mix with the air. Hence, it requires high (a)_ Common rail direct injection (CRDI) system: In this
injection pressures over 70 bar. . . . d hr ·gh a mechanically
system the fuel 1s mJecte t ou
r:r Main component~ of solld Injection system con.trolled valve using the fuel stored in a receiver
t. Fuel tank. under high pressure.
2. Fuel filters. (b) Individual pump.system : It has a separate metering
3. Fuel feed pump to supply fuel to injector. · and compressi~g pump for each cylinder of engine.
4. Injection pump to meter and pressurise the fuel (c) Distributor system : It uses a single pump for
and supply to injector.
metering and compressing the fuel and a distributor for
5. Governor to ensure that fuel is injected in
distributing the fuel to the various cylinders.

Syllabus Topic : Common-Rail

----
marl-Rall Direct Injection (CRDI) System
~ (MU· May 17)

Universit Question

The system is shown schematically in Fig. 3.4.1.

In this system the fuel from the tank is first supplied to common header called.accumulator with the help of high
pressure pump.
Fuel from accumulator is led into the engine cylinders through tubing to the injectors.
 . ., -:. -.:·.. ...
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.- .
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. -.. l

Heecie
vtJve
l!!.lli..s-- paddng
gland

\High pressu-e
. relef valve

Fig. 3..4.1 : Common rall system

injected in accordance to the power requirement of the
A spring Jo-aded high pressure relief valve maintains a
engine since the duration of its opening depends UPon
constant pressure in the system and it returns the
excess fuel of the header to the fuel tank. its position.

The fuel is sprayed into the cylinders through a nozzle Tue fuel pressure in the accumulator can be Varied by

whose opening and closing is controlJed by a needle adjusting the spring pressure in high pre;sure ~lief
valve. valve.

The upward and downward motion of needle valve is er Advantages

controlJed by the motion of the cam.
1. This system is simple and easy for maintenance.
When the cam is during its dweU period, the spring
2. It can control the fuel supply according to load and
forces the needle valve into the nozzle passages and
prevents the admission of fuel into the cylinder. speed of the engine.

The lift of a cam pushes the push rod upwards and this 3. It has only one pump needed for a multicylindcr
motion is transmitted to the needle valve through the engine.
rocker arm and lever.
er Disadvantages
The fuel is always kept in the space above the valve
seat from the header and sealed from top through the 1. System needs accurate design and workmanship since
packing gland. the total motion of the needle valve is very small.

When the needle valve lifts, the high pressure fuel is 2. There is a likelihood of developing leakage at the valve
passed through the nozzle to the cylinder. seat.
The wedge is operated either manually or by a 3. In~ection pressures used are in the range of 200 - 350
governor which controls the amount of fuel to be bar pressure.

I
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I
.

. ·~ . . .· ~· 1.c. En Ines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) . . compression I n jtjon

. . ·:
engines .
. \

3-5
. . · · . (L.P.) plllDP
. lied to low pressure .
' Syllabus TopIc : lndlvldual Pump .. Fuel from tank is supp . the ·pressure to
,1 ,
Thi wnp raises
through filter (F - 1). sP . _ ) supplies the
2
~ . 3,4.3 1ndlvldual Pump System about 2.S- bar and through filter (F to p J which
fuel to various individual pumps <Pt
~ould meter ~d compress the fuel. hi b
haft drive (C) w c
Pumps are connected to cam s
maintain~ the timing of fuel _to be supplied. .
. . dirt it helps in
The filters ·are provided to remove any ' f the
0
e closely fitted parts
preventing the wear 0 f th unt
This system is usually used in modem C.I. engines. . t ontrol the amo
pump. 'L' is the control device o c .
l d n the engine.
. rbe fuei injection is affected by a separate fuel pum
. p of fuel supply according to the oa 0
and a nozzle for each cy~der. . N-1 to N-4
Fuel from pump is supplied to nozzles ·
The demand on the fuel pump are very ~vere since it to various cylinders.
has to meter the correct amount of fuel at .the correct . 100 bar to 300 bar
Pressure requirements vary from
timing. The system is shown in Fig. 3.4.2.
pressures.
\

F-1 F-2
Fig. 3.4.2 : Individual pump system

Syllabus Topic: Distributor System

3.4.4 Distributor System

The system is shown in Fig. 3.4.3

In this case only a single pump (P) is used to meter the fuel and raise the high pressure.

Further distribution of the fuel is done ·by the distributor (D) to various nozzles. The remainder working is ·similar to
individual pump system.

Scanned with CamScanroet

..•;;

.· · .:.?

' '
..· ' .... - ~
......
. . t.
• .·t
.:··. i
.- t

High pressure
\'
tuel lines

' .'

Fig. 3.4.3 : Distributor system

~~~~===-~============~
Syllabus Topic : Electronl~ally controlled unit fuel 3. Improves engine power

injection system 4. Prevents overheating of engine during braking and

idling conditions of the engine.
3.4.5 Electronic Injection
Now . a days EDC systems are preferred over
Electronic injection system uses the electronic sensors mechanical systems in modem C.I. engines.
for precise metering of fuel. Such a system is called
Syllabus Topic : Unit Injector System
''Electronic Diesel Control (EDC)" syste~.

The various sensors used are engine speed, crankshaft 3~4.6 Unit Injector System
position. temperatures of intake & ambient air and
A unit injector consists of the injector nozzle and the
lubricating oil. mass flow rate of air, accelerator pedal
injection pump as a single unit. It is used for direct fuel
position.
injection is diesel engines.
The sensors feed the data to an electronic c~ntrol unit
The unit injection system is controlled by · an
(ECU) which determines the amount of fuel to be
Electronically Control Unit (EDC). In this type of system,
injected depending upon the engine speed, throttle
an individual pump with its nozzle is used for each cylinder
position and other parameters. separately. It can.provide high injectio~ pressures upto 200!
r:r Advantages of electronic system bar.

These systems have been developed by BOSCH for

1. - Reduces fuel consumption and gives better mileage.
diesel direct injection for cars and light commercial
2. Reduces exhaust emissions. vehicles.
. ~ 1.c. Engines (MU-5em. V·Mech) 'tion Engines
3-7 Compression lgm
#;#
~ Ac:tvantages of the system

t. fIOvides high performance for high power engines.

SyStem is clean.
2-
3. provides low engine emissions.
Gives low noise.
4.
s. It can hi~ injeetion pressures with high degree of
use
efficiency.

- Syllabus Topic : Fuel Injection Pumps

5 Fuel Injection Pumps

3,~~~---~----~----------~
3.s.1 Objectives of a Fuel Pump

+ {MU· Dec.15)
Universit
._... Question
• . <·.-..-.:-..,: .••. ··.,,:.:.~"'~.,§.:.,·,:·.; ,.:~.',.·:.>:''.~;-;·~: .?-~"' -, : ,·::: .< .~
. -. . .. -- .. :·· ~; . ' ) <<·<·-~~ ..<~
Q. - ·.EXplain how the qlJa!ltity : of fUel . t? .be inj~
. .- . . . ' . . .. . ..... . .. :- ( ' - . ~.

,,,,,- ·_'.: inSide -~tion .~~r: of ::engine._,j~ _ ?iesel

_. ~--. _controneci'·with fiie(btjecifun iilimP? :<}:· ~ a.iaa¥1t

1. To deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel.
Fig. 3.5.1 : Bosch fuel pump
2. High pressures in the range of 100 bar to 300 bar
needed depending upon the C.R of engine to achieve . This pump is cam operated, spring return plunger
required atomisation of fuel.
pump of constant stroke type.
3. Fuel must be injected and terminated at the correct
timing. Its special features are effective method of regulating
the quantity of fuel to be delivered to the cylinder. This
3.5.2 Type of Injection pumps is achieved by means of helical groove cut on the
plunger.
Type of Injection pumps Spill ports always remain full of fuel since it is
connected to the fuel line.
1. Jerk type injection pump
(e.g. Bosch fuel injection pump) Each pump consists of a steel pump barrel in which fits
accurately a steel pump plunger.
2. Distributor type injection pump
A spring loaded delivery valve is fitted at the upper
end of the barrel. Various positions of plunger are
Fig. C3.2 : Type or injection pumps
shown in Fig. 3.5.2.
3.5.3 Bosch Fuel Injection Pump Fuel flows by gravity from a fuel sump in the pump
unit body. During the downward motion of the
Fig. 3.5.1 shows the Bosch fuel injection pump.
plunger, a partial vacuum is created and as a result the
Sometimes, it is also called as Helix bybas.§ pump
fuel flows from the sump through the intake port (a)
since the working principle of both is same. into the barrel as shown in Fig. 3.5.2(a).
m- l.C. Engines (MlJ-Sem. V-MochJ 3-8 COm res8ion I n~ : :."..
The plunger moves vertically in its barrel with a To enable the pwnp_ to v~ ~ quantify «>
red the plunger is provided With..,,.,..: t.~ .
constant stroke. During the upwards stroke of the delive ' . . . -u..1ca] Cha.._ .

called plunge helix (b) extending from its to -~

plunger. it covers the intake port and compresses the
ular groove (c) at a short distanec p ~e ~
fuel Which flows past the delivery valve as shown in an ann · do111..
plunger. . ··~~
Flg. 3.5.2(b).
This annular groove has its upper edge curved up·
· helical shape for almost half the · ~~
to a . . Pl11ii
. wnference as shown m
CJIC . Fig. 3.5.2. · &ti

The rotation of the plunger controls the deijy~

fu 1 Figs. 3.5.2(c) and (d) shows that if the ~
e. . P1l!Qger·
rotated slightly' the pressure JS rel~ tarller aJid ~
total effective stroke of the plunger is reduced.
Fig. 3.5.2(c) shows the position when the
hamber is always open to the inlet port via the ~
c .. . . Pll!!~
helix. In this posit.Jon there 1s no delivery of fuct ~
1
(a)BDC (b) End ofiDJection the engine can be stopped.

er Types of plunger helix

Types of plunger hellx

(i) Plunger with normal helix

d
(ii) Plunger with reverse helix

(iii) Plunger with variable start and enct of iniection

Fig. C3.3 : Types or plunger heUx

(c)BDC (d) End of injection
~ (i) Plunger with normal helix

(I) Normal helix (ii) Revene hclil. (U1) Hdinrllh

uriablt start
and end oflDjcdlol

Fig. 3.5.3 : Types of plunger helix

(e) Stop Plunger with normal helix [Refer Fig. 3.5.3 (i)] !Ii
·
start of injection in constant time · each cycle wbc~
m
Fig.3.5.2
as the end of injection varies with load.

S\;;Jm>e..>d w 1lh CarnScarmc r

r:-:r . ....·. ·•·.·..·. ' . i.

?'.·:~~ ·~. 1;c:.Englnes (MU-S~m. V-Mech) 3-9

. eompression Ignition engines

. ·= · . .. .• ; ·.
• · . ~ ·(U) Plunger with reverse helix · One set of radial ltoles is A connected to pump. inlet to
Plunger with reverse helix [Re" ·F
.
·: · · · · ·
1er 1g 3 5 3 ("11") .
~~tral passage ~d ilie ~lber set ·~f radial . hol~--(B) is
similar.
.· ~ormal
in action as in.case of . : ·Howe
hehx · . 1 is. connected: to deiivery line .and injectors to various
causes shorter delay . and allows some retarda
· .ver, .1t ·
combustion at low loads. tion m cylinders.
The number of radial holes on eaeh .side ~uals to the
.+ . start and end of injection
(iii) Plunger with variable
number of cylinders of the engine. . These boles are
It is. shown in Fig. 3.5.3 (ill). It can be used to vary the located at different heights.
tinte for start of injection of fuel and .
. . . the time for end of When the pump plungers move away from each other,
lDJCCtlOn. the fuel from inlet port A is drawn into the :central

3,5.4 Distributor Type Fuel Pump passage. It is then delivered via the outlet port B to the
cylinder corresponding to the passage coinciding with
· Principle
. of working
, of a distributor type fuel iniecti
. h . :.1 on the outlet ~rt.
pump 1s s own m Fig. 3_.5.4.
~ Advantage
In this the fuel distribution to cYlinders is
. achieved
. by
These type of pumps are small in size and light in
a rotor.
weight compared to other types of injection pumps.
The rotor has a central passage an~ two sets· of radial
holes.

Section at AA Section at BB

-outlet

Rotor

Plunger Plunger

Fig. 3.5.4 : Distributor

. type fuel U1J
· 'ectionpump.

St;amlt!KJ w ilh C<Jm.Scwmer

 ~ l.C. En Ines
3.10
MU·Sem. V-Mech
Syllabus Topic : fuel lnJector

. .

· 3•6 ..-rFilel Injector or Fuel Atomiser

/ - .
v Fuel from pump is supplied to the fuel injector.

i) T -a. - Functions
. ixturc of air and fuel.
' '
( 0
atomize the fuel and distribute such that it makes 11 homogeneous m
(
ii) To P~.ve~t the fuel to be injected directly on the piston or cylinder waIIs.
(iii) To p~vide instantaneous.starting and stopping of the fuel. .
Fig. 3.6.1 shows the cross-section of a Bosch fuel injector. ·
. The sruient aspects arc :
spri~g.' °'.'li•e<Y pipe pressure forces up lbe spindle durio1
fall~ the spindle abruptly in1errupts tnJCCtion.
. . The nozzle holes arc normally closed by !he spindle and
tnJectiOn and when the pressure
The injection pressure is regulated by adjusting the nuts above the spring.
The quantity of fuel injected may be re~lated
by !he duration of opening of the .al\'O or by "'II}'ing the fuel pre~ .
the
- system. · ~~ "'•

Fuel Inlet

Fig. 3.6.1 : Bosch fuel injector

Scanned with ComSconner

 . . -

'

t"··''· .
t. ·nes
·r · Compression Ignition eng1 .
3-11

L
f '.
,,_.----=--=-===-----=~~
Syllabus Topic : Types of Nozzles
~ (i) .Pintle nozzle .
. th fonnof
. . hanks or ends in e .
~-~ ·Nozzles
These nozzles have a thin s zle as
!.
' outh of the n~z
pin which protrudes through the m · ·
shown in Fig. 3.7. l(a). .
·
.· · · ei'ther a
can obtalfi
By varying the shape of this pm we
. etration effect or a
hollow cylindrical jet of high pen f
, . . tion pressures o
wide angle spray under low mJec
550-600.
80-100 bar with a spray cone an~le of ·

·~ Advantage .
- . .. - . 'bblin of fuel in the
It avoids well mJection and dri g
combustion chamber.

'B. Disadvantage
These nozzles are only suitable for pre-combustion
. · hambers due to
chambers or high swirl combustion c
Nozzle is the part of an injector through which the reduced penetration and good atomization.
liquid fuel is injected into the combustion chamber.
-+ (ii) Single bole nozzle
The type of nozzle used in an injector depends on the
type of combustion cbarilber used in an engine. In this type of nozzle the fuel is injected into _ th~
The design of a nozzle should be such that the liquid combustion chamber through a single . hole bored
fuel leaving the nozzle is atomized which helps in through the n?zzle body and closed by the nozzle valve
proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion . as shown in Fig. 3.7.l(b).
chamber.
Spray cone angle obtained ranges from 5° to 20° from
Injection pressures should be such that the nozzle
a hole diameter of 0.2 mm.
disperses the fuel in all parts of the combustion
chamber without reaching the surrounding walls. ~ Advantage
Otherwise, any fuel reaching the walls tends to
These nozzles are suitable for open combustion
decompose and it produces the carbon deposits and
chambers.
smoky exhaust.
Various types of nozzles used in diesel engine are a -.. , Disadvantage
shown in Fig. 3.7.1 these are as follows :
The disadvantage of this nozzle is that it gives a small
Types of Nozzles spray cone angle due to which it does not provide a
very good mixing of fuel and air unless high injection
(i) Pintle nozzle pressures are used.
-.
(ii) Single hole nozzle
Also, these nozzles have a tendency to.dribble.

(iii) Multi-hole nozzle

-+ (iii) Multi-hole nozzle

These nozzles have multiple holes bot'ed at the tip

. of
(iv) Pintaux nozzle
the nozzle as shown in Fig. 3.7.l(c).
Fig. C3.4 : Types of Nozzles
 "
I ., · ' .

. '~
.-.,
· 1,

~ I.e.- Engines (MU·Sem. V·Mech) ·.

I ,•

l
: (

• !
·i · . 3-12
"
'5. Advantage

Its advantage is that it ensures proper mixing of fuel in

I ~
' ! case of open combustion chambers even when the air
velocities are low.
... .
The number of holes vary fro~ 4 to 8 and its size
varies from 0.2 mm to 0.35 mm. (b) Single bole.tfl>C (c) Mul~ple "GJtl)pe

a _. Disadvantage
The disadvantage of these nozzles is that it requires
high injection pressures in the range o_f 180 to 200 bar.

-+ (iv) Pintaux nozzles

. AWC)Uary~
It is a pintle type of nozzle with an auxiliary hole
(d) Pintaux type :
drilled in the nozzle body shown in Fig. 3.7.l(d). I

The auxiliary hole injects the fuel , in a direction Fig. 3.7.1: Types of nozzles
upstream the direction of air ~fore the main injection
starts. ,- Spray Formation

a Advantage
3.7•1 Fuel Spray.Formation ....
Its advantage is that it reduces the delay period due to The fuel is injected under pressure through the 00.,:.1
better heat transfer between-fuel and air, therefore, it . .
holes. This fuel disintegrates into firie droplets inside the
~e

results into better cold starting performance at a

cylinder due to the resistance offered by the high density iiir
temperature 20° to. 25°C lower than multiple hole
- present inside ~e cylinder.
nozzles.
The formation of _fine droplets in the cylinder depends
a Disadvantage on:

It has tendency of side hole to choke due to which a (i) Relative motion of fuel and air
filtering unit is needed.
(ii) The physical properties of fuel and air
Spring force
(iii) Spray angle from nozzle depends on density of air
~
Fuel passage (iv) The outlet velocity of fuel is low and flow of fuel is
stream lined if the length to diameter (IJd) ratio is high
. and it is turbulent with low (Ud) ratio.

It should be noted that larger sized droplets will havt

higher penetration compared to fine droplets. On the other
ha.nd, the fine droplets help in quick mixing with ~ir with
evaporation offuel.

The penetration of the spray ~pends on the

following

(a) Products of the diameter and the velocity of droplet

which is proportional to its momentum.
Fig. 3.7.l(a) : Pintle type
(b) The density of air in the cylinder.

Scanned w ith CamSconner

 . ·'

) ..
. -f -
j1 . . . .\
. .
~< ~ i.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
:

3-13 .
- " ·
. I nltion Eng
Compression g .
Ines
. ·
=
·.. - ~ APart from the formation of fme droplets of fuel i.e. its ired for proper atolDl . .
. satia'n'arid
,. .IJlisatiOD and the penetration . of the spray. the spray The velocity of fuel requ This velocity is
i ".° ·tion is also. important. In case the fuel is injected mixing of fuel is of the 0 rder 0 f 400 m/s. ·

· difeC
treal11 of air due to high relative velocity between the
expressed in terms <,>f h as :
ups · lts ' tofi . · ...(3.8.2) '
{Uel and air, 1t resu m me atonusation and reduced c, = cdf"\/2g • h
' deaI Yperiod (important
. from knocking considerations which
. . ted per second,
The volume of fuel IDJCC
shall be discussed later). But the combustion of these initial
droplets results in surrounding the fresh droplets of fuel
injected subsequently. Thus the new droplets does not get
Q= (~· d n) xc,x(3:0 x~) x(:J)
2
• ...(3.8.3)

required 0 2 ~rom air present for its combustion. It results where,

into die poor efficiency and smoky exhaust.
N .
It is suggested that low injection pressures with large
-2 for four stroke engine

orifice diameters can be Used for upstream injection. It may

N for two stroke engine
provide better efficiency at Part loads and ease of Starting.

However. down-stream injection is used wherever it is e = Duration of fuel injection in crank angle
found the upstream injection is not suitable. degrees.

Ni represents the injections per minute.

Quantity of Fuel and Size of Nozzle Orifice

3.8 Quantity of Fuel and Size of

Nozzle Orifice

Let : Cr = Velocity of fuel

CdC = Coefficient of discharge of fuel orifice

.:.
-- -
h = Pressure difference betv.:een fue injection
Pressure in meter of fuel column
Q =. Volume of fuel injec~ per second
d = Diameter of fuel orifi~
N ==
Speed in r.p.m

n ==
Number of orifices

Pi == Fuel pressure at the inlet to injector, NI m2

Pc == Cylinder pressure. N / m2

Pr == Fuel <tensity, kg/ m 3 Example 3.8.1

Determine the Velocity of . . .

Fuel jet velocity at the exit of Orifice
. . . .
in1ection system Wh th
in1ect1on of f
.
.
ue1 •n SOiid
en e difference · .
and cylinder Pressure is 75 b in o11 Pressure
gravity of fue1 as 0.90-5 and co:r: ~ssurne the specific
...(3.8.1)

Orifice Is 0.86. . ff1c1ent for diScharge for

Sca nned w ith CamScanner

~I.e. Engines (MU-Sem:~-Me~h)
Solution:
Given:
Pi-Pc= 75 bar: 75 x 10~ N /m2, Cdf= 0.86

Specific gravity of fuel= 0.905

3
• · Density of fuel, Pr = 0.905 x 1000 = 905 kg I m

Velocity of injection of fuel,

Cr = C ·~(P;
elfp
-:-PJ
r.
s 0 lutlon: · · .
... [According to Equation (3.8.1)]
f~ylinders m = 6 (four stroke e~gine o. .!f\
= 0.86 x y2 7io;
x 105
b
Num ero . ,

B.P = 220 kW, , N = 1500 rpm.

. . . ·• :::2)

= 110.7mts ...Ans. bsfc = 0.273 kg/kWh

Example 3.8.2
..• m. ~.
= .B.Pxbsfc
...
A eight cylinder, four stroke diesel engine develops
= 220 x 0.273 = 60.06 kg/hr
. 180 kW at 4000 rpm. Its brake specific fuel
60.06 668 ' !. 2 . .
consumption (b.s.f.c) is 0.21 kg/kWh. Calculate the = 3600 = 1. 3 XlO kg/s
quantity of fuel to be injected per cycle if the specific
gravity of fuel is 0.86. Pi = 160 bar, Pc= 40 ~ar, 0 = 300, Sc= 0.85 : .,
Solution: cdl = o.9, Pr= s, x 1000 = o.8s x 1000 = s5o kgtm3 .

Given : Number of cylinders= 8, P = 180 kW,

Size of orifice diameter of nozzle of inJector, d
N = 4000 rpm, b.s.f.c:::: 0.21 kg/kWh,
Fuel consumed/cylinder,
Specific gravity = 0.86
. • .. 2
Fuel consumed/cylinder/hr, . ~ _ 1.6683 xlO- _ _3 . .
me = m .- . 6 - 2 .7806 x 10 kg/s
_ (b.s.f.c) x Power output
fir - Number.of cylinders Duration of injection,

0.21x180 e t 30 1 ·
fir = 8 = 4.725 kg/cylinder/hr 360 x N x 60 = 360 x 1500 x 60

Fuel consumed/cycle = - - - - - - - ' - - - - - , . . = 3.333 x 10-. 3 sec. ·

Number of cycles I hr =@x 60)
_
Velocity of fuel, Cr - cd,x e(P;-PJ
4.725
= 3.94 x 10-. s kg Pr
5
- 09 .... /2 x (160- 40) x 10
= 0.0394gm - . x \J 850
, 7
:. v o
1ume o ffue1 lDJec
. . ted Fuel consumed/ cycle
= Specific gravity = 151.23 rnls
0.0394 Volume of fuel injected/cycle,
= 0.86
= 0.0458cc
.
....!!!t... l
•••Ans.
= (~) x s,
 _-
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~ ·-
. _:- _. .
_
,_'.
.
-
· .
- '
- -

~·:·, _ . -~ ·,.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-M9ch) 3-15

- Compression Ignition Engin~

;- - ·- -- = (606o06 kg/min) x 1500 1 ~ -. -

Volume of fuel inject.ed/cycle, .
t _ . TCcycles per min)
(Q.11) x 15
,_
_ (s.f.c / 60) x P - · · \ 60 -. . .
- (r.p.m\ - (20CXf\ x (0.865 x 1000)
~ 2 j ~Pr 2 ) .
-6 3 .
= 1.57 x 10 m = 1.57 cc/cycle
3
= 6.93x 10- 8 m /s -
Volume consumed/cylinder/cycle
1.57 . . Volume of fuel injecled I eye.le
V = -6-= 0.26~7 ~cylin_der/cycle Nozzle orifice area. A, = Injection veloeity x Injection tune .
, . -8
Nozzle orifice area = CV 6.93x10
~x d
rX t 2
= 126.2 x (0.0025)
0.2617
= -;-15;-:1:-:.2:::::3:-'x=.::3::-:.3'.:!:3~3-x-1-o-~3 = 5.29 x 10-" m =0.529 mm •..Ans.
or, d
1t 2 0.2617
4 dr = 151.23 x 3.333 x 10-"1 Example 3.8.5
--- cfr_ = 0.813 cm •••Ans. 0~
A four stroke, 6 cylinder oil engine operate; A.F.
ratio = 20. The diameter and stroke of cylind~r are
10 cm and 14 cm respectively. The volumetric
' efficiency = 0.8 The condition of air at the beginning of
compression are 1 bar, 300 K. Determine · (')
1 the
maximum amount of fuel that can be injected in each
cylinder per cycle (ii>° If the engine speed is 1500 rpm,
injection pressure is 150 bar, air pressure during fuel
injection is 40 bar and fuel injection is carried out for
Solution: 20° of crank rotation, determine the diameter of the
fuel orifice assuming only one orifice is used.
Given: P = 15 kW, N = 2000 rpm. b.s.f.c =0.24 kg/kWh, 3
Take, p1 = 760 kg Im , Cdf = 0.67
9 = 30°, Pi = 130 bar, -Pc= 45 bar, Cdf = 0.9
Solution:
. ffu 1 141.5
. Speeific gravity o e., Pc= l3 l.5 + 32 =0.86~ Given : 6 cylinder, 4 stroke engine;
i ; . . -, . .
A.F ratio =20,
Fuel consumed/second = ·;4~
0 15
= O.ooi kg/s -• ·-
D = lOcm.

L = 14cm, Tlv = 0.8,

Duration of injection
e x N1 x 60
= 360 p = 1 bar, T = 300K,

N = 1500 rpm, Pi = 150 bar,

= 0.0025 seconds.
.. Pc = 40bar, 0 = 20°.

Velocityoffuel. c, c.,'1¥
= (i)
Pr = 760 kg I m3, Cdf =
Maximum amount of fuel injected/cylinder/cycle
0.67

2 x (130-45) x 10 Volume of air supplied/cylinder/cycle,

=·o.9 0.865x1000
va = Stroke volume x Volumetric efficiency
- = 126.2 mis · ·

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:

. ,. '
. . " ~ .. '
... ' ·. .

·!l
·.:·

.... v, = 47tD2 L Xllv

..
..
.
;- ' . ~ .

v. 7tcl0u2
= 4 l~ x iOO .x·. 0.8
·(•4u . ·.,

= 8.8x10- 4
m3

From gas equation, pva . = Illa • RTI

(1 x 10s.) x (8.8 ·x 10-•) = Illa x 287 x 300

·" · Mass of air supplied I cylinder I cycle,

Illa = 1.022 x 10- 3 kg

· :. ·Mass of fuel supplied.

3
. IIlr = Ill, 1.022 x 10- Solution:
. A.F. ratio 20
Number of cylinder, y = 6, 4-stroke engine i.e. n::::~
2
= S.11 X 10- 5 kg I cylinder I cycle •••Ans.

(ll) Diameter oUuel orifice AF .-r·a--~~-,!&me .=.;~);

. ..
D =100 mm=O.l ....,n..

Time of injection I cycle, L~ 140mm=0.14m

·
Volumetric efficiency, ..,~ ·v= O 8 · p = l bar ·, . ' - --,

· • Mass of fuel supplied per second to each cylinder,

= 2.22 x 10- 3 seconds
=
--
T. 27° C

N = 1500rpm;
0=20° ;
=300K
pi= 150 bar;
Pr = 760 kg/m ;
3
Pc= 20bar;
Cd! =0.67

~ 5.11X10-S
IIlri = t =2.22 x 10- j (I) Maximum amount of fuel Injected/ '.

cyllnder/cycle
= 0.023 kg/s Volume of air supplied I cylinder I cycle,
. . .
,..... -
~
~

Velocity of injection. Cr= cdf--\J------p;-

V1
7t
=4 D
2
LX_'lv
,_
5
= 0.67'12 x (15076o40) x 10
= 41t 2
(0.1) x 0.14 x 0.8

= 114 mis

Pv
. a =m -"11 · RT; m.= ~
RT

= 1 X lOS X (8.8 X 10-4)

Air supplied,
m. 287 x 300 .
• . Diameter of orifice,
= 1.022 x 10- 3 kg I cylinder I cycle
d = 5.8x 10- "m
Mass of fuel supplied,
= O.S8mm ••• Ans.
rDr = m. - 1.022 x 10- 3
A. F. ratio - 20

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'.·" . . JJlr ::: s.11 x 10- k~~~~!~~/~1._~e and P~ =595 1>ar. '
5
-Am. p = 207 bar
11
3
. . offueI orIf.Ice, .d'
Diameter s, = 0.85 · p -os5x
1.e. - •
1000=850kg/tn
.
QI) 1

TiJ11e of injectim:~/ cycle, Celf -_ 06

• •
Plllll·=. t.013 bar .

360 x~
8 386.4 kW
t :::
_.lQ..x_§Q_ -2 20 10- 3 seconds
N - 360 1500 - · x
· B.P./Cylinder = ---g- = 48.3 .

- Mass of fuel supp~ed I~ !~.~ch cy]lnder, Fuel consumption I cylinder,

· _ - • .: ,- ! · ~ · 5.11 x io-s .
· ?1f1 -~ --- t
-,-2.22 x 10-"'1 = 0.023 kg/s m, = B.P I cylinder x D1n
t_,.- • .
12.075
Velocity of fuel injection, = 48.3 x 0.25 = 12.075 kg/hr= 60

\J~
= 0.20125 kg/min
C, =Cdr"'
~
= 0.67 '12 (150 ;~> x 10
Fuel to be injected I cycle,

- ~ _0.20125
r

~ - (N/2) - (800/2)
= 123.92 mis
.,
I
=5.0J125 x 10- 4 kg/cycle
• ' ', ' 7t 2
~
-. = p!x .Arx_Cr= p,x4-d, x c, ·a 60
. Time for injection, t = 360 x N
7t 2
0.023 = 760 x 4 x d, x 123.92; 12 60 .
t = 360 x 800 =0.0025 s
d, = 5.58 x 10- 4 m
Mass flow rate of fuel per cycle per second,
..,,.,,,.,.,.- d, = 0.558 mm ••• Ans.

- ' -. r ? l e3 8 7 . "":--:'-"~· m, =
Dlr2 .
~~le . .
> • ·' ,· · · · . :

,. ' .' . .'"' ,·. ,,. t

~8 cyund~r. ~-stroke diesel .engine has, ~~~~;_():~~-. ;

:
~386.4kw
:
at 800 rpm. The fuel consumption is 0.2S k:9JkWh"i.~
. . . >.·'.' : '.,;;'.:;ti,
;Th8 p~ssure In the cylinder at the beginning of inj~Ction;_1~ Pressure difference at the beginning
: • •.... • • • • ~ r I _./ }f"'~.;4?,
;32 bar and the maximum cylinder pressure is 55 bar;_Tile'
~. . ,, .. .; .:~~%~~ = P11 -Pc1 =207 -32 = 175 bar -
,injection is expected to be set at 207 bar and the _maxlmi.Jfli'.
r ., . .'o; -~,.v,f·~ (:"~
~re at injector is set to be about 595 bar: Calcui~t;f;ifi~
>

Pressure difference at the end

f.> . . . . . . . ;, . :;·::>:jJJ .•,.
iOrifice area required per injector if the injection takes'
I ... . . .' '• = Pli - P~ =595 - 55 =540 bar
,ove,·r.·1~ Crank angle. · · "'
~~~ ~~ific gravity of fuel =0.85 . .. . Average pressure difference,
- l:*~·~\~f0r~iniedor,;.
':. ;:·~
o.s; PA!m = 1.013.bar
~..
·, t:.;:·~-~}'J'
·.,,.<:·/y> 175 + 540
t. _/, .- ' .

ITTi!~~en8CttVe· ~ presstir~ ciitteieri;;e :,~~tfie:'a~

... ..,,.··.; •, .
Pi-Pc =
2 =357.5 bar
~~-~:b.Y~t:~~J~jebtigrj_~~:3:~i~fiY~~.
Solution:

Number of cylinders, m =8, Total B.P. = 386.4 kW, 0.20125 = 0.6 x A, x_

"\}2 x 850 (357.5 x Io5)
N =800rpm Orifice area A, = 1.3606x10-' m 2
.•. Ans.
Illn = 0.25 kg/kWh ; Pc = 32 bar, (P"-2) = 55 bar
1

Scanned with CamScafYlel'

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~ l.C.En Ines· MU-Sem. V-Mech)
,-.,y,.,,.~,- 3-1
8
Co

' .•'
r·

''•'

. I Jlln 1 1
= Nn =10 x (12ooii) "'
. 1 .
. '•
i.
= 600' kg/cycle
a 1 30
Injection period ·= 360 x N x
60
=360 x~ )(~··
3
= 4.1667 x 10- s

· Assuming density of diesel,

3
Pr = 8600 kg/m

_L = o.65 x Ar x "1°2 x 8600 (120 - 30) x i(r

Solution: 600
-9 2
Similar to Example 3.8.7. [Students are advised to Ar = 6.517 x 10 m
solve as practice problem.]
Let d diameter of each holes,
A.F. ratio= 14.083: 1., Ci= 8.5776 mis
Ar = Number of hales x ~ d
2
t:" - "/.'.''--
~Exa'mple
Ll<.:\ .•. . .
3.8.9 MU - Ma 11. 10 Marks
. '. 9 . 7t d2
:A ,single cylinder four stroke oil engine develops 20 kW at
t .
6.517 x 10- = 4 x4 x
·1200 rpm. Its specific fuel consumption is 300 gms/kW-hr.
3
;The fuel density is 860 kg/m .The fuel injection is carried out d = 4.555 x 10- m
5

' .
'during 30 degrees of rotation of crank. The average injection 3
d = 4.555 X 10-S X 10 IIlDl
'pressure and pressure in the combustion chamber of the
engine are 120 bar and 30 bar ~spectively. Find the = 0.04555mm ...Ans.
'diameter of nozzle hole if four holes are used on the nozzle.:
·Take. coefficient of discharge of fuel nozzle= 0.65. Example 3.s.10· MU - Ma 1.5. 12 Marks

Solution: A . closed type injector has a nozzle orifice · ifiameier .cA

• . 4
Given: B.P =20kW; N = 1200rpm. o.9 mm and maximum cress sectional area of pas'sag9_
. .2 . • ·"
between needle cone and the seat is 1.75 mm .-Coefficient
b.s.f.c = 300 gms/kW-hr = 0.3 kg/kWh; . : - • "!
of discharge for the orifice is 0.85 and for the passage is O:~
Angle of fuel injection. a =30° .The injection. pressure is 175 bar and the average pr~1
P; = 120 bar, Pc= 30 bar; of charge during .injection is 25 bar, when the needle.~ ~
Number of hole in nozzle = 4 ; Cd! = 0.65 ·fully lifted up. Calculate the volume rate of flow per~ ci1
1 • • • • •

;fuel through the injector and the velocity of j~~ ~t,that ~

Fuel consumed I hr, r:llri = bsfc x B.P = 0.3 x 20 Jake_density of fuel equal to 850 kg/fl'.\ ~
3
·- -- ~·-·.::._: ·

= 6 kg/hr= ~kg/min Solution:

2
Vrx 850
. l J
lo kg/min =10 x 60 kg/s =600 k
I g!
= 2 x 105
rDn = s

---- Sc<1nned w ith eamSconner

 - :-- . ~
, .riii1° .
[: 0
~I..
en Ines MU-Som. V-Mech)
3-19
rCompression I nitlon engines1

.. Now we have two equations Cdr= 0.66

2 .
v x850 1 Nozzle lip, h = 5 mm= o.oo5 m,
r s x bar
11s-p= 2x10 (0.8xl.75x10-6)2 s 2
.ap = 0.07 bar= 0.07 x 10 Nim
= 2.1684x 109 x vr2 ... (1) . 3
Pa = 1.2 kg/m , Pr= 7
50 kg/m3 =7000
·
N/m
2

v2 x850 . 1
(i) A. F. Ratio when nozzle I1.P is neglected
= x (0.85 x 0.7854 x 0.9~92 x 10- 6 ) 2
5
p-25 2 x 10 2 2 . 2
9· 2 Aa (7t/4) d8 d1 (0.02) =256
= 12.6261x10 x V r bar .... (2)
Ac
= --
(7t/4) d~ - d~
= 00125)2
(0. .
Adding (1) and (2), we get
~
I
ma Cda ~ .--!
150 = v~ x (2.1684 + 12.6261) x 10 9
•
A.F. ratio, - . =
A
c
x Ar x
IDr dt
Pr .

= 14.7945 x 109 x v~ 0.85 256 x - ill

= 13.187 : 1 ••• Ans.
= 0.66 x \ / 750
150
Vr = 14.7945 x 109. (ii) Air-fuel ratio ·when nozzle IiP 15
· considered

A.F. ratio,

= 100.7 eels
. 2 Pa ·ap
m.. =
2 Pr (ap - h • g • Pr)
Now, from Equation 1, IDr

p = 175-2.1684x 109 (l.007x 10-')2 0.85 256 2x1.2 x 7000

=o.66 x 2 x 750 (7000- 0.005 x 9.81 x 750)
= 153.01 bar ••• Ans.
= 13.222: 1
Velocity of fuel through orifice

... /j. x (153.01 - 5) lOs

= \J 850 x

= 173.55 mis .

Solution:
.N = 1500 rpm, b.s.f.c = 0.2 kg/kWh,
Throat diameter, d a = 20 mm= 0.02 m, cda = 0.85
Cylinder pressures initial, Pei =30 bar,
Fuel orifice diameter,~= 1.25 mm= 0.00125 m.
max. Pa = 60 bar;

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 ~ i.e. En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech) 3-20

. Injection pressures, Pu = 200 bar, c, = 0.7

·.
'j
max. P12 = 500
. bar IDr1 = Pr" A,· Cr
cd,= 0.7, S 1= o.875, p =. 1 bar . 0.1 l99 :: 875 XA,X 186.33
2
...An...
uerence = Average pressure difference
Effective pressure di" . A, = . 7.35x 10- 1 al= 0.735 mm /inJector
over injection period.
example 3.8.13
0 = 15° A closed type injector has a nozzle orifice diameter 01
. mm and the maximum cross-secf1onal area of the
Total orifice area required, A, 10
passage between the needle cone and the seat Is
Brake power I cylinder = l:O = 45 kW . mm2• The discharge coef_ficient for the orifice Is
2 _0 and for the passage is 0.8. The injector pressure
0 85
Fuel consumption/ cylinder, is 200 bar and the average pressure. during
f injection 18
25 bar, when the needle cone 1s ully lifted up.
m, = B.P. x b.s.f.c =45 x 0.2 = 9 kg/hr Calculate the volume rate of flow per second of fuel

Fuel to be injected /cycle,

through the injector and the velocity of jet at thai
instant. Specific gravity of fuel is 0.85.
Dir (kg/hr)
rn, = Number of cycles I hr Solution: 3
Orifice diameter, d0 = 1 mm= 1 x 10· m;
. 3
m, 9 Passage diameter, dP =2 mm= 2 x 10- m
= ~x60 = (1;oox60)
cd~=0.85; cdp= o.8;

m, = .2 x 10- 4 kg/cycle Injection pressure, p1 = 200 bar

Average pressure during injection, Pp =25 bar.
Time available for fuel injection I cycle, ·
Specific gravity of fuel = 0.85
t = (_0 60:'\ 15 60 3
\.360 x "NJ =360 x 1500 =t.667 x 10- s
_ Density offuel, Pr
3
- Density of water, Pw= 1000kgtm
• Mass of fuel injected/ s,
3
4 Pr = 0.85 x 1000 = 850 kgtm
• .ffir 2X 10-
mo = - t = 1.667x10-1 =O.ll99 kg/s
Let, Vc = Volume flow rate of fuel. ·
Pressure clifference at the beginning of injection
Let p be the pressure immediately before the orifice in
Pc = P;1- p,1 =200-30= 170bar
bar.
Pressure difference at the end of injection,
P; = P;2 - Poi= 500 - 50 = 450 bar
Velocityofflow, Cr = cd- -\Jfili>
Pr

A vcrage pressure difference, Discharge rate, Q = A x Cr= A • Cd • - ~

-\JP,
170+450
Pi - Pc = 2 = 3I0bar
:. (~p) = (~'2
A·CJ .&
2
NIm 2
3
Pr = s, X Pw = 0.875 X 1000 = 875 kgtm 2

Velocity of fuel flow, c, = Cdr

= (<\ ?c~ · ~ xk bar

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·:·. ...
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Ines MU·Sem.. V-Mech ·
3-21 '
·flow through passage,
Solution:
850 1 . Q2
200-P =T xw x . (I) Coefficient of compressibility of oll, Kc
[~xc2x 10-'l'xo.sf . . .voIume per unit
It is defined as the ratio of change m
. 7 2
zoO-P = 166 x 10 Q volume to the difference in pressure causing the
... (i)
flow through orifice, compression. Mathematically,
1 Q2 . (VI - v 2) I v I - (VI - v 2>
p-25 =· 2 x850x[ 1 Kc= (pz-P1) -v1<P2-P~)
.. ~X (1X10-3)2 X 0.85 J
Xlcr
(II) Numerical
7
p-25 = 953.6 x 10 • (i .
... (ii) ·d = 3 mm= 0.3 cm ; I= 600 mm= 60cm
On adding Equations (i) and (ii),
(a) Total initial volume of fuel,
7 2
175 = . 1119.6x10 • Q
V 1 = Sum of volumes of the fuel (in barrel + in the
Q = 1.25 x 10- 4
m /s
3
delivery line+ in the injector valve)
4
.·. V 1 = fuel in barrel + ~ . d I+ fuel in injector valve
6 2
= 1.25 x 10- x 10 cm3/s = 125 cm3/s
From Equation (i), p = 174.06 bar = 7 +4
7t
(0.3)2 x 60 + 3 = 14.24 cc.
Velocity of fuel flow ~ugh orifice,
Note that the pressure will not built up till the pump
Cr=C-fip
J>;- do-\J plunger closes the inlet port. Further, movement of the
plunger will compress the fuel and raise the pressure to a
= 0_85 y2xo74.°:5~25)x 10 5
required value. As soon as the delivery pressure is reached,
the further movement of the plunger results in delivering the
= 159.19 mis •••Ans. fuel at constant pressure. Therefore, change in volume due
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Example 3.8.14 to compression of fuel,

0) Define coefficient of compressibility. V1 -V2 = Kc · <P2-P1>-V1 . - ... (i)

01) Before commencement of the effective stroke, the Given : Kc = 78 x 10-{i per bar,
fuel in the pump barrel of diesel fuel injection pump Is / .

7cc. The diameter of the fuel line is 3mm and length p2 J. 150 bar (delivery pressure)
from pump to injector is 600mm.The fuel In the p 1 (pump inlet pressure)= lbar
injector valves is 3 cc. Find,

(a) •. (V 1 - Vi)= 78 x 10-{i x (150-1) x 14.24

To deliver 0.1cc of fuel at a pressure of 150 bar, how
much displacement the plunger undergoes ?
= 0.1655 cc.
Assume the pump inlet pressure of 1 bar. Assume the
Total displacement of plunger
8
coefficient of compressibility of oil as 78 x 1o- per bar at
atmospheric pressure. = (V1 - V2) +Volume of fuel to be delivered

= 0.1655 + 0.1=0.2655 cc
(b) The effective stroke of the plunger if its diameter is ••• Ans.
6mm?

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. ·· ~ l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V·Mech) 3-22 . CompreSsion Ignition~~·?

(b) Effective stroke of plunger, L if its diwnctcr, ..n-..., (kg/hr) m,- · - . ~- '
·:
m, = Number of cycles I hr - N x 60
=
D = 6 mm. 0.6 cm. 2
t • ' .:
..•
••

Total displace~cnt volume of plunger =~ ·0 2

xL 8.5
me= (1~x60)
0.2655 = 41t (0.6)2 x L
1.77 x 10-• kg/cycle
L = 0.939 cm or 9.39 mm •••A_m .
Time available for fuel injection I cycle,
Example 3.8.15

A four-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine develops a

t = (3:0x~)
power of 170 kW at 1600 rpm. The bsfc Is 0.2 kg/kWh. 1.1.x 60 =0.001458s
At the beginning of Injection pressure is 30 bar and the
= 360 600 1

· maximum cylinder pressure is 60 bar. The injection is . . Mass of fuel injected/ s,

expected to be at 190 bar and maximum pressure at IDt 1.77 x 10
-4

the Injector Is set to be about 550 bar. riici = t = 0.001458 = 0.1214 kg/s

Assuming the following : Cd for injector= 0.7; S.G. of Pressure difference at the beginning of injection
fuel = 0.875;Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar; Effective
. = p. -p =190-30=160bar
PC It CJ ·
pressure difference = Average pressure difference
over the injection period. Determine 'the total orifice Pressure difference at the end of injection,
area required per Injector if the injector takes place
P.
I
= P·12 - p '2 =550 - 60 = 490 bar
over 14° crank angles.
Solution: Average pressure difference,

Given: Number of cylinders, Tli =4, B.P. =170 kW, = 160 ;490 =325 bar
N =1600 rpm, b.s.f.c =0.2 kg/kWh,
Pr = Sr X Pw
Cylinder pressures initial,
3
Pei =30 bar, max. Pa= 60 bar; = 0.875 x 1000 = 875 kg/m

Injection pressures, Pn=190 bar, max. Pi =550 bar

2 . . '1¥(pi-PJ
Velocity of fuel flow, Cr= Cd!
Cd!= 0.7, Sr= 0.875, p =1 bar . Pr
•
3
Effective pressure difference= Average pressure difference c - 0 7.... /2 x (325 x 10 )
r - . \J
875
over injection period.
= 190.8 mis
e = 14°
Total orifice area required, A,

Brake power I cylinder = 1J0 = 42.5 kW 0.1214 = 875 x Aix 190.08

Fuel consumption I cylinder,
Ar = 7.27 x 10- 7 m2
riJr = · B.P. x b.s.f.c = 42.5 x 0.2 = 8.5 kg/hr
= 0.727 mm2fmjector ••• Am.

Fuel to be injected I cycle,

scanned with camScanoer

 "ti · Eri tnes
;, 3-23 Com resslon lgni ~n .
. . f: above the self
The temperature of air attruned is ar . ·
ignition temperature of the diesel fuel used. .
. the combustion
The fuel is injected by a fuel pump mto
-;;iabUS Topic : Combustion Phenomenon and . . · · hi h pressures
chamber by one or more jets under very g
200 350
518989 of Combustion In C.I. Engines, Delay of about 120-210 bar pressures at about < - )
~rtod, Knocking, Pressure-Crank Angle Diagram · at which
before TDC. The point A represents the ume .
~ ) d . <Y~m shown JD
the fuel injection starts on (p - 0 iab"-- .
& ur stages which

3.9 Co.!Jlbustlon Stages In C.I. Engines

.•
Fig. 3.9.1. Combustion takes place m io .

~ (MU· Dec. 12, May 13, May 15, Dec. 15, May 16,
are as follows :

Combustion stages In
Dec.17) I.e. Engines

1. First stage (Ignition delay period)

2. Second stage (Period of uncontrolled combu!!tion)

3. Third stage (Period of controlled combustion)

4. Fourth state (After burning)

Fig. C3.S : Combustion stages in C.I. E~gines

... 1. · First stage (Ignition delay period) (Curve AC)

The fuel leaves the nozzles initially in the form of a jet,

and later on, it disintegrates into a core of fuel
surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles
In case of compression ignition engines the air alone is
compressed and raised to high pressure and due to atomization, vaporization and mixing with hot
temperatures in the compression stroke by using high air.
compression ratios in the range of (12-20). - . Durin_g vaporization process of fuel it receives its latent
heat from surrounding air and this causes a slight drop
Stages of combustion in pressure in the cylinder as shown by curve AB.
p 81
1 stage - AC
E Ilnd stage - CD As soon as the vaporization is over, the preflame
illrd stage - DE reactions of the mixture start. During such chemical
Point A - Fuel injection
starts. IV th stage - EF reactions the energy is released at slow rate and the
Point E - Fuel injection
is terminated. Fired cycle
pressure starts building up.
Point C - Combustion
starts Therefore, the preflame reactions first start slowly and
then accelerates until the ignition of fuel takes place. It
corresponds to point C on diagram.

r:il"' Definition of delay period

60" 50 40 30 20 10 TDC 10 20 30 40 50 60" 9

• Expansion
Compression

~g. 3.9.1 : CombuStion stages in C.I. Engin~

-- Scanned w ith CamScaoner

 ~- l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 3-24
. . . ...
Compression Ignition Englries

The delay period can be divided into two parts as The fuel which is accumulated during the c!_ela~ ~riOd
,-/
follows: ' . ready &0 r combustion and it would bilrn at ,.,.
1s now '' .....
Types of delay period ex~mely rapid rate causing a s~p rise in cylin<!Cr
pres~ure and temperature·
(a) Physical delay · Tue rate oi pressure rise.depends upon the fuel injeCte<t
(b) Chemical delay and accumulated, which is ~tly proportional to the
time of injection and the engine speed.
Fig. CJ.6 : Types or delay period
Higher the delay period, higher would be the rate Of
-+ (a) Physical delay
pressure rise. During this period it is difficult to control
This represents the time interval from the time of the amount of fuel burning, for this reason, this periotJ
injection of fuel to its attainment of self ignition of rapid ~ombustion is called the period of
temperature during which the fuel is atomized,
wicontrolled combustion as represented by curve CD
vai>orized and mixed with air.
in Fig. 3.9.1.
-+ (b) Chemical delay -+ 3 • Third stage {Period of controlled combustion)
(Curve DE)
After physical delay peri~ is over, the time interval
upto the time the fuel auto-ignites and flame appears is Once. the fuel accumulat~d during the delay period is
called chemical delay. burnt in the period of uncontrolled combustion, the
During this period preflame reactions take place. This temperature and pressures in the cylinder will be so
period corresponds to ignition lag of S.I. engines.
high that the further quantity of fuel injected will burn
In practice, it is very difficult to separate exactly these as soon as it leaves the nozzle provided sufficient
two delay periods since the processes involved are very
oxygen is present in the cylinder.
complex.
Therefore the rate . of pressure rise can now be
-+ 2. Second stage (Period of uncontrolled !
controlled by controlling the rate of fuel injection. This
combustion) (Curve CD)
period of combustion is kllown as period of controlled
Once the delay period is over the mixture of fuel and
combustion represented by curve DE.
air will auto-ignite since it is above the self ignition
temperature.
-+ 4. Fourth state (After burning) (Curve EF)

The flame appears at one or more locations where Theoretically the combustion is completed at the point
concentration of fuel and air mixture is optimum. This the maximum. pressure is attained during the cycle
is due to the fact that the mixture present in the
corresponding to point E few degree after TDC.
combustion chamber at the time of ignition is
extremely heterogeneous unlike the homogeneous However, the burning of fuel contjnues during its

mixture of S.L engines. expansion stroke due to reassociation of _disSociated

. ..
Once the flame appears the mixture in other regions gases and any unburned fuel due to heterogen~s1

will either be burnt by propagating flames or it will condition of mixture. This phase -of combustion~s
auto-ignite because of the heat transfer from the burnt called after burning.
mixture and high temperatures existing in the
combustion chan;iber.
k:" ~ !
'
•. ' ;. ~ - • • •.
-, ·
• . '.
~:: -~i,. En ine··s MU-Sem. V-Mech) ' . .....:.3-
25
\
I · ~f.v· .

~·- · :~bus"Toplc: Factors Affecting Combustion/

,t . · · Delay Period

-t 4, Engine speed
'od in teaJlS
Increased speed will increase the delay pen · .
. •. . the fuel pUJDP IS
of degrees of crank rotat10n, since . .
· . Therefore, dunng
driven by the engine through gears. .
· . be umulated 1D the
the delay period more fuel will ace ·
. of this ruel
cylinder with increased speed and bunung .
lled . combustion will
during the period of Uncontro
· and high
result into · high rate of pressure . nse
· . · mixing of fuel
temperatures. It also results into better
Effect of Engine Variables
on Delay Period and air due to increased turbulence.

1.Compression ratio -+ S. Jacket water temperature

· 2.lnlet pressure (supercharging) Increased jacket wat~rtemperature increases the air

. h reduces · the delay
temperature in the cylinder, ence, _
3.lntake temperature
period.
4.Engine speed
-+ 6. Load on engine
5.Jacket water temperature
Increased ·1oads on the engine reduces delay period.
6.Load on engine Since the air-fuel ratio ·decreases with the Uicrease in
operating temperatures.
7.lnjection pressure
-+ 7. Injection pressure
8.lnjection timing
Increased injection pressures will give better
9.Engine size atomization of fuel. It generally .tends to reduce the
delay period slightly.
10.Fuels
_. 8. Injection timing (Refer Fig. 3.10.1)
Fig. C3.7: Effect of Engine Variables on Delay Period
If fuel is injected much before TDC the delay period is
.. L Compression ratio larger since the pressure and temperatures in the
Increased compression ratio increases the density, cylinder are low. It will give extremely high rate of
pressure and temperature of the charge. Increased pressure · rise during the period of uncontrolled
temperatures and pressure reduces the delay period. combustion.

.. 2. Inlet p~e (supercharging) Too late injection will reduce delay period but it would
Increased inlet pressures increases the pressures in the result in poor efficiency of the engine and the engine
.compression stroke and reduces the delay period. will not run smoothly.

.. 3. Intake temperature

Higher intake temperatures will result into high

Scanned w ith CarnScanner

 .~.· tc. ~gine~ (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 3-26 . . . · .. • . · · . Compressk>n lgn!Hon ~~-. •.

, ' A1- Early Injection

(30" berore TDC) injecred and accu~ in the ~ti9n ~· ··
. P A • Correct lnjecllon during the delay penod. · · · ·
timing (20" before TDC)
A 2• Late Injection . During the period of uncontroile.d combus.tioo~ ·~ ..'.
(10° ~font TDC) accumulated in the combustion cham_ber wilJ ·~fiJC1
111
•.
be expJode.d which shall give very high rate of · >'
. .. . . Prcssllrt
rise with very-high pressures.
- ......_ ~Motoring curve
A high rate of pressure rise is equivalent to~~ . .
e . . U<fdcn
TDC increase in load on the engme structure.

Fig. 3.10.1: Effect ofh\feetlon timJng Instantaneous increased pressure of gases will · .
. 81\'c a
direct blow on engine structure during thC pre
... 9. Engine size • I " SstJrc
equalisation process. (p-0) diagram with and With
It has no effect on delay period in tenns of time. knock is shown in F~g. 3.11.l(a) and. Fig. 3.11.I~
However, large engin~s operate at lesser speed, respectively.
therefore, delay period. in terms. of crank angle_ is
smaller. Hence, less fuel enters the cylinder and the
engine will run smooth.

~ 10. Fuels

Higher the self ignition temperature of the fuel, higher

will be the delay period. Motoring
~~~L-"-~ .....~~--~~~--1~9
TDC
(a) Normal combustion .
Syllabus Topic : Factors Affecting Knocking
p
3.11 Knock In C.I. Engines c
,g
(Abnormal Combustion) Ill
:l
..0
E
8
'5

~~ ........ ........
~ ~~...&...~~~~~~~--~a
TDC
(b) Abnormal combustion (knock)
In case of S.I. engines it was the end part of the gas
Fig. 3.11.l : Combustion in C.I. engin¥tb and
which was responsible to produce detonation if delay
without knocking
. period and flame speeds are low.

While in case of C.I. engine it is the first part of the A thudding·sound will be heard from this impact This

charge which is responsible to produce knock and noise is called knock.

rough running of the engine. Therefore, it is seen that the knock in C.l. engines

In case of C.I. engines the .fuel is injected and its occurs if the delay period is longer. The knocking in'
C.I. engines may have the same damaging effect as
combustion is by way of auto-ignition. If the delay
discussed in case of S.I. engines. ·
period of the fuel is long, a large amount of fuel will be

-----·..··---'°-~""'
•·o""'
'·"'"""
Q,<-•dll·
scanned with CamScanner
 . . , eng·,·nas.
' . · ·ti·on
·· · n 1gn1
. compress10 the .
. bi' h reduce .
· Table "3.11.1 gives the
f tors w c
a: .
S I and c.I. eoguies.
detonation and knock.i. ng te ndency in · · · don and
· reduce detona
Table 3.11.l : Factors tending to es - . ,
knocking in s.1. and c.1. engio .
r
l:
!
!f - low high
I t. Comp~ssion ratio
t 2. Inlet temperatures
low high

low . high
3. Inlet pressures (super
charging)
high low
4. Self ignition temperature of
fuel
long short
5. Time lag or ·delay period of
fuel

low high .
6. Load on th.e engine

low high
>!.-= , Combustion wall
3.11.1 Review of Knocking and Detonation In
S.I. and C.I. Engines temperature

8. Speed (rpm) ·; , . high ·low

+ (MU - Dec.14, May 17, Dec.17)
- ~~ -
9. Cylinder size small large
.I
Objectives of Combustion.
~·
.\ .
\.:

Chamber- Design "for C.I. Engines

v ~':,~~
. (a) In S.I. engines, the detonation occ~ near the end of
3.12 Objectives of Combustion Chamber
· · combustion; whereas, in the C.I. engines, knock occurs
in the beginning of combustion.
·Design for C.I. Engines .
·(b) To reduce knocking and detonation, for S.I. engines the ~ (MU - Dec. 14)
delay period should be large, whereas, for C.I. engine
the delay period should be as small as possible..
(c) The engine variables which promote detonation in S.I.
engine will reduce knock in C.I. engines.
{d) When the engine is overloaded, the S.I. engine have
The problem of designing the C.I. combustion
rough running while C.I. engines run smoothly.
chambers is of equal importance as already discussed
(e) Detonation to pre-ignition is only possible m S.I. for the case of S.I. engines, though the requirements of
engines since mixture of fuel and air are compressed. design of chamber for .these two types of engin~ differ
Knocking due to pre-ignition in C.I. engines is not considerably.
possible since only air is compressed.
The essential difference of S.i. and C.I. engiri.es is in
supply and mixing of air. As we have seen, in case of

Scanned with Com Scilllflff"

~· l.C, Engines MU-Sem. V·Mech 3·28

SJ. cngi~e the ho~ogeneous mixture of ~ and fuel is

· supplied by carburetor dunng its suction stroke, then it iype• of AJr SWlrl . 'il
t
is compressed and ignited by a spark received from )
1.lnduction Swirl f
Spark plug..
The homogeneous mixture is -prepared by carburetor. 2. compression Swirl
Wbcrens, in case of C.I. engines only nir is compressed
in the cylinder and the fuel is injected under pressure 3.combustlon Induced Swirl

few degrees before TDC during its compression stroke

Fig. CJ,8 : Types or air swirl
for an injection period of 20° - 35° of crank rotation
depending upon the speed and power requirements.
3.13.1 Induction Swlrl
For efficient combustion, it is necessary that the fuel is
atomised. vaporized and properly mixed with air in n
very short period to control the rate of pressure rise in
second stage of combustion to avoid knocking
problems of the engine.
Therefore the mixing of fuel and air is of great
importance in case of C.I. engine to obtain the required In this method the flow of air is directed in desired
power, efficiency and short delay period for smooth
direction through a port tangential to the piston or by
and noiseless operation of the engine.
masking or shrouding the intake valve head or by
tr To accomplish this, the main objectives of · ·b dunn'g the compression stroke. This method.IS
squ1s.
combustion chamber design generally employed in case of open or direct type
1. Fine atomisation of fuel. combustion chambers.
2. Proper mixing of fuel and air. Fig. 3.13.l(a) illustrates a tangential port method of
3. Requisite turbulence. induction swirl.
4. Complete burning of fuel so as to obtain peak Fig. 3.13.l(b) illustrates the method of producing air
pressures. swirl by masking or shrouding one side of the inlet
5. Low surface to volume ratio to reduce heat losses valve, permitting the air flow only around the part of
and to achieve high thermal efficiency. periphery of the valve.
6. Short delay period for smooth operation of the
The angle of mask used usually varies 90° to 140°. The
engine.
best tangential direction of air movement can be
Air Swirl
obtained by turning the val~e around its axis.

3.13 AlrSwlrl Since such n method imposes a restriction on area of

+ (MU· May 17)

flow, it reduces the volumetric efficiency.

Universit Question Fig. 3.13.l(c) illustrates the method of producing air

swirl by c.asting a lip on one side of the inlet valve.

Though it has been established that the nir motion

c:r Definition of air swirl
induced by the above method during suction strol-e
persist even during the compression stroke but these air
movements are not enough for proper mixing of fuel
and air.

/.
- -~:••~."!

scanned w ith cmisconn er

r
r[ ~I.·
. . ..
r!f!J~~En~~in:e~s~(M~U~-S!:em~.V~-~M~ech~)bm;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~~~
·unEn

2~9~~;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~~~~,~Co~m~p~re~ss~io~n~l~gn~~;;.;;~~~
1 0

•;. ~re. it is further augmented by squish method

f · " illusuated in Fig.- 3.13.l(d). Squish is the flow of air Main combustion chambef swlrt ctmmbe'

I fi011l periphery to the centre of the cylinder into the

tf b . .
cotllbustion recess Y squeezing it out from between
r. the piston and cylinder head towards the end of
' coropression stroke.

...-
·. :~

Fig. 3.13i : Comp~ion swirl

(b} 3.13.3 Combustion Induced Swirl

In this method a small pressure rise is· obtained by

combustion of fuel and air in a separate cell and then it is
forced through a small hole at high velocity to create swirl
turbulence. This method is employed in precombustion and.
air cell combustion chamber designs. These ,will be
discussed later.

Syllabus Topic : Types of Combustion Chambers

(c) (d)
for C. I. Engines
Fig. 3.13.1 : Methods of induction swirl

3.13.2 Compression Swirl

3.14 Classification of Combustion
Chambers for C.I. Engines
In this method the air is forced through a tangential
passage into a separate swirl chamber during
+ (MU· Dec.14)
Universit Question
compression stroke.

The method is used in swirl combustion chambers.

TbC compression swirl method is illustrated in

Fig. 3.13.2.

During the compression stroke the air is forced into the The combustion chambers for C.I. engines are basically
chamber and during the expansion or power stroke the two types which are as follows.
burnt gases pass out to the main combustion chamber
through the throat of swirl chamber resulting into
excessive turbulence and better combustion.

Scanned with Ca rr&:onner

 . .~· ..•
•... -

.a.;ao.

(A) Non~Turbul . · . . .
· Cornbusuo~~ho;~:~~r Direct Injection (0.1.)
(B) Turbulent or 1 .
· chambers ndlrect Injection (IOI) coinbusUon

(i) Swirf combustion chamber$

(Ii) Precombustion chamber

(iii) Air cell chamber

Fig. C3.9 • C~ifi

• cation of combustion chambers l

(A) Non-Turbo) . j
· ent or open or Direct injection (D.I.)
Combustion Chambers !
(a) ilemispheric.l (b)° Sballow~eptb i

This type of comb

..
.
ustton chambers utilize the induction lI
air swuJ method e g all I
· · · open or direct injection
combustion chambers.

-+ (B) Turbulent 0~ Indirect injection (IDI)

combustion chambers
. . These types are furtb l . .
. . . er c assified based on method used (d) Cylindrical (e) Rectangu1ar
for creating air swirl. ·. .
Fig. 3.15.1: Open or Direct Injection (DI) combusti
... (i) s
. wirl combustion chambers : In this combustion
.
chambers
~

chamber. the compression swirl is employed e.g.

Recanto swirl combustion chamber. In case of hemispherical chamber (a), it provides a
-+(ii)P . small squish. However, depth to diameter ratio ~be
recombustion chamber : It employs combustion
induced swirl. varied for better performance. But in case of shallow
-+ (w 000
) Air@cell cllamber : It also employs the combustion depth (b) and rectangular type (e) . chambers the
induced swirl e.g. Lanova air cell chamber. squish is comparatl~ely lower due to larger diame~rof

3.15 Non-Turbulent or Open or Direct cavity of the chamber.

Injection (DI) Combustion Chambers The cylindrical chamber (d) provides better squish
and the desired level of squish can be varied by
In case of non-turbulent, also called as open or direct
injection combustion chambers, the mixing of fuel and changing the depth to diameter ratio of the cavity.
air depends on the induction swirl provided by Swirl is produced by shrouding. the inlet valve...
directing the flow of air in desired direction through
ports or by shrouding the valve head or by squish. The truncated cone design (c) of chamber is u~ by

These chambers are usually formed in the piston. Since Leyland motors. In such a design the air swirl is
the mixing is feeble, the actual mixing of fuel and air is obtained by shrouding the inlet valves and produces
achieved by injecting fuel in the chamber through a
powerful squish with air movement.
multi orifice type of nozzle under pressures more
than 200 bar.

Scanned with Ca mScan ner

 .l

·.-, ~ i.e. E~gines (MU-Sem.V-Mech) 3-31'

. -. . . . . b -- t transfer , ..
: :·.·. ·~dv~~~es and disadv~tages· of non-turbulent~ of ·
Because of high turbulence c
. · .[eated the · ea ·
';· · higher and · ·
ustion chambers ~ as follows : · · . relatively
losses to cylinder.' walls are ·
. cl.?in~ .
starting of such engines is di~cul~. . .
J\dvantages . . . s~~m
ti' ' - . . uch of execs .
Such chambers do not reqwre m IJ)iXing of
. .. nie·beat Joss to cylinder Walls is Small due to presence .be since. the -
1. ' ' ' ' case of non-turbulent cham rs ·
of Jess turbulence ~ the chamber, it gives ea8e 'of · . h turbulence of air. ·
fuel and air is due to big ·
- . thennal efficiency
startinK· Less amount of air leads to lower_. . ·
· · hi her output.
It is simple in construction. but higher mean effective pressure i.e. .8
z. "able speed
Jn case of slow speed engines where ·injection period is These chambers are found suitable for van . .
3. . . 'nh t turbulence which
spread.over long period of tim~, ignition delay assumes operation because of thell" 1 eren
. ed· rate of fuel
Jess. ~portance. Consequently, less costly fuels with readily response for mixing of mcreas ·
longer delay can be used. injection.
· . . · · of engine
. Turbulence being less in such c~ambers they need to be Such chambers produce smooth operation .
4
shock · of peak
supplied excess air for better utilisation of fuel, the · h«cause anti-chambers absorb the
thermal efficiency is high and approaches air standard pressures.
efficiency. In turbulent type of combustion chambers. the space is

., Disadvantages · divided into: two or more distinct compartments

between which there are restrictions ·or t:hfoats small·
L Supply of excess air results into lower maximum
enough to create pressure difference between the
temperatures. therefore, power output suffers.
spaces during combustion process. For this reason ·
2. Such engines require large engine bore (more than these are also called as ''Divided Combustion
200 mm) to stroke ratio compared to high speed
Chambers".
engines resulting into higher weight to power ratio.
Some of the turbulent type chambers based on the
3. Because of small openings for injecting the fuel, it method of turbulence employed are discussed below :
gives frequent clogging of orifice by accumulated
3.16.1 Swirl Combustion Chamber
carbon particles and higher maintenance costs.

4. High injection pressures are needed. ~ (MU - Dec.14)

3.16 Turbulent or Indirect Injection {IOI)

Combustion Chambers

In such combustion chambers the mixing of fuel and

air depends on the turbulence created in the Suth type of combustion chambers employ
combustion rather than on very high injection compression swirl as explained in section 3.16.2. One
pressures. type of swirl combustion chamber is shown m
Fig. 3.16.1. .
Therefore such engines use pintle type of nozzles and
fuel injection pressure requirements are much lower. During compressiqp stroke, practically 50% of the air
is forced into swirl chamber through the throat in

Scanned w ith CamScanner

 . 3·32

ht.nl4~11tlnl mmolhm to glvo high rou1t1011nl ulr 4. Sullublc for high 11pecd engines.
lllOV~llll111l nll ~how11 ht l'lg. 3. l(j, I, 5, Controlled rate of pressure rise gives smooth running of.
'l'ho t\1t'I 111 lr\loOIOll 11110 llWltl ohumlior (ow dogrooH engine.
h~l'oru '1'1)(~ 111111
lh() uutu•lg11ltlm1 lu lnlllulcd. lt rc1mltH 6. Plnllc type of nozzles can be used due to low injection
11110 llovolop111011t ot' llluh p1·01111111'0" Jn tho 11wlrl . f'"'lulremenlB Such nozzles have self-cleaning
preHsure "" • .
el1111nho1·. properties, therefore, maintenance problem ts reduced.

er Dleadvantages
Cold starting is difficult since air looses heat to
J.
cylinder wulls.
Work of comprcst;ion is higher and work of expansion
2.
't suits 1·nto lower mechanical efficiency.
l11 Iowcr, 1 re.
High turbulence increases heat l~sses it results into low
3.
thermal efficiency·
4. Specific fuel consumption is high.

3 •1 a.2 Pre-Combustion Chamber

~ (MU· Dec.14)

'f'ho p111'tl11lly bumt mlxtmo l'rom Hwll'I ch:unl>or movc11

out Into lho 11111111 comlJ11stlo11 cl111111bor of cylinder nnd
ll llHl\ln 1'tlt111·1111 Into !lWh-1 cl111111bor.
A thl"k lmi11l11tlo11 11.1 pmvldcd to NWlrl chnmllor NO thut
ll l'llllN hot. Such a design is represented in Fig. 3.16.2. It consists
'l'ho 111utlu11 of mixture In nnd out lo 1.1 wlrl chuml>or 1>ols of u pre-combustion chamber also called as anti-
thl' whirling motion 1111d t'Cducos rho dclny pcrio<l cluunbcr.
1'\l1111llln1J Into co111mllcd nllo of l"'C8Slll'C rl110 in second Fuel
N.l11go uf co111bustlo1111ml 1ho onglno runs smoothly. Injection

Uxccsslvo 11wlrl croutcd helps ln rnpid mixing of fuel

und uh· 111 tho third slogo ~>f combustion ulso. ll should
Pre-combustion
he 11otcd thnt thl'l lllr i;wlrl wlll l11crcuso with incrcnso in chamber
s1iccd ut' tho 0111:1lnc.

.,.. Advnntngoa ...-+1--Maln

combustion
I. 'l'ho l\tcl hucclIon prcssurc!i needed 111-0 low (J 25-150 chamber

b111·) since the 111l:<lng of l\tol uml uir mainly depends on .•' ..., "~ ~~·
·•'i!·!;'
flto nit' swirl nml 11ot 011 tho lnjoctiun pr"Csstircs nntl fuel
spmy cltnr·nctorlNllcs.
o.:. : .~Mr
• .• -,_......~
· · -· ,1· \.;';;~
2. Doller· 1111li1,11tlun of 11ir results into high 111.0.p. nnd
f}OWOl' Olll!)Uf.
1"11~· 3.16.2: Prccombustion clmmber
J, lhh1111s< Is co111p11rn1lvdy clc1111.

••• • -• • •--- ---- -~ •-H F-.s.I• .. ~

S!.:1:1m1l'l.I w oth C1:1m $c11111it"f

~ - ·.;'. · ,

I-; ·. :·.- .

.It .communiCat.es with main comb .

... . · usuon c"--be ' . " · . · ll. and due to
·· thfOUgb number of small passages. · UCUl) r The combustion is ioitiated.- in the air ce
... . fuel is injcc_ted to pre-combustion chamber and . . high pressure rise it flows back into main chamber.
. . •t d . th lll1' lS
~orccd mto I unng c compression stroke. The main combustion chamber is so designed .that the
. stream from air-cell splits
gas . mto
. two vertices -to
. It initiates · the · combustion in th · · ·
· sul · · e P1"C-combustion create high swirl. .
cballlber, 1t re ts mto high pressure .
nse.
High turbulence and high·temperature of gases reduce
The rate of pressure rise in pre-combo ti.
. . . . s on chamber the delay period and it controls the rate of pressure rise
. bemg higher than mam combustion cham
.al her, the and the engine runs smooth.
pressure diftierenti forces the mixtur
. . e of burnt and
bU1111D8 fuel from pre-combustion .ch be . This design ·differs from pre-combustion chamber in
· .· · .. am r ·mto main
cb.aIDber at very high velocities due to fl · respect of fuel injection.
· · · ow past the
sJJl2ll passages. In case of air cell the fuel is injected in the main
It causes rapid mixing and burning of fu · . chamber while in the other case into pre-combustion
e1 m the main
chamber. chamber.

The rate of pressure rise in third stage of b . .

com usuon 1s
also controlled due to negligible delay period.

" Advantages

t. Delay period is reduced since the . pre-eombustion

chamber is designed to run hot It results into smooth
running of engine.

2. Combustion in third stage is rapid, _it gives high m.e.p.

3. High injection pressures are not needed. . .
Fig. 3.16.3: Air cell combmtion chamber for Lanova engine
4. Pintle type of nozzles with single orifice can be used.
(plan view)
,, Disadvantages
~ Advantages
1. Due to high rate of burning and turbulence the heat 1. Smooth running of engine.
losses are high.
2. Easy cold starting can be ~btaioed by cutting off the air
2. Thermal efficiency is low.
cell by a valve so that its compression ratio increases.
3. Cold starting is difficult. 3. System can be used for high speed engines.

3.16.3 Air-cell Combustion Chamber ~ Disadvantages

Air-cell combustion chamber design used forLanova 1. Low thermal efficiency.

engine is represented in Fig. 3.16.3. In this case a 2. High specific fuel consumption.
separate air-cell through a small neck communicates
with the main combustion chamber.
3.17 M.A.N. Combustion Chamber

The fuel is injected across the main chamber into the Dr. Meurer of Maschimenfabric Augsburg Nurnberg
neck of air-cell which is designed to run bot. (M.A.N.) of Germany in 1954 developed a special type
of open combustion chamber, also called as 'M'
combustion chamber.

- -- -- - -··=·~----='-=-=
 .,EEi.l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V-Mech) ComproHlon Ignition Enei~ .

It is suitable for smaJI, high speed engines. In this

design, the combustion chamber ha~ a spherical cavity
6.
7.
Weight to po~er ratio is low.
High volumetric efficiency.
--·
in the piston as shown in Fig. 3.17.1.
er Disadvantages

. al no load and low loads may give diesel

Engmc · Odour,
smoke and high hydrocarbon emissions.

Rating of Fuels for C.I. Engines_

-----Combustion
chamber
3 _18 Rating of Fuels for C.I. Engines
(Cetane Number)
--~~~~~~--------
+ (MU - May 17, Dec. 17)

.·: ......•,

.•
'
...... :

o.
. What 18 octane number ond cetane number? ., . ··"
Ytg. 3.17.1 : ?tLA.N. combustion chambu .. . .• .. ··:
,,. .. .. . .. . : .: '
1bc fuel spray impinges tangentially on the cn\'lty nn<l o: OCtano and cetane mtln of fuels:
it spreads o\·er the entire clumbcr. Such type fucl spmy / Jncronsed delay period or ignition lag promotes
impingement was bclic\'cd 10 ~ undesimblc in erulicr knocking in C.l. engines. The property of ignition lag
designs of ope.n combustion ch:uu~. is gcncmlly mcnsurcd by cctune number.
But acco.rding to I.he lhcory U$Cd in this design it is 1llc fuel cctanc (C 16 J-1 34) is straight chain paraffin with
suggested tlu.t the :Ur home fuel sproy in the c.wity good ignition quulitics and it is arbitrarily assigned a
makes bom~eDC"OUs. miuurc and it nutoi~nite.s before roting of 100 cetane number.
impingmrnt ~ith onmul de.by period, while the While the hydrocarbon fuel alpha-methyl-naphthalene
rcn:uinder fod impin~:ins on the c:ivi1y wfilts have to (CJO 11, CH 3) has poor ignition quality and it is
C\~Y"
-!.e from lhe c-.•wit)' prior 10 rombustion.
a'>signe<l 1.cro cctane number.
lt CO!:!rols the r.!!e of pressu.n: rise in tl)C !.Oeond !>luge
TI1esc two fuels urc mixed by volume and the mixture
cJ c:nmllwaruoo L"ld P'·es IDlOOtb running of engine.
is matched with a fuel under test in a standard engine
Ho-;;. C'•-U. i.1 i.s (W"'.her JXISSihk LO CO!ltroJ tl>e air home
running under prescribed conditions.
f1:11eJ 1'p0)' ~' "'.!:l)i.Dg the dinm~ ~·een tJ1e nouJc
TI1e celune number of a fuel is defined as the
rfp :!.:rd~ ClO'Ir.l:.iumon clumba ",1,·~ls.
percentage by volume of Cetane in a mixture of cctane
(C 16 HJ.4) and alpha-methyl-naphthalene that produces

t11e same delay period or ignition lag as the fuel being

2. High tham?J dflcierJcy' tested under same operating conditions on the same
3. C1.fl u:s.e ~ ig.ritioo c;wJily fuel s. engine.

Higher the cel!me number of fuel lesser will be the

tendency for diesel knock.
 :, ·.. ..·. .
. ...,

.··

~).;;. l!J191""5 (i.IU-~m. V-M8ch

•'

. •. • 3-35 .
, . p1esel Index - ·· • .
I"· g,18·1 . . . . . . .
. . alternative method ··of· expressing the quality of
. ·. AD el is call
. eddiesel"d m ex. Section - I : Fuel Injection Syste'!!_
diesel tu . .
· . ·s defined as : .
Jtl
_; _ bDiline point c°F) x API gravity at 150 C Fuel injection systems are of two types :
Oiesel.index - . . 100.
(i) Sol.id or airless injection system ·
f..
~- ...(3.18.1)
b (ii) Air injection
~
t.
~
WlJere.
In solid injection system air is first compressed to ~
" • :..nine point represents' the lowest tem
(a) ~ . . perature at .hlgb pressure and temperature and used for injecting
which the diesel fuel IS completely miscible . with an
equal volume of aniline. · the fuel at 70 bar and bigh~r pressures. These are of
AJDericaD Petroleum Institute
. . (API) gravitY is the three tYpes :
(b)
o and it IS expressed as :
density of dieseIii ·
141.5 (a) Co~on rail system
j\PI gravity= Specific gravity at 1s0 c-131.5 ...(3.18.2)
(b) Individual pump system
. The specifi~ gravity of diesel oil is the ratio of ~ass
(c) · Distributor system.
per unit volume of oil to the mass of water to the same
voJuroe at standard temperature of 1s0 c. Nozzle is a part of ·an injector through which fuel is
injected to combustion chamber, these are pintle, single
3.19 Additives for CJ. Engine Fuels hole, multiple hole and pintaux types. The use of pintle
nozzles avoid the dribbling of fuel in the combustion
chambers. Single hole nozzles are suitable for open
combustion chambers, since these give small spray
cone angle with inadequate mixing of fuel and air.

Quantity of fuel and size of nozzle orifice :

Additives are used to raise the cetane number of the
fuels in the range of (50-60) for high speed engines. Fuel jet velocity,

Such additives serve to reduce the self · ignition C f -_ Cdf ~(P;-P,,)

.
Pr ·
temperature of fuel by acting as a local ignition point.
Some of the additives are given below in Table 3.19.1. · Cr= Cdf~ ·
Table 3.19.1 : Additives for C.I. engine fuels Q = (~4 d2 • n"\:J x cr x (.JLx 6
0.'l~
360 N) 60

where,

Ni = Number of strokes/min

1. Amyl Nitrate 13.5 · 8 = Fuel injection time in crank angle degrees.

2. Ethyl thionitite 10

3. Amyl Nitrite 9

Sconned w ith CamScanner

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.. . . ' . comgresslon lgn~ .. . ' :' '· ;

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:

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• • . , • " •t

~ I.e. Engines (MU-Sem.'V~Mech) cell chain"'."° .·.··.· .•·· '

. ~tlon -·11 : c~mb~stion 1~ c. 1. Engines .. ..
MAN coIP
. ·bustiOP c}laIIll)ei W~ devcloi>Cd in~·: ·1'
.. . . .. -·~ .
..
. and Combustion Chambers · · . ·. . ·iabte for slJ}8ll~ high speed en~· . · ) · ' ~
which is SUI . • • . . ; lt i.. t
. berical . cavity in the .ptston on which fUCl &~ \
· Stages'rir ~ombusttOn bi C.i:·~nglMs are : sp • It ensures high performance, low : ·. J
iJPpt.Oges. . . . s~ . :
(i) Delay period having physical and cbe~cal delay. . ;idt ust with low weight to power rati0· ·.
levels 1Jl e a . of lht.
(ii) Period of uncontrolled combustion.
engine.
(iii) PeriOd of controlled combustion, and r of a fuel is defined as the ~~
eetane oulllbe . . ---·~tagt
IPC of cetane fuel (C1 6 Hw m a ~b.i .
(iv) After burning. by voIu re ar
. d alpha methyl naphthelene (C11 ff _, ·
Physical delay period is redu~d by in~reasing the cetane an . .. · 11)1 that .
the same 1gmt10n lag UDder . SlllnA.
injection pressures. produces · ~d
.ung conditions.
Delay period is reduced due to increased C.R. inlet opera
· ind xis ~other way expressing the q11J1i;... ·
presslJ!C and temperature, decreased engine s~. Diesel e . ---1 Of .

increased load and jacket water temperature. diesel fuel.

Anill!!e·p<>int ( 0 F) x API gravity at tsoc
Factors which tend to Increase the detonation
Diesel index == - 100 -
tendency In S.I. e~glnes, same will ~uce the
141.5 ~ 131.5
knocking tendency In C.I. engines. API gravity ==;=pecific gravity at 15°C
The main objectives of co~bustion chamber design
of a C.I. engine are :
(i) To provide proper mixing of fuel and air. . [ Note : For answers ref~r the section n~mbers
. indicated in bracket. ] ·..
(ii) Required turbulence.
. Section _ 1 : fuel Injection Systems
(iii) Burning of fuel to obtain peak pressures.

(iv) Low surface to volume ratio.

Theory
(v) Short delay period.
What are the requirements of a fuel injection system
Air swirl is provided in combustion chambers of C.I. Q.1
in C.I. engines? [Section 3.1]
engines for proper mixing of fuel air. Methods are :
Discuss the types of fuel injection system used in
Q.2
(i) Induction swirl
c.1. engines. Why air injection system not used
(ii) Compression swirl now-a-days ?.[Sections 3.2 and 3.3) (Dec. 2004)

(iii) Combustion induction swirl With a diagram explain the working of a common-
Q.3
Combustion chambers for C.I. engines are rail fuel injection system. Obtain an expression for

classified as : the amount of fuel injected per cycle.

1. Non turbulent or open combustion chambers. [Sections 3.4.2 and 3.8] (May 2002)

2. Turbulent combustion chambers : These are Q.4 Write the fundamental requirements of a tuel

classified as : injection system. (Section 3.1]

(a) . Swirl combustion chambers a. 5 Explain with the help of neat sketch the working of a
Diesel engine fuel injection pump. (Section 3.5.1)
(b) Precombustion chambers

Scanned with CamScanner

 ltiOn engln~
~ i.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) . 3-37 eompresston lgn "

r 6 .
GIVe brief classification of diesel Injection systems 0. 6
What Is the significance of con
rk>d in
trollinQ delaY pe .
which cause
O· .with explanation of any one system. C.I. engines ? Explain any 6 factor&
(Sedlon• 3.2, 3A.1 and 3A.3) Section 3.10)
reduction In delay period · [ .
Wh8t are the various types of fuel Injection system and abnormal
o.1 .0 . 7 Describe the phenomenon of normal ffects of
used In C.I. engines? [Sections 3.2 and 3A.1J .
combustion In C.I. engines.
Ust the e

fXP!ai.n the working of Individual pump system used - knocking. [Section 3.11)
In c.I. engine. [Section 3A.3] . ariables on the ignition
Q.8 Discuss the effect of engine v
Differentiate between individual pump system and . . [$eCtlOn 3.1 OJ
delay period In diesel engines. .
o.9
distributor system of Injection of fuel In C.I. engines. . . d C I engine about
[Sedlon• 3A.3 and 3.4A] 0.9 Compare between S.I. engine an ••
3 11 and3.11.11
abnormal combustion. [Sections •
. Explain construction and working of a Bosch fuel
Q, 10 in the
injection pump. [Section 3.5.1] 0.10 Explain various design considerations
C.I.
development Of COmbustion chamber in
Q, 11 explain the working of distributor type fuel injection
engines.
pump with a neat sketch. [Section 3.S.2]
Of 8
. good combustion
OR What are requirements
Q.12 oraw sketches showing the constructional features chamberforC.I. engines. [Section 3 •121
of different type of nozzles used in_automobile
diesel engines, explaining the function of each. 0.11 Compare advantages and disadvantage~ of
[Section 3.7] inducti~n swirl wi1h compression swirl.
[Sections 3.15, 3.16)
Section - II : Combustion In C.I. Engines
0.12 What is swirl ? Why swirl is required for C.I. engin~
a. 1 Wrth the help of pressure-crank diagram discuss the combustion chamber$ ? Explain methods . of ·
various stages of combustion In C.I. engines. What creating swirl. [section• 3.13, 3.13.1to3.13.3]
are the factors affecting various · stages of
Q.13 Give classification of C.I. engine combustion
combustion ? [Sections 3.9 and 3.1 O]
chambers. Compare induction swirt and
a. 2 Factors which leads to increased possibility of compression swirl. [Sections 3.14 and 3.13]
detonation in S.I. engines, tend to reduce knocking
Q.14 Enlist the types of combustion chambers us~ in
in C.I. engines - Discuss.
C.I. engines. Explain In details any of them.
[Sections 3.11 and 3.11.1]
[Sections 3.14 and 3.16.1]
Q. 3 Explain stages of combustion in C.I. engines.
Q.15 Write explanatory· note on M-combustion chamber.
[Section 3.9]
[Section 3.17]

Q.4 Explain with suitable sketch the combustion 0.16 Explain divided combustion chamber using
phenomenon in C.I. engioe. Which phase of
compression swirl.
combustion in C.I. engine needs more attention to [Sections 3.16 and 3.16.1]
be paid and why? [Sections 3.9, 3.11)
Q.17 Define cetane number. [Section 3.18]
Q, 5 With the help of pressure - crank _angle diagram,
. describe the combustion process in C.I. engine.
[Section 3.9]

aaa
 1' ·:
. . · -·. ·.· .. . ··
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Engine ·Lubrication, Cooling and ·,..

· · Superc.h arging · · " "· .,,

Syllabus·

Engine lubrl~atlon : Types of .lubricants and their properties, SAE rating of lubricants, TYpeg
lubrication systems · . .. · .. . . Of
~I '
Engine Cooling : Necessity of engine cooling, disadvantages of overcooling, Cooling systems
their comparison: Air cooling, Liquid cooling · · · · · · atl<i
Supercharging/Turbo-charging : Objectives, Limitations, Methods and Types, Different
arrangements of turbochargers and superchargers.

4.1.1

4.1 What is Lubrication ?

w
DEfDUTION
The piston-cylinder arrangements of an inte
. l'll.al
combustion engine are subjected to a. very large
variation of tempera~res . and the ..maximum
This force of frictiou. always acts in the direction temperatures attained during the cycle may be of the
opposite to motion and it is tangential to the surfaces at
order of 2000°c and higher. Such high temperatures
point of contact.
will bum the lubricating oil film and may form &Ummy
Some energy will always be. absorbed ·to overcome materials which would cause the sticking of piston
these frictional forces. rings and may also lead to engine seizure.
In ~rder to. reduce this waste of en~rgy, all efforts are Apart from high temperatures, engine parts are aJSo
required to be made to reduce the frictional forces.
subjected to heavy loads whlch cause very high friction
c::r Definition of lubrication losses in case of lubrication failure with increased wear
rate of mating parts.
rJJ
DEmarJON

w Therefore, the lubrication requirements of l.C. engines

are very demanding, therefore, the lubricatfon system
is so designed that adequate quantity. of oil re~hes to
 ..
~
:; ·
. , . . .- :
(·:.~: . . ·,"'
.· ' .. .

, : . ~j.c: En ines(MU-Sem.V~Mech) :·. 4-

.. . ... . . .su ercha."9in
2 Engine Lubrication, Cooling & . .P . .
.: all' sliding/moving ..parts at all ti.mes ,and maintain
·;
·: :
siiffl .enrtliickness of oil film between them. : 4.1~4 Properties of Lubricants ·
Objectives of a lubrication system . (MU - May 16, ~- 17)
, Lubrication to p~~ent mew to metal contact be '''·{[~!it'
i. . . tween
JJ)ating parts to reduce friction. · It reduces friction
~wer loss and improves· the power output and ,
efficiency·

z. To reduce wear and tear of moving Parts. .

.
Properties of Lubricants '
3. It provides coolin~ of comf>?nen~ by. carrying away
the beat generated by friction. ·
1. Viscosity

t
Provides sealing action between cylinder
-
Wall
Sand . 2. Viscosity index
piston rings, thereby, it reduces leakage of gases past
the rings to crank case called blow by losses. . , 3. Cloud point
s. Provides protection to components of machine pans
4 . Pour point
against corrosion.
I
5. Flash point and fire point ·
6. Lubrication film acts as c.ushion and reduces noise and
vibratioOs. 6. Specific gravity

7. ProYides cl~g of various parts by carrying away

7. Acidity
the grit and other deposits.
B. Carbon residue
4.1.2 Main Components of l.C. Engine to
1. ./
be Lubricated 9. Oiliness
Fig. C4.1 : Properties of Lubricants
Following components which need lubrication are : .
Various important properties are:
1. Piston and cylinder.
. . 1. Viscosity : It is a measure of the resistance to
2. Main crankshaft bearings.
flow of an oil. It is measured in saybolt universal
3. Small end and big end bearings of connecting rod. seconds (SUS). It is also. expressed in
4. Cam, cam shaft and its bearings. centistrokes, centipoise and Redwood seconds.
SUS represents the time _required in seconds for a
5. Valve and valve operating mechanism.
given quantity of oil to flow through a capillary
6. Timing gears. tube under specified test conditions.

4.1.3 Types of Lubricants Centistroke is a unit of kinematic viscosity and

centipo~se is the unit of absolute viscosity. These
The lubricants are of three types viz. are measured by viscometers.

(i) Solid lubricants e.g. graphite molybdenum, mica. ... 2. Viscosity index : Viscosity of oil decreases with
increase in temperature. This variation of
- (ti) Semi-solid lubricants e.g. heavy greases.
viscosity of an oil with change in temperature is
(iii) Liquid lubricants e.g. mineral oils obtained by refining
measured by viscosity index (V.I.). Higher V. I.
. petroleum oil, vegetable oils . obtained from olive,
of an oil indicates relatively smaller changes in its
linseed, caster and animal oils. viscosity with temperature.
 ~i'
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. ·-..... ' . .··.. "' I• ·

.. ;~

'.11
• 1•
: .'•
..:m-1.c. En i~ c'Mu-sem. V-M~ . 4-3 En lno w.tcadoO, Cool"1 & Su " : :')''I
'ii!. ' ' ''
,,I? '.
I
. ~ ' 3• . Cloud point : Ii an oil. is cooled. it .will start 4.2 Requlrenienl of an Ideal l.UbllcGiii ~· I
If' ·solidifying at ,, some temperature. The
' ~. .
.I , .
Based on the properties discussed, we can,cnu .· .· ._ ·J
:1 tem'perature at which the oil starts solidifying
the requirement of an _ideal lubricant as follows : · -~ : · 1
I Is called cloud point. The clouding or haziness of
{
,j
i
oil interferes with the flow of the oil. (I) It should maintain the :uired oil film on the cylincq. .
,.
i _. ·4. Pour ~int : It is the temperature just above walls to p~vent excessive wear of C>'.linder· lincil, .
which the oil sample will not flow under certain pistons and nngs. · ··

prescribed conditions. This ~mperature depends (2) Leave no carbon residue on burning.
on the wax content in the oil. Oil derived from
(3) Prevent wear of bearings. .
crudes having more paraffins tend to have higher
(4 ) CJeanse the interior of the engine.
pour point than derived from crudes having more
naphtenes. The property of pour point is (5) Have low pour point to avoid starting Problems Ind
important for operation of engines and substances flow of lubricant at low temperatures to the oil Plllnp,
at Jow temperatUre condition. It is necessmy to
(6) It should not form an emulsion with water.
have at least J 0°C differential between the pour
(7) It should be free from dirt and water.
point of oil and the temperature of operation of
the system. (8) Should not contain sulphur.

-+ 5. · Flam point and fu.e point : The temperature at (9) Have tow consumption rate.
which the \"apOUr of an oil tlnsh when subjected
(10) Should have very Jess tendency to oxidation.
lo a naled flame is known as flash point Fue
point is the temperature at which the oil, it once (11) Low cost.

lit with flame. will burnt steadily at least for 5 (12) High film strength to prevent seizure when lllldcr
seconds. Fue point temperature is usually J0°C to heavy load.
J2"C higher than flash point temperature. Aash
and fire points of an oil must be high 10 have 4.3 Additives of a Lubricant
safdy from fire hazards.
AddJtJves are the compound added to lubricant oils to
_. 6. Specific grarity : Ii varies becweeo 0.85 to 0.96.
promote and improve their desired properties. Some of the
Paraffin base oils ha\·e lower specific gravity
additives are :
compared to naphthenic base.d oils.

_. 7. Acidity: Oil IIlUSl have low acidity. 1. Viscosity index improvers are the additives which
improves the viscosity to work over wide range of
_. 8. Carbon residue : I! is the quantity of carboneous
temperatures.
residoe which re.mains after evaporation of a
sample oil under specified conditions. 2. Anti-oxidants are the additives which reduces the

-+ 9 Oilines.s : It is the property of oil to cling to the oxidation of lubricating oils.

metal surface by molecular action and then to 3. Aotiwcar and detergent are the additives which seri'e
provide a very thin film under lubrication to cleanse and prevent sticking of piston rings.
condition. This property affects starting of the
Some of the additives used for lubricating oils are
engines.
given below:

>.
. _ . _ 4 . . . . ._ . ._. --,,-~~.,~Jft~
Scanned w ith CamScanf'\er
 inQ
- lfnQ & SuperchS
En lne Lubrication. Co<> -
-- tlonSY~
Mist or Charge Lubrlca -
• . 12, May 13)
(MU • May 12, DeC·

oeiergent additives-for Phenol derivatives, alkyl

1.
promoting cleanliness - salicylate, barium
property. sulphate etc.
ke petrol engines.
j\.Dti foam additives to Silicon esters This system is employed for two stro · -
:z,,' - - d I bricating oil are
prevent foaming of oil In this system the petrol an . u _ - .- .
. . from where it is
50
as to prevent previously JDIXed ID the fuel tank
pUDlPing problems. supplied to the carburettor.
- arburettor finds its
The mixture of fuel and air from c
for improving oiliness Organic sulphur and
3, - . like cylinder piston,
way to all working parts of engme ' -
phosphorous compounds.
. od bearings via the
piston rings, main and connecting r

4. .Anticorrosiveness Amines and petroleum crank case.

sulphate derivatives. · at deal on the
The proportion of oil to petrol vanes a gre .
- ally the oil 1s
engine design speed and power, usu •
Syllabus Topic : Types of Lubrication systems
mixed in proportion of 20 cc to 50 cc to a
·. . ."\ . -
li~ of

petrol.
4.4 Types of Lubrication System for
1.c. Engines · Most of the lubricating oil _in the cyli.Oder bums due to
high temperatures existing in the cylinder, due t~ this
Following are the various types of lubrication system the carbon deposits are formed on various parts of the
usually used in LC. engines :
engine cylinder.

l)'pes of Lubrication Too much use of oil than recommended quantity will
invariably foul the spark plug and the use of less oil
1. Mist or charge lubrication system will lead to excessiv~ wear. Therefore, it is essential to

2. Wet sump lubrication system use the mixture of oil and petrol as recommended by
the manufacturers.
(i) Splash system
If the engipe bas its main crankshaft bearings as plain
(ii) Splash and pressure syste
bearings instead of ball or roller bearings, then the
(iii) Fully pressure feed system greasers or separate oil cups are often provided in
addition to mixing oil with petrol.
3. Dry sump lubrication system
Also, the separate lubrication is provided to those parts
Fig. C4.2 : Types of Lubrication of the engine where the mixture of oil and ·petrol

cannot reach or in cases it g ives unsatisfactory

lubrication.
 .
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'
'

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I · · · · ·, ubrlcatlo~. Coo\ing & Su
1 Engne....
1 . .
t.
~.l.C. Engines (MU~Sem. V-Mech) 4-5
. •• tunP..s of wet . sump systems are expiain· ·~ .
\\. Vanous ~n·--:. . . t:q ·
~. Advantages
below.
i 1. . It is economical and cheap. rication System
\ SpIash Lub · ..
4.6.1
2. · It needs no oil pump, filters and piping to carry
. suitable for small capacity fout st.....i._ ·
lubricating oil. . The system is ...u~
. .th moderate speed and bearings loads.
3. Quantity of oil is automatically regulated with load and engines w1 .. .
· . schematically represented in Fig 4 c.
speed of the engine. The system is · · .u. \
. nl ne connecting rod with its scoop dipp·
4. The probability of lubrication failures are the least. with o Y 0 . ltlg
into troughs.
r:r Disadvantages
. f a sump containing lubricating oil.
It consists o
l. It gives increased carbon deposits due to burning of oil
The oil from the sump through filters (to remove dirt,
film ..
· uiroinants) is supplied to the troughs With •'--
small con . \.llC
2. Needs increased maintenance due to formation of
help of an oil pump. ·
.carbon deposits. ·
The troughs are located just below the lower portion of
3. It can give spark plug fouling due to carbon deposits. . g rod. In this case the big end bearings of th
connecun . · .. e
4. Oil consumption· is high, rather the engine is usually connecting rod are provided with scoops which clip in
over-oiled. troughs containin~ oil and through the holes in the caps
5. During long duration of no load running of engine the of the connecting rod, the oil reaches to big end
throttle valve is in almost closed position. Since the bearings.
mixture of oil and petrol reaching is very small, the When the scoop of the connecting rod dips in oil, it
engine mating parts may not get adequate lubricating
. splashes the oil and reaches to the lower portion of the
oil.
cylinder walls, cam shaft and other parts of the engine

4.6 Wet ·s ump Lubrication System requiring lubrication.

Excess of lubricating oil falls back into the sump.

c:r Definition of sump
The level of oil in troughs is always maintained with
the help of oil pump.

a. Disadvantage

The sump which has the lubricating oil serves as a Any failure of not maintaining the oil level in troughs

reservoir to supply lubricating oil tO various parts of will deprive the lubrication of engine parts which may

the l.C. engine with the help of an oil pump. occur either due to failure of oil pump or other reasons
like the movement of vehicle on downward slope. For
After lubricating the parts of the engine, the oil flows
back to sump by gravity. The oil is again recirculated
this reason the splash system is never considered .as

by the lubricating oil pump to various parts. positive lubrication s-jstem.

 · · · · · · _': rg·\rig·
. .. . . . 5upercha
: . . tion coo\inQ &
Eng\oe Lubrica ' - .
4-6

Connecting rod

. ~ ....

\
\I
\I

.- ·-.
\
\
Fig. 4.6.1 : Splash system
\ • Splash and Pressure Feed System
\ 4,6.2
_ Toe splash and pressure feed system is shown in Fig. 4.6.2.
O\lpressure gauge

\
'~'~1' Cam,shaft and
H~_....................~::n.;:, \t.s bearings ·

, - - - - - - - - . - Connectii:t9 rod beariog

Main bearing

Ollpump

Fig. 4.6.2 : Splash and pressure feed system

 ,• '
'
i
·~ · :: . --
. ', .," : .: ·-:L:·~
l.1 ' . . ' : .: .. -1~- -
~: . . · - ·.-·. ·,_;
J'
I'~
I' En lne Lubrication~ Coolin
ll 4-7
r
I '.
l•
a. Disadvantage· the help 0 f
an oil plimp driven by the ·i;......~-h,~- ·
--~"'<lll Of ·· .
r;'· .
engme. ~
I:j ' Splash system is not sufficient in case of bearing loads
"-ID the sump is drawn by the nn-
are high. For this reason, the lubricating oil under ~ oil uu · r~~
r ftlters and it is forced to the main bearings 8Qd the @Ii .
:·' pressure is supplied by the oil pump to main ~d
Crankshaft bearings as shown in Fig. 4.6.2. th L.an,.;ngs through the branches Of a A:. ~
of o er l1<'<U- "llltributor
header.
The oil pump also supplies oil under pressure to pipes
which ~ts a stream of oil against ~e dippers on the A pressure relief valve (not shown) is Prov;~on
14_ _,

delivery side of the pump to return the excess Oil to Ilic

connecting rod bearing cups.
·r the pressure exceeds the Predetcnni.nou1
sump 1
Ilic
"""va111c.
Other Parts of the engine are lubricated by splash of oil
thrown up by the dippers. Drilled passages (shown by dotted lines) bet
0 il fro m 'the Ill.aJ.n
. p to
· prov1'de lubricating . . bearing
. to the
4.6.3 Fully Pressure Feed System crank pin and it lubncates the big end bearings.
'&. Advantage "'-m the big end bearing is supplied to Sllla!J
Theoil uu
L_.......gs through the drilled Passages .
This system is· sui~le for aU types of modem engines ~d ~~ ~the

including heavy duty engines.

connecting rod

The schematic diagram of the system is shown in

The lubrication of cylinder walls and the rocker anns is
Fig. 4.6.3. done b Y the oil sprays thrown by the Crankshaft
. ""d the
....
comiecting rod.
hi this method the lubricating oil is fed to various parts
under pressure ranging from 2 to 4 bar pressure with
.. Roie:ket:itni·
..Jl:D-....,.,~~ ,~tt£.iti.1
;;=...om-..... . ,..~
.. ..
·~
A- Pulh:ro.cl
-l J!
. 'C iffl ihiitt
.~

. . . .. o!Stributor' ·
'Ti0 Q01181'1lOr . ' tMiiidii(•

----·---[----------·---
. Sump'oil ~.·

Fig. 4.6.3 : Fully pres.sure feed system ·

S..:urnioc.J w1lh Ca1n$c•m nc1

 . ·· · and
4.7.2 Difference between Wet sumP
Dry Sump Lubrication systems
m.ethod except
Dry sump system is similar to wet sump . . ed in a
that in this case the lubricating oil is roawtalJl .
separate tank k~pt behind ~ radiator. .· e
· blast tbroWD on th
The oil is kept cool because of arr
radiator.
- . il urop under
The oil from the tank is supplied by the 0 p .
. . arts of the engine
a pressure of 3 - 8 bar to vanous P .
· the enttre
~ general arrangement of drj-sump lubrication through a distributor header covenng
systen1.is shown in Fig. 4.7.1. cylinder block.
· tin oil in case of
Since the temperature rise of lubnca g
dry sump method is less than the wet sUDl P method due
.
. th use of tbinner oil
to cooling, this system penruts e .
compared to wet sump method.
This is an added advantage over wet sump method
since the thinner oils reduce the viscous friction
loads on the engine.
. - .
~"- · .OIJ~ .· ·· ..,
. ~' - - 4.7.3 Comparison between Wet Sump and
,. , . . . .,. .cry Sump Lubrlcat~on Systems
,....,..,,...............

Fig. 4.7.1 : Dry sump lubrication system

_ In this system the oil contained in the sump is drawn

1. Sump contains oil at all Sump does not contain
by the pump throu~h the strainer.
times oil at all
- This oil after passing through a filter is supplied to
2. Suitable for low and Suitable for high speed
supply tank l"Cpt outside the cylinder block.
medium speed engines engines.
- ~ function of the filter is to remove from oil the
3. A single oil pump is used. Two oil·pumps are used.
ahra.siYe particles upto 10 to 15 microns that causes the
wear of working surfaces and also to prevent sludge 4. Oil cooler is not required. Needs an oil cooler for
depo.sits to the be.arings. cooling of oil.

- Oil from storage tank is pumped to the engine cylinder 5. System is comparatively System is comparatively
and bearings through a oil cooler. cheap. costly.

- 'The system uses a pressure relief valve to prevent 6. There is possibility of No possibility of
c.~ve pressure build up after a cold start of the flooding of crankcase. flooding the crankcase.

engine.

~--
 ... ·,;;.: ·:.·,.

;' ·.<·~\·:':'·(
·. •': .'.'•

,r i.t: Englnes. (MU~Sem. \I-Mech) · · 4-9 '.

Engine ·Lubrication, Cooling & Superch · . '-; ·
, · ' ' -~
4.a on F>ump a . Advantage. ··
Though this pum~ _is simple in constructio · · · . ·
'&. Function n ~d ·r,; ·- · · ,
compact.
The function of an oil pump is to circulate the lubricant a Disadvantage . l1.'·{ .
. . . \ '
under pressure to various parts of the engine. It is The wear and tear over a long ·period will affect the
· driven by a gear mounted on the cam shaft. . pressures of oil. To overcome this diffi ·
del1very .. . CUlty
~ ·use . helical gear pump are used. '

It is niost commonly used for pressure lubrication in

Syllabus Topic : Types of Lubricants and
automobile engines.
their properties
A gear type of lub.ricating pump . is shown in
Fig. 4.8.1.
49 Types of Lubricants in Use
~·'.,____.:1~=-~~~~~--------

There are three

. types of lubricants used namely soUd, .
semi-solid and liquid lubricants.
. 'roef918 The selection of the type of lubricants to be usec1
depends upon the nature of work, temperatures
encountered and the area to be lubricated.
Types of Lubricants

1. Solid Lubricants

Fig. 4.8.1 : Gear type lubricating pump 2. Semi-solid Lubricants

Due to close fit between the gears and its housing, the 3. Liquid Lubricants
lubricating oil cannot move back to its inlet side.
(i) Animal oils
It consists of two meshing spur gears of equal size in a
housing. (ii) Vegetable oils

One of the gear is driven by the engine crankshaft and (iii) Mineral oils
the other gear is driven by iL Lubricating oil which
Fig. C4.3 : Types of Lubricants
enters the pump inlet is carried between the spaces of
the gear teeth and pump body and delivers this oil 4.9.1 Solid Lubricants
under pressure to the engine.
Solid lubricants are used when the film lubrication is
The pressure developed depends on the speed of the not possible and the mating parts are subjected to high
gears. pressures and they run at low speeds.
In order to overcome the excessive pressure developed Commonly used solid lubricants are graphite, soap
by the high speed engine, a pressure relief valve is stone, molybdenum and milk stones. These lubricants
pr~vided. are powdered very finely and mixed with oil or water
During the excessive pressure build up, the valve is before they are put to use.,

operated and the oil is by-passed into the pump inlet. These lubricants will ·fill up the pores/gaps of the
surfaces and make them frictionless.

Scanned w ith CamScanner

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~ 1.C~·!E~og~ln~e~s~·(M~U~-S~e~m~.~-V~-M~ec~h~)=-====~~4-~1~o====~E~n~g!!!in~e~L~u~b~rica~·~ti~o~n,~c~·oo~li~n~&~S~u~p~e~r;;;ch;:;a;:;rg~ln:9"
'.
'-·

.,_g.i .. sesni-solld Lubricants . . .

These are oily and free from acids, t er
. h efore, these
0 f tbe
.' . lubricants do not attack the working coIIlPonents ·
'f}lese lubricants are used where the retention of liquid
·cants is not possible and the mating parts engine.
"':.ected
~
sl.I
to very high pressures and temperature are
s e.g.
Some amount of vegetable oils is geoerallY
these lubricants in order to increase their
added_ to
cleans~g
we engine suspension system, certain ~pe of bearings
"°sed to atmosphere etc.
properties. --
elr- · Syllabus Topic : SAE Rating of Lubricants
fbeSC are ~~ically greases made by mixing the
lubricating oils with thickening. agents e.g. calcium
(Classlficatlon of Lubricants) · ·
--
grease. soda grease, aluminium grease etc. 4.10 Classification of Lubricating Oils
Liquid Lubricants {SAE Rating)

'fbese lubricants are used for lubrication of various

+ (MU - oec.12, Dee- 13, Dee·
14
>
arts of the engines.
. They are classified as animal 0 il~
P
vegetable oils and mineral oils.

.+ (1) Aiiimal oils

The classification of lubricating oils is normally based
Animal oils are obtained from animal fats.
on their viscosity. The SAE (Society of Automotive
The example of animal oils used as lubricants are
Engineers) method of assigning the numbers for
whale oil, tallow oil, lard oil etc.
·gradation of oil is commonly used. These are called
However, the use of these oil is avoided since these
mo~o grade oils•
gets oxidized and becomes gummy after use.
Viscosity of an oil is measure of its resistance to flow.
.+ (2) Vegetable oils
It has the units of Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)
- Vegetable oils which can be used as lubricants are
which is the time required in seconds for a given
castor, linseed, olive and palm oils.
quantity of oil to flow through a capillary tube under
- However, castor oil only produces good results since it specified test conditions.
has high viscosity and film strength and its drawback is
Viscosity is also expressed in centipoise which is the
That it is oxidised and becomes gummy after use.
unit for absolute viscosity.
.. (3) Mineral oils
Viscosity is usually expressed at two temperatures
- Mineral oils are commonly used as lubricants for
- 18oC and 99oc, these temperatures are used as
engine lubrication since they can meet the required
reference temperatures.
working conditions of high pressures and temperatures
and speeds and can meet the required properties of a SAE has assigned a num?er to oils . whose visco.s ity
good lubricant. falls in certain range between the reference

- These are obtained from petroleum distill~tion. These temeeratures of-: 18°C and 99°c.

lubricantS are the DllXture

· of paraffins, naphthalene and
hydro-carbons. . These oils display wide range of
viscosity.

Scanned w ith CamScanneJ

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. .. ·.-:-.>~ • I• ,

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eng1neuibncati0tl.Coo11rig&~- _
~ -
,_, .
·~~·
- 4- ,
_,,
',..
ha~/
11
.For enmPle an oUSl\E 10 W/30 will
equal to that of SAE 10 W a:-18°C andaviseosi~'it)_:. -­
tbat of SAE 30 grade at_99 -C, such. type 0~ oils :;uai ti) :
muldgrade oils. · · - · -- -~ · ·. ·,,

•· er Advantages of multlgrade olla

1200 Provides case of starting and short

. Wartning Dcrin...
·· -
1.
SUS 6000 hence, extends battery life. - -""II,

IOW Centipoise 1200 2400 It caters for wider change of ambient te~. _
2.
SUS 6000 12000 Re<fuces oil consumption.
3.
15W Centipoise 2400 9600 Reduces carbon deposits in combustion
SUS 12000 48000
4. -'"""'-:.....; of engane
therefore, deccuuulll£o'Mo'on . is c~'
. prolonged.

20W Centipoise 5.1 9.6 Protect the engme parts from rust, corrosion- and "'car
5.
SUS 45 58 due to their excellent property of oxidation Stability.
30W Centipoise 9.6 12.9
4.10.2 Service Rating of Lubricating Oils
SUS 58 70

16.8
SAE rating is merely based on viscosity of oil and Ott
40W Centipoise 12.9
quality of oil. Engine performance can be improved by
SUS 70 85
use of additives in lubricating oil.
sow Centipoise 16.8 22.7
Therefore, American Petroleum Institute (API)
SUS 85 110
classified the oils based on their property into three
Table 4.10.1 gives the.classification of lubricating oils classes as Regular type, Premium type and Heavy Duty
according to SAE. Meaning of various numbers are as
type.
follows: -
Generally, regular type were straight mineral oils'
1. SAE 5 W, 1o W and 20 W grades are defined in tenns
premier type contained oxidation inhibitors and heavy
of viscosity at- 18°C. .
duty type oils contained oxidation inhibitors with
These oils render starting of-engine in cold weather
easy. detergent additives.
2. SAE 20, 30, 40 and 50 grades are defined in terms of API further classified the oils for petrol (spark ignition
range of viscosity at 99°C. engine with 'S' series) engine and for diesel
They represent the oils which work satisfactorily in (Compression ignition engine with 'C' series) engines.
normal and bot weather conditions.
Petrol engine oils have 5 service ratings as SA, SB, SC,
It should be noted the SAE numbers are merely used
SD and SE, while, the diesel engines have 4 service
for classification of lubricating oils according to viscosity
but they do not consider the factors like stability, oiliness ratings as CA, CB, CC and CD.

etc. Ratings A is for light duty service and severity of

service increasing towards the rating upto E.
4.10.1 Multlgrade Olis
Series CA and CB is for _naturally aspirated diesel
With the advent of additives for viscosity index
engines CC and CD is for supercharged engines.
hnprovers, it is possible to develop an oil with more than
one viscosity at different temperatures.
-
 . .··1
:· ...

. '

: 4-12
En In~ liibrlCation; c<x>1in . &.su .
. , '· ~:Ve bigber ·.
. . . . ' . tufCS will r:r · , .
· Though · these high tempera . . .·, · · . bowevet.
.. . . . . ,. ·friction losses. . . ..
·thermal efficiency ·and ieduCed : · . · . . ~t81· parts of
. . . . ill dam8ge the certalD . .
such high temperature w . .· d distortion
.• ·. fot ..., . oil .mixed Petrol, the oil
... 0 suoke engiiles. using . . al expansion an . . •
. panies are marketing two types of oils known as the engine due to their mechamc . d lubricauon
c;<>Ol . Al the cylin er
caused by thermal stresses. so,
z· 'f oils J]leeting API TA specill.cation and super 2T oil
:&: •
ting API TC speclllcations. API TA series oils are will be impossible at these high temperatuJ'CS· coolin8
inee . to provide _
~gned to minimise spark plug fouling, minimise lberefore, it becomes necessary · . 1:.:..1ts to
· ·thin certain ~
cari><>n deposits and maximum protection against system to maintain the temperatures Wl · • ·
fro the engine.
obtain the maximum performance m
corrosion. While API
. TC series oils have
. additives
which produce low ash contents.
4.11.1 Effects of Overheating
super 2T oil to API TC series also reduces the smoke
and bydroC3Ib<>l1 e~sions. ·

oovenunent has decided to ban the lubricating oils of

API TA series for two wheelers. ·

the cylinder obtained are

The high temperatures Of
objectionable for the following reasons :
· · strength
syllabus Topic : Necessity of Engine Cooling and 1. High temperatures would result in reduction m . . der
· h
of various engine components sue as piston cy1lD
• .
Disadvantages of Overcoollng
head etc. The allowable temperature limit of the engme
is about 250°C.
4.11 Necessity of Cooling
2. The lubricating oil ·film will not be maintained at big~
· · the oil
temperatures beyond 200°C. In actual prac~ce .
In case of I.C. engines, the energy input to the engine will burn causing the wear and sticking of piston nngs.
cylinder is by way of burning the fuel with air. The Th~ lubrication failure may lead to engine seizure.
percentage utilisation of this heat energy supplied to the
3. Excessive heating may cause preignition which may
engine is as follows:
ultimately lead to loss of power, low efficiency and
Q) 30 % to 37 % of energy is used for conversion into detonation in case of S.I. engines.
useful work. 4. Uneven expansion of piston ~ cylinder/ may result in
·(Li) 30 % to 35 % of energy is carried away by exhaust seizure of piston.
gases, depending upon the type of engine used. From above practical considerations it is clear that
(Lil) 10 % to 12 % of energy is lost by way of radiation, cooling or engine cylinder ls necesmry to limit :the
convection and conduction. cylinder average temperature in the range of 160°C to
Qv) 22 % to 30 % of energy of combustion flows from 2SOOC.
gases to cylinder walls and raises its temperature. This is only possible if the heat received . by the
The beat energy which flows from gases to cylinder cylinder walls from the gases is transferred at the same rate
walls, amounting to 22 to 30 %, will raise the temperature of from the cylinder walls to the cooling medium.
piston and cylinder walls.
The temperature of cooling medium as water at exit
If no cooling is provided, the average temperature should not be below 40°C since at low temperatures the
attained by cylinder and piston will correspond to gas engine starting would be difficult and the rate of co~sion
temperatures in the range of I000°C to 1500°C which will of metals would be high.
cause the overheating of engine components.

Sco n ned w ith CamScanner

 ~ l.C. Engines (MU~Sem. V-Mech)
• . ·::J.

·
~-~>t .\
4-13 Engine Lubrication, Cooling &Su . · . . :·'_".. '.i·
Percti~ ... '. .J
The exit temperat~ of wa~er iit not allowed to exceed
..50.° C in case.of static ~ngines, 60°-70°C in case of medium
Syllabus Topic : Cooling Systems..:. Air.. ·
..nctL1 ··
!·
i

S~d engines, however, in case of automobile engines it . cooling with their Comparison .~~ : -l

.~ . ,
may be as high as 80° - 85°C.
4.12 Types of Cooling System -

.....--,_.....,-~~. I!
4.11.2 · Effects of Overcoollng

~ (MU-Dec.15) ·1~
·.~ :

The cooling system for I.e . engines can b

Overcooling of the engine is also undesirable for its . l'Oadly I._ue
classified as follows :
safe ~d smooth running. Various effects of overcooling the
engine are:
Types of Cooling System
1. . Low temperatures will cause starting problems of the
engine since sufficient amount of fuel will not be 1. Direct cooling or air
varpourised.
2. Sulphur content in fuel will form S03 on combustion 2. Water cooling or Indirect COoling
which combines with H 20 vapour to form H2S04. This . Fig. C4.4 : Types of Cooling Systern
sulphuric acid condenses if cooled below its dew point
temperature of 70°C. It will cause the corrosion of -+ 1. Direct cooling or air cooling :
cylinder walls. The~efore. cylinder liner tempe!atures
In which heat from cylinder Walls· is ,i;_.
should not fall below 70°C to avoid formation of :-teUy
transferred to surrounding air.
H2S04.
3. · · Unvapourised fuel at low temperature.s may leak past -+ 2. Water cooling or indirect cooling:
. the piston rings. It causes crank case dilution. It also In which the heat from cylinder walls is transferred to
affects the Joss of power and fuel economy. surrounding air through water.
4. At low temperatures. the viscosity of lubricating oil
increases. Therefore, it will increase the frictional ______________
4.13 Air Cooling __________ __ ;;;,___ ....:_ ~

power.

4.11.3 Functions of Cooling System

V , ~ (MU - Dec. 13, Dec.17)

Universit Questions
Air cooling is usually employed for small capacity
engines like .scooters, motor cycles or_in aircraft
applications where the weight of the system is main
. criteria or in some cases of industrial applications.
The function of cooling system are :
The air cooling is achieved by forcing the air .over the
I. To absorb and dissipate heat to maintain average cylinder and cylinder head . .
temperatures in the range of 160°C to 250°C for The heat transfer rates from the cylinder to air depend
maximum power, smooth running and operation of the upon the velocity of air relative to metal surfaces and
engine. the heat transfer coefficient between metal and air.

2. To prevent the _damage of vital engine components.

Scanned with CatnScQl'l08f

f
,.
'
... . s~~e the heat transfer coefficients
I
; . En lne Lubrication, COOiin & Supercharging
are relattveJy low
the cylinder wall temperatures achiev d .r 1 , ' , ·· · · efficient
. e l.lre1h1gher fi It is found that the rectangular fins are 1ess .
air cooled engines compared to Wat \ ..1 or
• compared to.trapezo1.dal· or tn·angular fins.
er cooled engines. and heav1cr
Since the wall temperatures are needed The heat transfer rat.es can be mere
. ased b Y increasing
a limit of 250°C for efficient oper t' to be kept uPt0 thc surface area 1.e.
. by mcreasmg
. . t hen u~bcr of fins.
. a ton of the engines
it is necessary to increase the heat tra I'. '

nsaer rat~ ith However, the increased number of fins will.reduce the
by increasing the relative velocity of . ,_; 1 ,i er
. nu or the surf~
1 spacing between them which results into decreased
area ·of metal exposed to surround· \;
heat transfer rat.es due to interference of boundary
tngs or by hn"th.
methods as show~ in Fig. 4.13.l(i). -7 i layer.
I ,,)
In case of two wheelers and airc f ( -~. -
.. . ra ts, the high ai , . A spacing of 2.5 to 5 mm is usually kept for the fins of
velocities resulting from their mot' . · /~ length 25 to 50 nun.
. . ton is taken itd
advantage while tn case of multicyl' d . 1,,. Intake
tn er air cooled
engines used for cars the air veJoc·u· . manlfOlda \~~~===~~~y;
t
with the help of a fan driven by the e · es are mcreased r+--""''1
.., l,:?zzZZ21,.; ExhaJSt
manffolds
. . ngine Crank-shaft
Inlet
4.13.1 Cooling Fins
a Function

In order to increase the rf

su ace area the fins are
provided on ~etal surfaces exposed to cooling air. .
Fins
Cooling fins are either cast inte......1 wi'th
lind
o•a.i . cy er and
cylinder head or they may be fixed separately with the
cylinder block.

· The various types of cooling fins are shown in

Fig. 4.13.l(ii). (i) Cylinder with cast fins

The length. spacing and thickness of the fins are

represented by l, s and t respectively.

The heat tnmsfer capacity of the system depends upon

the temperature difference between cylinder and the
cross-section of the fin and its length.

The heat is gradually dissipated from the root of the (b)

fin upto its tip and to the surroundings air, due to this a
·temperature gradient exists along its length from the
(c)
ro0t to the tip.
(a) Rectangular fin
(b) Trapezoidal fin
At the tip of the fin the heat transfer capacity becomes
(c) Triangu.larfin
· minimum due to least temperature difference, and
hence it is_less efficient. Therefore. the thickness at the (ii) Shape of fins
Fig. 4.13.1 : Types of fins
tip can be reduced due to decrease quantity of heat
fl~wing at this point.

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. · · ~
.. . .

· ~
. 1.c. En tnea MU-Sem.· ·v •Mech . .. : 4·16
En tne Lubrtcatlon, Coolln

4•13.2 Baffles

The heat trnn sacr

r
rntes from cylinder· walls can also be·
increased consi'dcrnbJy by providing bnfOes which
forces the nir through the spncing between fins at high
velocity. ·

Type• of baffle•

Ffg. 4.13.2(b): Exit baftle

(1) Normal baffles

(2) Exit baHlea

. -t (3) Short baffles :
Short baffles . are used for C.I. engine shown .tn
(3) Short batnes
Fig. 4J3.2(c).
Fig. C4.S : Types of baffles
~e ~st heat transfer rates arc obtained with negligible
kinetic energy at entrance ·and exit of nir.
The entry of nir to baffles .is rounded to keep the
energy loss at entrance to minimum.
Various types of baffles are shown in Fig. 4.13.2(a),
(b) and (c). . .
Fig. 4.13.2(c) .: Short baftle
-+ (1) Normal baftles
Th~ normal baffles are used for S.I. engines. In this 4.13.3 Advantages of Air Cooling System
type of baffles the kinetic energy of air leaving the .
J. It is light in weight and simple in design due to absenc.c
baffles is high. of water jackets, radiator, coolant and piping
connections.
2. It is almost maintenance free. ·
3. No antifreeze solution is required and can operate at
low temperatures.
4. No problem of coolant leakage, corrosion and clogging
of radiators etc.
5. The system is cheap.
6. Installation is easy.
Fig. 4.13.2(a) : Normal baffle
4.13.4 Disadvantages and Limitations of Air
-+ (2) Exit baftles Cooling System
In order to reduce the exit K.E., the exit baffles are
used in which the kinetic energy of air is converted 1. Heat transfer rates are less due to low heat transfer
into pressure energy during the flow of air in exit pipe. coefficient of air. Therefore, this system can only be
This aJso reduces the pressure losses. used for low capacity engines.
2. Cooling is not uniform. It may cause the distortion of
c Under.
~
i . •~ i;c. EnQines (MU·Sem. V-Mech)
i' . .·.
·.
~· _,,_ , . . . .
4-16
r" . . Cylinder waUtemperatures are high. .
3
. ,.J. . If fall ·js used to improve heat transfierratest
.
r.
1 ·
cylinder wall temperatures, 5 to 10
. ~
ower the
%ofpow.
°
to run the .an. . er JS lost

s~ific fuel consumption is high..

6. . systelll js noisy.
.. It 'lilllits the use of com.pression ratio.
1
It's. use. is .limited to scoote~
. and motor
· ·
cycles d
s. exPosure of cylinder to air stream: . ue to

,14 . Water Coollng

4
;..---- . Fig. 4.14.1 shows the schematic arrangement of an
'Z!- . _use engine cooled on thenno-syphon'principJe.
.. 'fbis type :of cooling
. is employed
. for med"tum and large - · The .system is so designed that the water may circulate
, . sized engmes and 10 case of automobiles. naturally because of the density difference of bot water
The ·system co~sists of a water jacket enclosing the and cold water.
cylinder and cylinder bead. ·
The water jacket is connected to a heat exchanger or to upper tank

a radiator (in case of automobile engines).

The water from radiator flows to the water jacket
where it picks up beat from cytinder walls and returns
. to the radiator.
The bot water reaching to radiator is cooled by
traDSferring beat to surrounding air and the cooled
water is again circulated to the engine water jackets.
Fig. 4.14.t : 1benno-sypbon coo~g
4.14.1 Types of Water Cooling Systems
The system consists of a ·radiator having upper and
following are the _types of water cooling system : . lower tanks connected to upper and lower water jackets
of the cylinder respectively through pipes.
types of Water Cooling Systems
The bot water in the jacket rises and flows into the
upper tank due to lower density compared to cold
(i) Thermo-syphon coaling water and the cold water from radiator flows to lower
(ii) pump assisted thermo-syphon cooling water jacket to replace the bot water.
the water travels down the radiator
(iii) Cooling with thermostatic regulator From upper tank
tubes across which the cool air passes draWD by the fan
driven by the engine crankshaft.
(iv) pressuriZed water eoolinQ increase the rate of beat transfer, the surface
In order to ·· "ded
(v) Evaporative coaling area of the radiator exposed to the air blast is prov1

with fins.
. uitable for low capacity engines only.
Fig. C4.6 , Typ<S of Water coollog system" Syste011s s .
 '· ,' .:.
.:
.· .: . /.·:c::~
'· •. .:

... ,.,·
·.
... -. ..· :·
.
: . ·. ' .:· ..~ ~ ,. .
I. , .. · , . .
. . : . -~. '. ..

.· : me:1.~; en ·ines.-(Mu.;sam.V:Meeh) . 4~17 eri Ina Lubri~tlo~.- c0011n-

~ .Drawbacks.of the thermo-syphon system ·· . 4~14.1 ~3 .Cooling with ·Th~rniost8tl~·._ .: ~·· · . ·'
., Regulator · ,, · :. .-:. "
,!: .·.Radiat?r nCeds to be keptabov~ engine cyiinder level
for flow of water to the .engine· ,unde~ gravi~ fof'its .
. . " efficient functioning. . .

· 2; · Circulation of water is established only when engine

becomes hot
In case of pump circulati?n method the operation of
3. Not suitable for heavy dutY engines whe~ very high
heat transfer rates are requifed. . pump is .govern~ by starting and stoppuig ~f ~
engine.
4. . .Water level in radiator should be kept higher than
As the pump starts, it will start .circulating the
delivery pipe, otherwise, circulation of water may _ . - • . COld
.. ceas~ causing excessive temperature rise of cooling water to water jackets surrounding the cylinder and it
absorbs beat at a faster rate from cylinder walls d
water with steam fo~atjo~. It ca~ses formation of . . . ~~
steam pockets, unequ.al heat flow and overheating of .large temperature differential. As a .resul~ the engine

en~e comp0nentS. takes longer time to warm up to the desired level of

·"
temperature particularly in cold weather. To.overcome
5. Temperature of cooling water should not be allowed to
. this difficulty a thermostat ~ incorporated -in the
exceed beyond 80°C in this system.
discharge line of the block to the radiator. ,
4.14.1.2 Pump Assisted Thermo-Syphon
er Thermostat
.Cooling (Forced Circulation Method)
A thermostat is shown in .Fig. · 4.14.3. It consists of
The drawbacks encountered with thermo-syphon bellows usually made of copper or bronze and sealed at
system are overcome by introducing . a pump of . both ends.
centrifugal type to assist the water circulation in the
·The bellows are filled partially by_. a ~olatile· liquid
water jackets.
having low boiling p0int like ether.
· The pump is belt driven by the engine. Introduction of
When the engine is started, the temperature of water is
pump ensures the positive circulation of water under
low, the valve is closed and prevents the flow of water
all operating conditions. (Refer Fig. 4.14.2)
to the radiator. As such the water in the cylinder. ~ater
Radiator
jackets is available for absorbing heat from the
cylinder walls.

The engine would take 1ess time ·t o warm up. :However,

when the temperature of · water exceeds the boiling
Pump
point 'of the volatile liquid filled in bellows due to

Fig. 4.14~ : Forced circulation method heating by jacketed water, the bellows will expand in .
axial direction due to expansion of liquid in bellows.
a,. Disadvantage
The expansion of bellows will allow the valve to lift
Since the cooling of the engine is independent of
from its seat gradually and allows the water to flow
. _ .. tempera~ difference of hot and cold water, it may
thereby establishing the circulation of cooling water
. . result into over cooling of the engine which affects the
into the system.
the~ efficiency of the engine andits working. This
· is the disadvantage by working with this type of
.syst~m.

Sca nned with CamScanner

 , .
• • .t I

. ' . : ,· ... , . .
_·& s~per'Cha ing
rd 1c.e0
.·· '· : :··~ ·-~n~s MU-Serri:·v-Mech) · "· . . . ·. -.' ..
.. . -~18 . . - ..
·Engine Lubnca
• ti'0 n cooling
• _

~ . 4.1 4.4 shows the schematic diagram of · · c 0 ollng .!

8 4.14.1.4 Pressurized Water . -_ ·. ·
.,, fJ8· nmbon system of water ·coollng·with
t)letJJl~"'.1 r .
pump
. - . . re of water I
,nd• thennostat. - . It is well known that the bo
iling temperatu
. nus- fact is
I
I
I 'fbe
cold water·from lower tank of radiator is pumped
,, . to water J.ackets of the cy
lind
er of
_ .
increases with the ·mcrease
in pressure.
_
.
th · method is
used to cool the heavy duty engt·nes and e . ·
r . the engine. ·
heated water from cylinder is passed to upper tank known as pressurized ~~ter cooling. · . of wate;
:~e radiat~r with a thermostat installed in between. .
This system allows to keep
the temperature
peration
.
above I00°C and it results mto sa tisfactory ·
0
· ·
'fbe thermostat controls . the tempeiatw:e of ~ater as
of engm
.· e and in improved therm31 efficiency. . ..
e,.-rpJn;ned
.,....
above. .
Water to.radiator: . 1ing lS
. · d water coo
upper tank The schematic diagram of pressurize · is
'" ... ; '. . ·.
t " . .. \ ~.
. . . the system .
shown in Fig. 4.14.5. The pressure in . . the
•r . , . 'al
built up by means of spec1 type of radiator
. cap ID

range of 1.5 to 2 bar pressure.

·
. b uiit up • the voI ume of water
As the pressure is . ows
. .
-, increases with the mcrease m tern perature and-it all
. ·t
the temperature to exceed beyon . d A OO':'C
· _w1thou
- .
. . __high pressure
formation of steam due to existtµg , · m the
system.
:sj:imig . .

Water from
t
watei"J&Cket
Fig. 4.14.3 : Thermostat

Hot water flows down the radi_ato~ tubes under gravity

to lower tank. During its flow it transfers heat to
---overf)ow .J>ipe
incoming air drawn by the fan mo~nted:, on the engine
and driven by belt.

Radiator tubes are made of copper and brass because of

their high thermal conductivity.
Radia1cr cap

Fig. 4.14.S : Radiator cap for pressure cooling

If the pressure in the radiator falls below the

atmosph~ric pressure d1,1e to cooli~g of water when the
engine is stopped, the radiator tubes will cripple and
the radiator will be damaged.

To · avoid the formation of vacuum, an additional

vacuum valve is provided.

When the pressure in the radiator falls below .

atmospheric .pressure, the air fyom ~urroundiiigs enter

Fig. 4.14.4 : Thermo-syphon system with pump and through a side valve and prevents the drop of pressure
below atmospheric in the radiator.
thermostat

Scanned w ith CmnScllnner

 m- I.e. En Ines MU·Sem. V·Mech En lno LUbrtootlon Coolln
'a. · Advantage 4.14.1.8 Radiator• ,· . .
The advnntugo of pressurized Willer cooling 111 thnt tho ~ 11uncUon :'
. '. • ,
. engine cnn run more cfflclcnUy with high coolunt
'J'ho fl.lnctlon of u n1dhUor 18 to dll1Hlpo~ hcil.t 0~ .
temperatures und wllhout the loss of Willer vopou111 nnd
from engine by coolunt (woter) to 1ilm01Jphcrlc •I~ .
antifreoze mixture to 1mrroundlng11,
conduction und forced convecllon. b)_
4.14.1.5 Evaporative Coollng 1110 817,e of rudlutor dcpcndH on

+ (MU· Deo.15, Deo.17) (I) Rote of hoot dl1111lputlon needed

Univer sit Qupst1011s (II) Velocity of nlr and water
(Ill) Do1ilgn of radllltor
Tho rule of heat trnn11fer from hot water carried In tube.
111 lncrcoHed by providing fin11 over the surface Of tuliea
(Refer Fig. 4. J4.6) The nn8 urc 1.1trungc<.I Jn 11uch o manner that lt er ·
c111e,
a Use Romo turbulence in ulr pu1111agc to enhance heat lrll"·'
. .""'31er
' This type ·of cooling system is used for industrial coefficient to the oir side.
engine applications. r:r Radiator matrix of fins
The cooling water in this system is allowe~ to be
Commonly used maU:kc11 (fin11) urc :
heated upto I00°C with fonnation of steam.
During the process of steam formation it also absorbs Type• of matrices
(fin•)
latent heat of vaporisation apru:t from its sensible heat
and due to ·this fact the requirement of cooling water (I) Honoycomb matrll(
for this type of system is considerably rcduce(J;
., (II) Tube and fin type matrh<
Venta lri cap'
(111) Ribbon-cellular or tum type matrtx

(Iv) Corrugated fin type matrix

Steam FJg. C4.7: Types of matrices (fins)

_. (I) Honeycomb matrix radiator

Water
Honeycomb matrix radiator matrices arc fonncd in
honeycomb shapes as shown in Fig. 4.14.7(a). It is
made by using large number of circular tubes with
Fig. 4.14.6 : Evaporative cooling
hexagons packed in contact and bound by solder.
The steam formed in the cooling circuit is flashed off • • • • •c~~nt
to a separate heat exchanger where it is condensed. The
same condensate is 5ent to the cooling system as make
up water.
a Disadvantage

This c~ling system is not very efficient.

Fig. 4.14.7{a): Honeycomb matrix radiator
 =:· ,1

, .ti i:o. . ·.
en Ines MU-Sem. V-M~~) · .
.
.
....... ~
4-20
.
.
En lne Lubiicatlon, eoo n
·
II & superohargln. ·'

· · areaand
It provides the passage for h~t water to flow and the .
zig-zag copper nbbons to e
nhancc the surface
.. . ·
. ·
"" cooling air is passed through the circular t~bes: Now a . . tranSfer rate to .
the air turbulence. It improves the beat
daYs. this type radiators with honeycomb matrix have
· beCOme obsolete due to absence of any turbulence of atmosphere. . ,
. . d have high thennal
airflow. Material used for radiators shout a ·
. · · tant ·with good
.tot (ll) Tube and~ ~ype matrix · conductivity and corrosion rests . . . .
' . . diators are usually
Tube and fto type matrix is shown in Fig. 4.1:4.7 (b). structural strength. For this reason ra
It consists of_ long tubes with straight metallic fins made of copper and yellow brass.
extending from top.to bottom of radiator. ·

Matrix have ~ood stiuc~ral strength. Water flows in

·the tubes .with air passing over the tubes between the
fins.

Fig. 4.14.7(d) : ~rnagaied fin type matrix ·

4.15 co~parlson of.Air Cooling as,id
Water Cooling Methods

Fig. 4.14.7(b): Tube and rm type matrix (MU - May 13, May 15, May 17)

-+ (iii) Ribbon cellular or film type

Fig. 4.14.7 (c) shows the film type matrix also called as
cellular type matrix which is an improvement over the
tube and fm type matrix. It consists of pm of thin
metal ribbons soldered together to form water passages . ,,.X . . .. .
from header tank to bottom tank of radiators. \..Their relative ments and dements ai:e as follows ·
Zig-Zag ribbons form the air passage which increases 4.15.1 Advantages of Air Coollng System
surface area and air turbulence to enhance beat transfer
coefficient on air side. (i) There is no danger from water freezing at low
. temperatures.
(ii) Absence of radiator minimises the problem of
. maintenance.

(iii) Engine warms up quickly unlike water cooled engines.

(iv) No problem of scaling of water~ jackets. .

(v) Specific fuel consumption is lower than that of water

Fig. 4.14.7(c) : Ribbon c~Uular or film type
cooled engines, hence thermal efficiency is higher.
·.. (iv) Corrugated fin type matrix (vi) The design of engine becomes easier as no water j~ket
- - Fig. 4.14.7 (d) shows the corrugated fm type matrix. is required.

In this water tubes are made of oval shape section with (vii) The weight to power ratio is less compared to water
cooled engines.
 -: ~ . ~ ' .
. ·, ·.·

.. ~ .:· · .· . · • .· · .
4-21 ·
. .. l.C. En ines (MU-Sem. V-M~
. (~lii)'' . :' ... . ·. " . .. ' . . ... . . . ' :. . . ,· ·. 4.15.5
, · Installation of engm· · .e.... 1s
• .·easier.
:. . . . . .
(~>"_ 'Gi~es. ~tter performan~ at high.attitudes and in yery
· · . cold atmospheres.' ,. J

4.15.2 Disadvantages of Air Cooling System No ·danger of water 1

1.
(i) ' . Air cooling is. not. sufficient for high capacity
. .
engines. rree:iing at loW
(ii) Regulation
· of cylinder
. temperatures
. with fins are not temperatufC·
Maintenance is. hi . -
possible. Maititenance is low and . &hduc '
·2. radiator and dCs. lo
. (ill) Fins amplify the engine noise, therefore, air cooled design is simple. ·. . •&nor
engme 1s move . . · .
engines are more noiser than water cooled engines. L-l----_.,;...---r---..:... . ·- compu~
(iv) Volumetric e ffi1c1ency
· of engme
. 1s
. lower.
Engme wann up takes
Engine wanns up
3. comparatively m
4 ·1 5 ·3 Advantages of W~ter C~ollng L-.--1,.;.:.:.:.-:..------r-----..:....::ore
quicklY· time.
Specific fuel CODSIJin •
specific fuel Ptionis
(i) System
. design is comp~ct with appreciably lower front 4. hig her.
consUIIlption is lower.
area.
Weight to power ratio i
Weight to power ratio
(ii) Since the rate of heat tranSfer are high, the system is s. high s
very useful for heavy duty diesel engines. is low.
Suitable for high ca .
(ill) More even cooling is achieved. Suitable for low • P3C1ty
6. engmes.
(iv) Volumetric efficiency of the engine is high. capacity engines.

(v) Unlike air cooled engines which have to be located at Regulation of cylinder
Regulation of cylinder
7. temperatures is possible.
the front of the. vehicle to take advantage of relative temperature is not
motion of air for cooling, the water cooled engines can
possible
be installed anywhere in the vehicle. Volumetric efficiency is
Volumetric efficiency
8.
4.15.4 Disadvantages of Water Cooling high
is low.
More even cooling is
(i) The requirement of radiator, pump and other 9. Cooling is not even
connections increases the weight of the engine. achieved.

(ii) System fails if adequate water is not circulated. It may

damage engine parts. 4.16 Additives

(iii) Engine performance is related to climatic conditions. In case of marine engines the water is not suitable due
(iv) Starting of engine is difficult in cold weather to its low boiling point and high freezing point.
conditions and at high altitudes. The water is also not suitable for high altitude
(v) Scale formation in water jackets reduces heat o:ansfer applications since free:zes at 0°C
the water
rates and cooling is affected. temperatures. To overcome these difficulties the

(vi) Cost and maintenance of system is high. additives are used to improve the operation of engine

under all conditions.

(vii) Specific fuel consumption is high.

Scanned w ith CamSca nner

 •. ·

4-22. En ine Lubrication, Coolin

,. · '.. ·., ·:
t,
i. .. . : Ethelene glycol is a suitable additive. It is Used with Methods of Improving
Engine Performance
' ........

r·-
..
._
water iri proportion of 30% of ethelcnc glyeol and 70%
of water under pressure. (I) Increasing speed of th8 engine

·· It Can give operating. tempe

· ratures as coolant upto (ii) Use of higher compression ratios

1so c and the freezing point of this m;...ture .isa- hout-

0
~ (iii) Utilisation of exhaust gas energy
1s0c.··
(iv) Use of two_stroke cycle
~ Advantages
(v) Increasing charge density
The high operating temperatures allows to reduce the
size of radiator. ~ig. C4.8 : Methods of Improving Engine P~rfonnance
The other advantage of using additives is that it gives ~ (l) Increasing sPeed of the engine
better and uniform cooling, permits the use of high ed, the ·
As regards the increase in speed ls concern .
compression ratios and · results in better thermal · t increase in all'
increase in speed would resu1t m o
efficiency. · inducted per unit time, thereby. increasing the pawer

Other antifreeze solutions used for cold starting are output.

.
But the increase· . ·speed also me
m · reases the friction
wood alcohol, denatured alcohol, calcium and
losses and after a certain limit of speed it redu~s the
magnesium chlorides, glycerine and propylene glycol.
volumetric efficiency. - .
Apart from this the increased speeds of the engines
necessitates a rigid ~d robust engine due to increased
bearing loads and inertia forces.
Methods of Improving Performance of Engine
However, at a given speed the engine power output can
and Objectives of Supercharging
be increased by increasing the fuel ·s upplled per cycle

4.17 Methods of Improving the Engine but it has a limit on power since the utilisation of fuel

Performance and Supercharging inducted depends on the amount of air available in the
engine before the commencement of the compression
stroke.
Universit Questions Therefore, this method can only be employed if the
Q. what do you 1:Jnderstand by supercharging? amount of air inducted during the suction stroke can be
...
.W increased.
· Superchargin of IC Engine. . ~ (ii) Use of higher compression ratios

An engineers task is always to improve the The use of higher compression ratio would result in
performance or an engine of a given size and capacity. higher thermal efficiency because of better conversion
of energy of fuel into mechanical work.
The various methods which can be employed for
The increase in compression ratio also increases the
improvement of performance of an engine are :
~mum pressures developed in the engine cylinder
requiring more robust engine, therefore, the weight to
power ratio is increased.

&.amn..dw1lt 1C11r11&;iu11•tc"
 ..., . . . . _. :. · .... ... ..
· .... ·· :- ·
.- .'. .:·'; :: -.-. :
. : ' · . ... ,. ·' .- · .. . .. .. ' ,. . . _:: -.··, ~~2,~\~~
. 4-23 .
. . ~ en' lne Lubncatfon,·eoo1in . & .
. Th,e· hl~hcst useful ·coinp~ssion . r8tio {HUCR) .of ail ,
··The ~thei' me~ocl of increasmg th~ charg~ ·
"~,: . .. ._ .
. found ~. be mast.suitable and practi~ ~~:~.>
_· engine ~· limited du~' .~ kfi~~g and .detonation
·. .,es the process of induction of air or . _ ~hL ·.
problems~ __ ' tnVO1Y' . - Charg :~ .
·. pre~sure higher than the atmospheric PrCss~; ·.· ·c·:~_t:, ;
It _is ob~ious ·that the ·oompression ·nruo ·can only be
iocreasCci upto acertain Ji~t. . . I t improves the ·charge density, volwnetrfo·' .·
· Cfftc · ·
;.<·.•.
. . 'W - and power output of the engine~ · · ·· : .. ~ -
'' ) UtUJsation or exhaust gas energy·
The high temperature exhaust gase.s have 4.17.1 Definition of Supercharging and
considerable amount energy which goes out as waste supercharger
energy.

However, utilisation of this energy has been

SUcceSsfuUy employed to increase the power output of
the engine in practice by running an exhaust gas
turbin~ coupled to an engine.
.. (Iv) Use or two stroke cycle r:I'" Definition of su~rcharglng _

In case or engines workmg on two stroke cycles, it

will have theoretically the power output double that of
' the engine working on f~ur stroke cycle for the same
speed and capacity of the engine. . .

But the actual power obtained is considerably reduced " Definition of supercharger .
due to escape of fresh charge duririg scavenging
process.

Other practical difficulties faced while working with

engines on two stroke cycle are cooling problems, low ·
4.17.2 Effect of Supercharging
thermaJ efficiency, "low volumetric efficiency etc.
. Therefore, this method is also not suitable from
., ...~
,,.,.,. - ,-«-~
,..,,,.
!:-:::
,.,=,.~::'l':
;;....,, rn
.«~
:;;::
.•~ ..,:,·..;-:.m:<
:~7"
+
~~ -&-Ll;;
·)I:
(MU - May 13, Dec. 15, May 17)
- - practical considerations.
~ ·· ·(v) Increasing charge density
-,
By increasing the charge density, the mass of air or
inass of fuel and air inducted per cycle Can be
increased which in turn increases the power output
of the engine. .The induced charge by the supercharger during suction
The charge density can either be increased by either helps in better mixing of fuel and air dwfug itS
lowering the charge. temperature or by inc~ing the compression stroke due to the turbulent effect created
-charge pressure. by the supercharger and the increased temperature

In order . to lower the temperature · of charge, it helps in vaporisation of fuel.

necessitates a complicated arrangement of a heat · - The increase in temperature of charge, however,

exchapge,r which is found to be uneconomical in reduces the charge density and it is detrimental in case
practice because of increased cost and bulk of the of S.I. engine since it develops the tendency to
system. detonation.

."t
~~ii
!k:a1111~ w ith CumSca•m'<!r
;~ ~
I
- 1,C,i;;.ll Ines (MU-~m
• . (!!. .·
. .
•.v:Mech
4-24 .
·.1

. JJIOtbef-
' . effect .of supercbaigmg
. is"that the power is. For supercharged eDgine, · ·· · .· · . .~ ·
,.. · uifCd. to drive the supercharger except in case of
· ·,eq bafger, which is usually driven by the engine
. . - [area (c) +area (dlJ xSpring eonstant_
tutbOC . ' . Pml - . l . ·.
uently, it partly .offsets the gained power output . ffective
·cooseQ . . · ·. · dicated mean e
l ' superchargmg. . Therefore, we get mcreased in . ceased
due to :
.
pressure with supercharged engine, 1't iS due to the me ults
fig. 4.17.1 shows the difference between the
. . rocess. It res
"' weoretical (p-V) diagrams of an naturally uplratect amount of air inducted d~g the suctt~n p .
(~perdW'Ked) enghie and the . supercharged into increased power output of the engine.
engineS the difference be_twecn the two are :
Syllabus Topic: Objectives 0 1 u percharglng
.. .. s·
(a) . Increased pressures over the naturany aspirated
engine cycle. ·
4.18 ·O bjectives of.Supercharging·
(b) . Puniping loop of supercharged engine is positive,
therefore, the work output equivalent to this area
is to be added instead of being substracted.

. .
e purpose of supercharging ~ engine are :

(i) To increase the power output of the engine by

Pan increasing the density ~f charge at intake.
· weight
(ii) To reduce the · to power
·· - ratio.
· I t is
· very . in
, useful
v case of ~raft. rac~g car's an~ m¢ne appµ<:_ations~
(a) Naturally aspirated engine . .

(iii) To o~ercome the loss of J)ower at high alti~des eiJller

4
in case of static engines or in · case of aircraft
I \ I . . \ •
p applications. The loss of po~er of flD engme is
estimated to be 1% per 100 metre of altitude._

(iv) To reduce the bulk of the engine where weight and

5
. . . .
space are important considerations like in case of
.-----------------------'~2
(+) (d) locomotives and marine engines .
---------
7 Exhaust -------6
4.18.1 Effect of Supercharging on Power '>-, .
v Output, Mechanical Efficiency and
(b) Supercharged en~e Fuel Consumption
Fig. 4.17.1: ~V) diagrams of naturally aspirated and
supercharged engines
~ Effect of Supercharging of engines compared
to naturally aspirated engine are · ·
For naturauy aspirated engines, ·
(I) Power output : Power output of supercharged eng.ines
P
. m = [
area (a)-l area (b>J x Spnng
. constan
.t increases due to ~crease in mass of .air _inducted per ·
cycle for a given swept volume. Some of the Work·on
supercharg~r is also recovered during expansion
process.

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~ l.C. En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech
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4·25 En lno Lubrication Coolln

(II) Mechanical emclcncy: An lncrcnso in m.o.p. duo to _4_.2_0_ ___::::----------.::.::~

supercharging lncrcnses U10 friclion losses duo to
Type• of Superch•ro•r11
increnscd lond nnd hcuvicr components needed.
However. Ute increase in B.P. Is more thnn the friction (1) Piston • cyllndor typo
. losses. therefore the mcchnnicnl efficiency Is slightly
(2) Rotory blowors
better.
(I) Root Blowor
(Ill) Fuel consumption : The power needed to drive n
supercharger varies · depending upon tho typ¢ of (II) Vano typo blower

supercharging methods used. (3) Centrlrugol compressors

The specific fuel consumption increnses at part loads if

l~lg. C 4.9 : Types of Supcrchuracrs
the mechanicul driven supercharger is used pnrticulnrly
in case of petrol engines. However. SFC for Cl engines 4.20.1 Piston - Cylinder Type .
is slightly less due to better mixing and combustion
These nro reciprocating con1prossors which uro shnll
efficiency. in principle und design to n rcclpmcutlng engine. 1'hc:
compressors hnvc n rcciprocntlng piston in n cylinder lllld
Syllabus Topic : Types of Superchargers
due to positive displncement of the piston, tho nir or chnrgc
is. compressed to a pressure higher than atmospheric and
4.19· Types of Compressors used for
supplied to the engine.
Supercharging and Difference
between Turbocharger and These compressors nrc not preferred a.•
Supercharger supcrchurgers In practice for the following reuson11 :
(i) These uro bulky nnd heavy.
The superchargers are air blowers or compressors
driven by the engine shaft through gearing, while tl1c (ii) There arc pressure pulsations during nir delivery.

exhaust gas driven centri.fugnl compressors are called (iii) Needs proper lubrication due to more reciprocating
turbochargers. parts.
. .
The power required to drive a supercharger is supplied (iv). These arc unsuitable for large volume flow rates of air
and for high speed engines.
out of the engine output while in case of turbocharger
the engine output remains unaffccted since the energy 4.20.2 Rotary Blowers
of engine exhaust gases (which otherwise is a waste
·These arc high speed machines nnd positive
energy) is utilised to run a gas turbine which drives the displacement type. These cnn be coupled directly to u high
air blower. Therefore, the basic methods of speed engine or to a gas turbine shaft. Few types of
supercharging are : commonly used rotary blowers arc being discussed here.

(A) Engine driven superchargers

-+ (I) Root Blower
The root blower shown in Fig. 4.20.1 consists of two
(B) Tutbocbargers run on engine exhaust gases.
lobes mounted on different rotors of epicycloldul or
involute profiles rotating in opposite directions.

~, ,.M:!CJw.th C:in~llf ltc'O

:·,g 1.0~·~t:n~g~ln~e~s~M~U~-S~e~m!:;·~V~-~M~e~ch~a;;;;;;;;;;;:i;;;1a1;;;;;;;ii;a;;;~4-~2~6~;;;;;;;;;;;;;1111m-~E~n~ln:ewlu~b~rf~ca~tl~o~n~,seoo~t~in~~~~~;;;;;;;;;­
. ... 'fbese profiles help !11 keepi_n~ the smooth motio~· and
;,. .·corteC
· :. ·t inatin8
.
between the lobes.

, ·. of the rotor is driven externally by a motor ~d the

one . .
,.,. · other is driven through gears from the fir~t.
· the two surfaces engage, the space between th .
. /\S . . em IS
,,. _reduced in volume so th~t the air trapped betwee'n them
ressed and then 1t expands. The pressure · · .
· is coJllp nse 1s
to back flow of air.
due ·
'fo reduce the wear, a small clearance is maintained spring I08ded .
. vanes slide In sk>tS
between the suifaces and the casing, . however, the cut In rotor dtUm
·1eatage through the clearance reduces the volumetri~
efficiency as the pressure ratio increases.
Outlet p
2
Fig. 4.20.2: Vane-type blower

The vanes are usually made of non-metallic fibres or

. imilar to
carbon. The action of vane type blower is s
root blowers ..
The air trappe(l betw~n the vanes is first expanded and
then it is compressed with the rotation of the rotor. The
vanes touch the· periphery of the casmg
· and due to- this
the leakage is prevented.

Inlet p a Advantage
1
Fig. 4.20.1 : Root blower The advantage of this type of blower are that we can
· 'a. Advantages obtain large volume flow rates at high pressure ratios
and these are found suitable for superc~ging of
The advantage of such blowers are that these can
continuous duty engines.
handle large volumes of air without increase in bulk,
a Disadvantage
these are simple in construction with low initial cost
and maintenance cost and their volumetric efficiency It needs high power consumption, has high rate of wear
increases with increase in speed. of sliding vanes and the maintenance cost is high.
a. Disadvantages. . 4.20.3 Centrifugal Compressors
I. The disadvantages are that it has low volumetric Fig. 4.20.3.shows the main components of a centrifugal
efficiency at high pressure ratios. compressor. It consists of an impeller.which rotates at
2. The leakages are more with higher clearance and a very high speed (can run upto 30000 r.p.m.) which
there are pressure pulsations in the delivery due to produces a centrifugal head on the air within, which
periodic discharge of the displaced air. causes the air to flow rapidly outwards.
.. , (ii) Vane type blower The fresh air enters at the eye of the impeller to take
.the place of the displaced air. .
The vane type blower is shown in' Fig.. 4.20.2. It
. consists of spring loaded vanes mounted eccentrically During the flow of air from the eye to the tip of the
inside the casing as shown in Fig. 4.20.2. ... impeller _there is an increase in pressure and
temperature due to increased momentum of air.
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Engine Lubrication, CoOllng &'sup:rchil~ · ·.
. .
11
'1 . .. 4-27
I .
.. . ~
!. From the impeller the air enters.into the fixed diffuser B~t s~ch compressors need slip coupling bctw~11 the
blades which are so shaped a8 to give an iricreased area engine and . compressor for the variable 8l>Ctd
of passage to the 8ir passing ·through. It causes the operations of the engines.
reduction in velocity of air leaving ~e impeller blades er Advantages
with ~er increase in p~ssure.
(1) Power required is less for given pressure ratio.
A pressure ratio upto 4 ; 1 can be achieved in case of
single stage ·centrifugal compressors. (2) Can handle small to large volumes of air.

Centrifugal compressors can handle large volume flow (3) Initial cost and maintenance cost is low.

.rates.with low power requirements. (4)" Weight /m3 of air handled is low.
Its maintenance is negligible. er Disadvantages

It is light in weight with low initial cost. (1) Space requirement is high.

(2) Slip coupling between engine and comprcs~r is

necessary for its variable speed operation.
Exit Of compressed air

VOiute.
casiiig· .Casing'
Fig. 4.20.3 : Centrifugal comp~r

4.20.4 . Screw Compressors or Helical Type Compre~sors

The scre_w type or helical ·rotary compressor is a positive displacement type of compressor. It consists of two mating
helical lobed rotors which intermesh with very small clearance as shown in Fig. 4 .20.4.
The· male rotor having 3-4 Jobes alo.ng its length is usually a driving rotor and i~ mesh with similarly formed helically
lobed female rotor having 4 to 6 lobes.
· During.the rotation of the rotor, air is drawn through the suction port to fill the space between the male and female rotor
lobes.
Since the air drawn between the Jobes is isolated from the suction port, this air so trapped is moved both axially and
radially with the rotation of the rotors and is compressed due to volume reduction as the enmeshing of the Jobes of the
I . • '

compressor progressively reduces the space occupied by the air. ·

When-the air so compressed is put into communication with the discharge port in the cylinder, the air leaves through
discharge port.

Sconne<I w ith CimiSconn«

 ..
1\-1?2
· · P1
<

.;

Speed 3000-SOOO 8000-30000 3()()0-30000

(rpm)

Fig. 4.20.4 : Screw comp~r 70-85

lsentropic ~SS 60--85
efficiency
It· could be observed that in screw compressors the
in
inafe and female rotors rotate·at different Speeds due to percentage
different number of lobes on them.
Noise Very noisy Very noisy Low noisy
The ·rotors are usually cooled by internal circulation of
Cost and Low cost and Costlier than High cost and
lubricating oil and due to this these compressors
application suitable for blowers and suitable to
require .elaJ:>orate lubric.a ting oil system.
low to suitable for medium
1be (p - V) diagram for screw compressors is shtwar medium medium to speed
to reciprocating compressors and these compressors speed engines high speed en'g ines.
are capable of handling gas flow rates in tlie range of due to their . engines-. However,
3
3.S to 300 m /min with pressure ratios as high as 20:1 . good These are not these are
in multistage compressors. response suitable for generally not

a Disadvantage low speed used as

engines superchargers
· I

. These compressors are noisy in operation. . because of due to their

a Application their poor high cost.
response
However, due to their simplicity, durabiliti, reliability
a:nd high efficiency over wide range of presslires, the Syllabus Topic
screw compressors are now being accepted for various ·Different Arrangements of Turbochargers
industrial applications, particularly by the refrigeration
and air conditioning industry. Turbochargers
4.20.5 Comparison of Superchargers
+ (MU - May 15,Dec. 15,May 16)

Type Positive Dynamic Positive

displacement compressor rusplacement
In case of internal combustion engines it is desirable to
rotary rotary
expand the high pressure, high temperature gases of
compressor compressor
the cylinder after combustion to the minimum possible -
Pressure 1.1to1.8 Upto4in 2 to 300 pressure for maximum power output.
ratio single stage

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me f.C; En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech ·4-29

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Engine LUbrieation,' Coolin
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However this expansion . is limited due to practical Various · arrangementS are used for connectin . . ·
considerations such as piston stroke, pumping losses, . -·~ g . the
exhaust pipes to turbochargers.
heat transfer losses and the requirement of expelling
c:r. Turbo charging and lntercoollng
the · burnt gases from the cylinder and allowing the
fresh charge to be admi.tted. In case of turbocharger unit. the temperature of 1hc air
Due to limited expansion of gases the temperature of rises during compression process in the comprcSSOr as
exha,ust gases is high an~ these gases cany away lot of a result its density reduces. This reduces the ~of air
energy as wasteful energy. inducted into the cylinder.
It is represented on (p- V) diagram in Fig. 4.21.1. µ-this .air can be cooled, its.density can be incrcCISed,
p
consequently the mass of air inducted into the cyUndcr
Useful work developed
In cylinder can be increased.

The cooling of compressed air is carried out in a heat

2 Energy available
exchanger called after-cooler before . iriducting into
Additlonal in exhaust gases
energy required cylinder. It results · into boosting the power ·0 f the
to supercharge 00P.P.:a1=~~~~~~~~~~Zz:l:a.,5
the engine · Exhaust 6 engine.

4.21.1 Adv~nt~ges of Turbocharger~

. _J V C
__-'S=trok'"-'e volume
V ·
Blow down·
e>cpansion
v
8
Fig. 4.21.1 (i) No gearing is required betw~n ~e gas turbfue and
compressor.
· In order to utilise the energy of exhaust gases and tO .
(ii) It is very suitable for high speed engines.
limit the expansion strok~ of gases in cylinder to
reduce its sire, these exhaust gases are further allowed (ill) Gain in power at nominal cost.
to expand in a gas turbine and its work output is
(iv) Energy of exhaust gases of the engine which amounts
. utilised to drive a supercharger coupled. to the gas
to one-third of energy supplied is _put to work for
turbine called turbocharger. The general arrangement '
economical gains.
ofturbosupercbarger system is shown in Fig. 4 .21.2.

In case of single cylinder engines the turbocharging is (v) Exhaust of the engine becomes considerably quite.

usually not employed due to cyclic fluctuations of the (vi) Maintenance requirements are minimum.
pressure in the exhaust pipe.
(vii) The torque rise characteristics of turbo-charged after-
The system is found to be suitable for multicylinder
cooler unit . are excellent at high altirudes and
engines having four or more number of cylinders.
. Exhaust gases · momentarily overloads can be handled.
(viii) It requires limited space.

(ix) Volumetric efficiency of the engine increases.

4.21.2. Disadvantages of Turbochargers

Cylinder Air inlet___.,, · ,..

(i) Increases fuel consumption at low power outputs.-

(ii) Total cost of unit increases.

Fig. 4.21.2 : Arrangement of turbo supercharger

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.· . . ·En ines· MU-sem. V-Mech) " . _
4 30
.!rL I:·.Effect of Turbocharglrlg on Power
4,21 • output and Fuel Consumption at Low
spee~ ... (4.22.1)

~ (MU-May 15)
. at ternperature T ·1•
where, p 1 = inlet pressure of all'

. pressure of blower.
P2 = delivery or exit
. f th compressor
Let : 111 = Isentropic efficiency.0 .e . . · :;
· - · · barger
m. = mass flow rate of air supplied by superc .
'fhe compression of the charge entering the cells of the in kg/s
iJllpeller depenclS upon the centrifugal· force effect
>: Ac~al work of compression,
which increase with the square of the rotational speed
of the .impellor wheel. ·
...(4.22.2)
Co~sequently. under light load and low engine Speed
conditions the e~ergy released with the exhaust gases
win·be relatively smaU and is therefore in~ufficient to The power required to run the compressor,
drive the turbine assembly at very high speeds:
p
·- · .
= w =lli.xw·
'will t>e v~ry . little. extra .boost
C. T; [~9cy-IY'f J
correspondingly; there
pressvre to make . any marked improvement to the = m..x .::£.....:..!
' Tli
x - 1
. . .
....(4.22.3)
engine's torque and power out-put 4i the Jow-speed
range of the.engine. ~. The supercharger can be driven In the
Thus, in effect, the turbocharged engine will operate following manner
With almost no boost pressure and · with a reduced
1. A supercharger can be sep~tely driven by a motor or
compression ratio compared with the equivalent
by any other prime mover. _
naturally aspirated engine.
2. Supercharger .c an be drive~ by connecting -it to engine
Hence, in the very low speed range, the turbocharged
output shaft.
engine may have torque and power outputs and fuel
1
consumption values which are inferior to the · 3. Supercharger can be driven by the exhaust gas ·driven
unsupercharged engine. gas turbine. This system is called turbocbarging.

Additional power developed by the engine using

4.22 Power Input for Mechanical Driven
supercharger is usually much more than the power required
Superchargers
to drive the supercharger itself.

A blower is a steady flow machine. If we neglect the

Syllabus Topic : Methods and Arrangements of
.changes in K.E. and P.E.; the work required to run the
Superchargers
compressor per kg of air is given as :

4.23 . Methods of Supercharging

Therefore, Ideal or isentropfo work of compression per

The various arrangements for supercharging the ~ngine
kg of charge becomes :
as outlined in section 4.22 above are being discussed below.

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~ l.C; En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 4-31

En lne Lubrication, Coolin

arrangement for turbocharger is .&ho..

4.23.1 .. Gear Driven Supercharger An "'n ·.I~
Fig. 4.23.2.
.Fig. 4.23.1 shows the arrangement of compressor angement the exhaust energy of e .
In this 81T ng111c.
(supercharger) driven by engine shaft through gearing
'sed to run a gas turbine. The output of 11._ ta .
to increase the speed of the compressor. util1 . ~~
.
turb111e is used to drive the compressor dUcctJy ""·· ·
In this method. the power required to drive the """'Pltd
to it.
compressor is supplied from the engine output
Therefore, net power· output of the supercharged Therefore, the gas turbine and .compressor uSCd art
engine is equal to the difference of power output of independent of the engine and the total engine OUl}lut.
. ta
·- ·engine and power required to drive the compressor. enhanced.
The compressed air is cooled in an after cooler to
coupled Engine, Compressor and
enhance the mass of air inducted into the engine 4.23.3
Turbine supercharger ·
cylinder, hence, improves the _volumetric efficiency .
and power output of the engine.

The nrrnngcment for coupled engine, compressor and

gas turbine supercharger is shown in Fig. 4.23.3.

In this method, the turbine is coupled to engine through

step up gearing which drives the compressor IIlOUnlcd
on the same shaft.
a Advantages
LGes- The advantage of this system is that if the turbine
output is not sufficient to run the compressor
particularly at part load running of the engine, ~extra
4·.23.2 Turbocharger
power required to run the compressor is taken from the
engine.

Another advantage of this arrangement is that the

Gas
hrtline excess power developed by turbine over the
compressor power, it can be fed to the engine load.

Turbine
exhaust to
wrroundlng

Fig. 4.23.2 : Turbocharger

 - s .~rcharglrig
4-32 En lne Lubrication, COOiing & u

compressed .aft .

surrounding air

Exhaust to
surrounding

Fig. 4.23.3 : Coupled engine, comp~r and turbine

. • Gear Driven Supercharger and free Turbine

423 4
'fbis arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.23.4. .
th · · clri ·· · es drive the
_ Jn this method• e compressor 18 ven through step up gearing by the engine and the engine exhaust gas
pawer turbine separately.

such plants are also called as free piston engines.

In this method. the thermal
efficiency of the plant depends
00 the boost pressure ratio. Due
to this its thermal efficiency is
reduced at part loads.
Also. at low loads the engine e~~
exhauSt bas to be blown off to
ioTurblrie
swroondlng
surroundings since the power .t .
. l'llrlntake
turbine cannot run below certain from~ !llr

compressor pressures.
Fig. 4.23.4 : Gear driven supercharger and free turbine

Syllabus Topic : Limitations of Supercharging Though the power of the engine can be increased by ·
increasing the intake pressures of a given capacity of the
engine cylinder. But. an infinite increase in pressure. of
4.24 Limitations of Supercharging .
intake air is not possible for the following reasons :
.+ (MU· Dec: 13) (i) Increase in intake · pressiire increases the maximum
rr::-:~~-=-,...,...~~~----,-~,,,.,.-~~~:-:-=
pressure attained in the cylinder. This increases the
weight of the cylinder since the engine has to be
designed to withstand higher pressures.

(ii) Increased maximum pressures in the cylinder tend to

increase detonation tendency in case of S.I. engines.

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~ t~. Engl~es (MU-Sem. V~Mech) 4-33 '
. • l • • •• '
2.
· (ill) Higher peak p~sures increase the friction losses.

· (iv) .H igher Peak pressures increase the bearing loads and

the frictional losses.
. (v) Increased intake. pressures results int~· increased mass Limitations of Supercharging in C
of air per cylinder, requiring corresponding increase in 4.24.2 ' .1.
engines
_fuel supply. Burning of fuel results into higher peak
pressures and temperatures, therefore the engines needs
elaborate cooling arrangement to keep the temperatures
ne factors which tend to increase detonation in
. s the same factors tend to decrease the ..._ S.t
engine • ~Ockio .
of cylinder walls within practical limits. Excessive in c.1. engines. g
supercharging may result into higher mean cylinder Therefore, the increased induction PfCssUrcs ~
wall ~empemtures and it may cause the melting of supercharging help ~ suppress the ~ocking lo
piston top and pre-ignition problems. in CJ. engines, and improve combustion c~
for this reason, .supercharging is prefel'l'ed
(vi) Higher peak temperatures wilJ lead to higher exhaust
~as temperatures. It causes overheating of exhaust usually employed in C.I. engines for capacity of
and above power.
7S:
.
valves.
Supercharging in these engine improves power
w~
For the above reasons the supercharging pressures are
thermal efficiency and it can use inferior fuels
usually limited upto 1.6 bar pressures in case of lC.
engines. cetane rating.
However, limit of supercharging in C.L en&ines .
4.24.1 Limitations of Supercharging In S.I. limited from considerations of peak pressurcs ts
~
Engines temperatures, thermal stresses developed, lllcan

Knocking tendency in S.I. engines increases with the

increase in pressure temperature, compression ratio and
temperatures of cylinder wall temperatures and 1
00
bearings etc. Fuel economy is the .
consideration in deciding the use of superchargers.
an:
density of charge (air+ fuel) and the mixture strength.
-4.25 Performance of Engines at High
The· compression ratio in S.I engines is limited from
Altitude
knock and ,detonation considerations for a given octane
rating of fuel to be used.
Engines designed ~or sea. level c~nditions ~ develop
If this engine is supercharged, the increased induction lesser power at high altitudes smce the ·arr beco~
rarefied with the increase in altitude.
pressures will increase the peak pressure and
It is estimated that the pressure and temperature of air
temperatures causing the engine to detonate.
decreases by the following relation :
Alternately, the compression ratio of the engine needs
(i) Temperature decreases by 5°C i)er kilometer....(4.25.1)
to reduced with supercharged engines. But, the reduced
1.013:\
compression ratio reduces the power output and (ii) h = 67.5 Tm logto ( -p-) ...(4.25.2)
thermal efficiency of the engine with increased s.f.c.

For the above reasons the S.I. engines are usually not where, 'h' is altitude in meters

supercharged except for the following cases :

Tm = mean temperature of sea level and
· 1. For compensation of reduced pressure at high altitude temperatures in Kelvin. ·
altitudes in case of static engines and aeroplane
Due to the decreased pressures and temperatures at
engines. ·
high altitudes, the density of charge in case of Sl
engines and the density of air in case of CJ. engines
reduces.

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.rd .. engine~ (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

~,.c.
... 34
,...
.
En ine Lubrication, Cooling &
. . . su ercharglng
p . --
·· f\S a resUlt the mass of the charge inducted per stroke · the cylinders are
... . to cylinder reduces, hence, the power developed by In this method the exhaust of all where it
·folds froJll
iJ1 yUnder reduces.
tbCC .
released to common exhaust maru
supplied to run the gas turbine.
10 overcome this power loss, engine needs to be
.
ressure of all the
... rcbarged at high altitudes. -
sope It could be seen that the exhaust P b ·c
the atJllOSP en
cylinders is constant and above . to
.--;;uabus Topic : Methods of Turbo Charging . made big in size
pressure. The exhaust .manifol d ts
~
absorb any pressure pulsations.
The system is very efficient in operation.

~ Advantages of constant pressure

turbocharglng

Advantages
. · tant for turbine,
1. In case the pressure ratio is kept cons .
the recovery of exhaust energy o f the engine J.S

Tufbocbargers are extensively used now a days for efficient.

supe rcbarging of all types of two stroke and four stroke

· 2. Specific fuel consumption is low.
engines· 3. Turbine efficiency is high.
There are various methods of turbocharging. hnportant
4. .
Exhaust . sunp
piping arrangement is . 1e for multicylinder
lllCtbods of turbocharging are :
engines.
Methods of Turbocharglng
Disadvantages
(i)Constant pressure turbocharging · l. To maintain constant pressure and avoid any pressure
pulsations, it is nece~sary to use large diameter exhaust
(ii)Pulse turbocharging (Buchi - Type)
pipe. It increases the space requirement of the engine.
(iii)Pulse converter turbocharging This effect is more marked in case of small engines.
Fig. C 4.10 : Methods of Turbocbarging 2. Response of the system to changes in load is poor
Above methods are discussed in detail below : because the acceleration of turbine occurs slowly when
the load on the engine is suddenly increased. Reason is
4.26.1 Constant Pressure Turbocharging that due to increased load the corresponding exhaust

Schematic diagram · of a constant pressure energy is not sufficient to accelerate the turbine.
turbocharging is shown in Fig. 4.26.1. 3. For efficient running of turbine higher pressure ratio
Compressed air
are necessary. It implies that large pressure drop must
~>'
Sun'OUi'lding occur during scavenging.
".·
~:· air
l:ngin~ 1; It makes the process of ~,cavenging bit difficult.
cylinder ;~
This system is not suitable for two stroke engines since
the . exhaust energy converted by turbine is not .
. ... EXha1:1st sufficient to' run the compressor alone. Therefore, some :
iQ~~ndillQ . additional means are needed for supplying air to the
Engine ~xhaust
Fig. 4.26.1 : Constant pressure turbocharging engine.

\\~n.....
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 J , • • , . ,:,

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· ·· .
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. . : ~ ·~

.·M i.e. EnPl~es (MU-sem·. V-M~h) · 4-35 . Engine Lubrication, Cooling & SuPe - . ,·.· .
4.26.2 . Pulse Turt>ocflarglng (Buchl-Tyf>el 2. Enghle · .yilh.. I~· Own~ Of cyi;,,d.,. , ·
co".nplicated intake and exhaust pipe arrang~ . .Uirca' ·
Fig. 4.26.2 shows the schematic dfogram for pulse . . Dt
3. Poor turbine efficiency is obtained' in case Of o~
turbo charging system for multicylinder engines. ·
two cylinder. . . . . or
The main objective of th.is system is to utilise the
4. Scavenging process is disturbed if the wa~ca ha. ·
IQnetic energy of blow down gases to drive the gas travel through Jong exhaust pipes to turbine.
Ye lo
turbine without much increase in exhaust pressure.
To achieve the above aim, the exhaust lines are 4.26.3 Pulse Converter Turbocharglng
grouped together to receive the exhaust pulses as soon
Pulse converter turbocharging system has
as the exhaust valve opens. the
advantages of both constant . pressure and
Then these gases are gathered and passed from the . Pt1Isc
turbocbargmg system and avoids the drawbacks
narrow exhaust pipes directly to the gas turbine by the both. Of
shortest route.
A constant pressure system requires the stead
- · Separate exhaust pipes are used so that exhaust process .. fi . ffi . y flow
condItions or Its e cient operation while suffers fro
of various cylinders do not interfere with another. • DI
diffiICUJt scavengmg.

-
si.::.::::;::::~~-Stm>und~ng
,
A pulse turbocharging system operate~ ·at low
efficiency due to partial operation, however, it P~Yidcs
efficiei:it operation and .better scavenging at pan I~
compared to constant pressure system.

The advantages of both system as enumerated above

Exhaust to
are achieved in pulse converter turbocharging system
~~~J.::i~r...,;,.SWT'OIXI~Olng
by connecting the different branches of exhaust
manifolds together in a specially designed venturi
Fig. 4.26.2 : Pulse Turbocharging junction before entry to turbine. 1bis venturi junction
is called pulse converter.
er Advantages of pulse turbocharging
Schematic diagram of the pulse converter turbo
1. Space required is Jess due to short and small diameter charging system is represented in Fig. 4.26.3.
pipes. Cyllnd13rs

2. The recovery of exhaust blow down energy is efficient.

\
3. Comparatively better scavenging is obtained at low
loads due to reduced pressure in exhaust pipes.
Exhaust
4. Requirement of rapid acceleration of the turbocharger.
with increased sudden load on the engine can be easily
Fig. 4.26.3 : Pulse converter turbocharging
met because the large amount of extra energy can be
fed to the turbine without and delay. As shown in Fig. 4.26.3, the exhaust of engine cylinder

c:r. Disadvantages of pulse turbochargfng from exhaust manifolds is joined in a venturi section.

The pressure pulse is converted into K.E. in the nozzle

1. · With high turbine pressure ratio, the recovery of
section of venturi. It creates a suction effect in the
energy is poor. Pressure ratio for turbine is limited two.

-
: ..

·-
4-38 . En lne Lubri~tlon; eooi1ng & Supercha . ing .
engine. B.P. of unsupercharged engine =l.P x Tim
· the:' diffuser part of the venturi the Pressu
·
}i1 . re &raduaUy = 68.25 x o.78 = 53.235 ~w
,,, inereases and high pressure exhaust is supplied to the
When engine is supercharged
turbine.
Refer Fig. P. 4.26.1
...i.:s system is suitable and efficient even at
.,,.. .. Part load
co n ditions for low pressure ratio turbocb .
. ·. argmg. It
T; = T•(rp)cv- tvr =288(1.75)0..ut.4 =337.93 K
provides very g~ response in case of sudden change
in loads on the engme. '
T~ -T1 . , 337.93 - 288
Tli = 0.72 = T2 - 288

Tz = 357.4 K; 12. = rP =1.75;

Pt

P2 = 1.75 P1;

P2 = 1.75 x 1.013

= 1.77275 bar

- ..
so1ut1on:

l.P. = 13 kW/m3 of free air induced/min, s

V, = 3 litre= 3 x 10- 3 m3, Fig. P. 4.26.1

N = 3500 rpm, Tlv = 0.81, Given that the blower delivers the air equal to swept
3
volume of .5.25 m (free air) at p2 = 1.77275 bar and
P1 = 1.013 bar, T 1 =15°C=288 K, T2 =357.4 K. Equivalent volume of free air at p 1 =1.013 bar
and T 1 = 288 K can be calculated as follows by using gas
Isentropic efficiency of blower,
equation :
Tli = 0.72,
P1 ·V1
. .
P2 • V2
- P2 T, ~

Pressure ratio of blower, rP =Pi = 1.72 Tz

Mechanical efficiency, . P2 · V2
.
T1 ·
Vt = x-
Pt T2
~m of engine and blower each= 0.78.
. 1.77275 . . 288
Vt = 1.013 x 5.25 x '3"57.4
Swept volume/min,

•
V8 = V8 x2
N 3500
=(3 x 10- 3) x- 3/ .
- = 5.25 m nun
= 7.4035 m3/min
2
Rate of increase in volume induced into cylinders,
J.P. ofunsupercharged engine =LPJm /min xVs 3
. .
= v1 - Vs ·=7.4035-5.25
= 13 x 5.25 = 68.25 kW

--- - -- -
-- -· --·
- - - -----···- ···-··- ·- -·-- ·---
scanned w ith CamScanner
,,."
~:
i -
I.
I

· == 2_.is3~ m 3imin ' -·

Increase in IP d -. - : .. - .·
- ·-. · · ue to additional volume induced.
3 • •
== IPJ.
. m /minx <Y1 - Vs) -
= 13 x 2.1535 ~ 28 kW
Increase in I p d .
_ · · . ue to mcrease ~ suction pressure,
== Ap x y" _ f.1 .77275 - 1.0131 ~ 5.25 Given: B.P. =260 kW. Tlv = 78% or 0.78,
- s - - x lO'x--
1000 60
== 6.65 kW B.S.F.C. = 0.247 kg/kWh. N = 1500 rplll

Total increase in IP ' ::: Si.=AIF= 17:1,p0 = l.032bar

28 + 6.65 =34.65 kW fit - •
Total mcrease in B.P. T0 = 10° C = 283 K
= l.P. x Tim

= 34.65 x 0.78 = 27.03 kW Altitude, h ::: 2700 m, P1 = 0. 72 bar

- '
This. .
mcrease lD B.P. will be reduced by the amount of T2 = 32°C=305K
power Deeded to drive the blo~er.
. =
Power required by supercharger 0.08 x Total or ........88
.,.v PC>wer
m= P2
• Vs _ (l.77275 x 10s) x 5.25 (a) Engine capacity, V, and brake 01ean effect.i
R • T2 287 x 357.4 p~ure, Pmb as unsupercharged engine at .,..ft Ve
. .._ 1evet
Fuel consumption/ min,
= 9.0721 k~m.in
_ B.S.F.C. x B.P. _ 0.247 x 26Q
Power required to run the blower, D1t- - . 60 - 60 -

mS,(T2-T1) m, = 1.070 kg/min

= Tim
:. Air consumption, ni. = ~ x Air fuel ratio
= (9.c:;:,21) x 1 .005x(~~~4-288)= 13.52 kW
= 1.070 x 17 = 18.19 kg/min
Net increase in B. P. of the engine,
Volumetric efficiency,

= 27.03 - 13.52 =13.S kW

mass of air taken per cycle (ID. x ~)
[~pJe _4 .26.2 MU - Dec. 07, Dec. 11. 12 Marks ~ _,,: ':; - ..;.,J Tlv = mass of free air corresponding to swept volume
f--~·.:r .:
· .. ~ .. .. ,. _ . .,. . ;. .._;.· <.: , :::~ •• > ...... ~~rt
!~~- diesel - ~ragi~ operati~g on. four stroke cycle, is; f£), ~;
;design~ · to operate with following charactensticis at :_s~a; But, p0 V 0 = IDu RT0
[lejtel; where the mean conditions are 1.032 bar ar.~:·107?9:1
/_brake -_power = 260 kW, volumetric efficiency __= ; ·-?Bo/~ ffi.x~ [18.l~xtfoo]
!(a(:-;~ level ·· tree air conditions) brake' ··speciffc-~:tue'f
= ~ =[(1.03 x 105) V9J
0.78
[q6nsumption = 0~247 kg/kWh, speed =- 1590 - rpm:-};..yf R T0 287 x283
l'tt~~-~ 17:1. _ . _ _ _ __ . ·: :.:;_L;~J,~
[9~1a!e the required engine cap~city af!d the _~~~~~,~~:~i :. Swept volume, V5 = V0 =0.02451 m 3 ...Ans.
!~~~~mean effective pressure~ __· ~- ~:- , , :,; . y ):+- >-~}_J;~~;j!J
N I
w~;~_ljgin~ is .filen.titted ~,~ ~ -siiperch~!~~~ ~-1~~.t ~'~~~ B.P. = Pmb x (AL) 2 x
60000 kW
(A.L=VJ
L~~i:AAAr~te<!. a~-~ ~al~de :~ ·groo/p ,YltJE:lr~. ~~Jl~r,!JhSS,P.,:~~W
iJ:>re~ufe:J§Jl?~ _~.i.2Il:!~: PQwe.~:~e._11__by:~.:sµp!3r~.- ~rge.u;;;~

scanned with ca1nSca 1m er

 MU-Sem. V-Mecti
4-38 ..
En lne Lu~. cOotln
z(I) -.==
Solution:
2
·· Piob ::: 8.4862 x lo' N'/m = 8 ~
..to.,. b
3 ar Given: D= 14cm=O.t4m.L= t6cm=0.16m.
·..Ans.
·(b) Wfien the engine Is supercharged
P1 = 1.0 bar, T 1 =27°C = 27 + 273 =300 K;
Net power remains same, therefore the
·11 be th · gross Power to
P =12 kW/m of free air min.
3

roduced w1 e algebraic sum f

bC P . o net Power and the lly =t'lm = 80% =0.8, p =1.62 bar, 2
wer requued to run the supercharger th
• ercfore,
pO .
111 (blower) =80% =0.8
Gross power = Net power output + p ·
Swept volume/min,
ower required
to run the supercharger
Number of strokes
Gross power = 260 + 0.08 x Gross power
Vs = Swept volume x min

(~xr>2xL) x~
260
·" Gross power = 092 =282.60 kW. =
1t : . 3000
·
Massof aJI req
uired ·
• m.1 =
Gross power x
B.P.
i& = 4x0.142 x0.16 x -
2-

- 282.60x18.19 = 26.39 m3/min

- 260 = 19.77 kg/min
Actual volume of air inhaled without supercharging
Let p 2 is the pressure of air leaving the . h
. . . superc arger.
Then. · = Vs X 'llv = 26.39 X 0.8 = 21.11 m3/min.
. 2 Blower : For isentropic compression we can write,
m x-
= ·-at N _ S,, x 2 x R T2
llv ~ - Nxp2 xv. ,
T2 =
(p_~<r-•>/r
T1 ~J =300 - 1-
(l.
62)ct.4-ll/U
=344.3K
RxT2 .

0.78 = 19.77 x 2 x 287 x 305 . 344.3-300

1500 x p 2 x 0 .02451 i.e. 0.8 = Ti-300

P2 = 1.20694 x 10s N/m2 =1.20694 bar . . Actual temperature of air after supercharging,
=
T2 355.4 K
:. Increase of pressure required, Blower delivers air corresponding to stroke
volume/min i.e. 26.39 ml/min at 1.62 bar and 355.4 K
.1.p = P2 - Po = 1.20694 - 1.032
(Given)
= 0.17494 bar ...Ans. Ei !i. 1.62 300
:. V1 =Pi · T
2
• V2 =-1- x 355.4 x 26.39 =36.09 m3/min
Increase in inducted volume = V 1 - actual volume inducted

without supercharging

= 36.09 - 21.11 = 14.98 ml/min

• Increase in 1.P. from increased inducted volume

= 14.98 x 12 = 179.76 kW

Scanned wrth CamScanrier

 .. " " '· · .~
··: .
"
:. ·....·-.· ~> ~_('.": ~
··ft I.e. Engines (MU-s .Engine Lubrication, Cooling & S .: <: ._·\
, . .. _ em. V-Mech) 4-39
. . .. ., ~~..
Increase in l.P~ due t~ Inc~ .induction ~ressurc. .. · ·~.
.\ :. . '·.\,<,·
~~ , .
.= . &px Vs .=(l.62-l)xt<>5x~x_i_ kW
' 60 1000
= 27.27kW

Total increase in l.P. = 179.76 + 27.27

= 207.03kW

Mechanical efficiency "" - ~·

. •'Im - l.P. .

B.P. = P 1 = -0.8x207.03 = 165.62 kW Fig. P. 4.26.4

However, actual B.P. increase will be decreased by the Solution:
power required to drive the blower.
Given : Swept volume of engine,
Mass of air inducted by blower,
m = P2. V;z _ (1.62 x 1<>5) x 26.39
VI =A.L. =0.8 litre =0.8 x 10-- 3m3
RT2 - 287 x 355.4
Heat rejected in air cooler,
= 41.914 kg/min .
~ =24 kJ/s, f)., =0.88, ~~ =0.85,
Power reqttlred by blower, ·
N = 3000 rpm, B.P. = 60 kW

(I) To find 1.P. and l.m.e.p. of the engine

_ ..fil.. _ 70.59 kW
= 41.914
60 x 1 x
(355.4-300)
0.8 = 48.38 kW
I.P. = g_
11m - 0.85 - -AIU.
70.59
I.P. per cylinder = - 4 -= 17.65kW
•·• Net increase in power ~ue to supercharging
N 1
·= P 1 -P2 =165.62-48.38 = 117.24kW ••.Ans. I.P. = i.m.e.p. x (A. L.) x 2 x 60000

17.65 = (i.m.e.p.) (0.8 x 10--3) x3~ x ~

i.m.e.p. = 8.825 x 1<>5 N/m = 8.825 bar
2
...Am.

(II) Rate of air consumption In kg/min

Total volume of air swept per min .

V51 = Number of cylinder x V, x ~

3
= 4 x 0.8 x 10--3 x ~ 3
= 4.8 m /min

Actual volume of air sucked,

• • 3/ .
Va = Vst X T)., = 4.8 X 0.88 = 4.224 m ID11l

Since,

SC:o n ned with C 11 mSc11nner

~~,.~Engines !M~m.
i ·~
h ~ .·
-
V-Mech!
4-4o Engine LubrfcatiOn, COoflrig & sup:~ ..
t· ~tYofair, · Solution:
I · p 1.1 x •<>'
p. == iff = 281x340 == t.7422 kg/m3 Given : Naturally aspirated engine : i.m.e.p. = 11 bar,

... . Mass of air supplied to engine · = O.S bar,

i .m.c.p. 0 f pumping =
p 1 0.915 bar,

nic v. x Pa =
== x 4.224 1.7422 p0 =1 bar,
== 1.359 kg/min P2 =1.S bar
...Ans.
Qll) The capacity of compressor In kg/min Temperature rise during suction =S0°C
. Mass of charge inducted in naturally aspirated engine,
CoI1lP~or power, We = Engine power= 60 kW
. p,v
Let 11\: be the mass of air compressed by the Dlc1 = RT,
contpressor in kg/sec.
. . x CP x (T T,) Mass of charge inducted in a supercharged engine•
eo01pressor power, Wc = Ille _ 2
_
~

60
.
= 11\: x 1.005 x (T 300) 2-
= 1Dc2= RT2

nic CT2 - 300) = 59.7 ...(i)

m -
~ --P2 T.., .
x- ...(i)
Dlc1 - P1 T1
Energy balance for air cooler can be written as :
For isentropic compression in blower :
n\-CP (T2 -340) = 24
But,
24
~ (T2 - 340) = I005 =23.88 ...(ii)
1 (1.4-1) fl.4

Dividing Equation (i) by Equation (ii), we get, or, T; = 290 ( i~ =325.6 K

n\ CT2 - 300) 59.7 T2 = T; + Temperature rise during suction
.
Ille (T 2- 340)
=ms
= 325.6 +SO= 375.6 K ...(ii)
or, T2 = 366.67 K .
From Equations (i) and (ii), we get,
~(T2-300) = 59.7 ~ 1.5 375.6
~I = 0.975 XJ40= t.7
·. n\ (366.67-300) = 59.7
The ratio of mass inducted is also proportional to their
or 11\: = 0.8955 kg/s. ratio i.m.e.p. Therefore,
= 53.73 kg/min •..Ans. ~ (i.m.e.p.)2
Example 4.26.5 Dlc1 -- (i.m.e.p.) 1-17
- • ...(iii)

A naturally aspirated petror engine develops l.m.e.p. of 11 . . For naturally aspirated engine,
bar and pumping l.m.e.p. is 0.5 bar. The mixture supplied to
the engine is 20% weak. The suction conditions are 0.975 But, (i.m.e.p.) 1 = i.m.e.p. of engine - i.m.e.p.
bar and 340 K. If the above engine is supercharged by a
blower, the blower raises the air pressure to 1.5 bar at for pumping loss
SUction. The rise in temperature of ai~ during the suction is
SO°C. The ambient conditions are 1 bar and 290 K. Find the
= 11-0.5 = 10.5 bar
Percentage increase in power of the supercharged engine.

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·: ~oo~··~·ri;;·~IC~·~~· ~~;:~·~~~-~-~~-~b~;;;;;;;===~==-_!~=-;;;;;m=-;;;s;~
. _··-" _. , · •.·· .n. nes (MU-Sein. v ,..Mect1) 4-41 ·: E;:n~in;em;L_.u~b;1irica._ti~on~,~Coo:~lln.,.;&~
4500 . I : . .
· ~s~·~·ercti,
·~',~·:~·~.· lti·,: .·..·..( ·.:d.;!. . . . 3
.1

• (i me p:) f. . ·. • . .. . . . . -- 9.1x105 x...3. x .H T x. 2-. x~ ·.·.·. ·. ·.,. . . ·. ..j,

•~ .~· • • • 2 o . supercharged engine:::: 1.7 x 10.5 VVVU\.I . :·:·~

·. '•
·.'
····..·. = 102.38kW
- 17:85bar
102·38 - 119 04 kW
..'-The pOwe~ developed is proportional to cthe indicated B.P.
(l.P.) = -:;;:- = 0.86 - . .
mean ef!ective pressure. Therefore, percentage increase in
·.'
power after superchargm~ ' ' Air standard efficiency,
1 1
= (i.m.e.p.)2 - (i.m.e.p.)1 . .Tia = 1 - (ciy-1) = 1 - (8)1.4 - I = 0.5847
(i.m.e.p.)1 . x 100

(17.85-10~
But, relative efficiency, ·
.- 10.5 . ) x 100 =70% •..Ans.
·- Indicated thermal efficiency·
11 - , 'l·
Example 4.26.6 r - Air standard efficiency .ri~

Two identical four stroke engines are fitted to two vehicles of

the same dimensions having a swept volume of 3.0 litres or0.5 =~
with following specifications :
i.e. 111 = 0.2924

Mass flow rate of fuel,

. I.P. x 3600 119.04 x 36oo
1. Brake mean effective 9.1 bar 12.2 bar
1Ilt1 = 111 x c.v. = 0.2924 x 43000
pressure, Piro
2. Speed,N 4500rpm 4500rpm
= 34.084 kg/hr
3. Compression ratio, r 8 6.5
4. 0.5 Let the test run is for t hours.
Relative efficiency, fir 0.5
5. Mechanical efficiency, flm 86% 86% . Specific mass relates to the mass of engine and fuel per
6. Mass of engine, m 240kg 250kg I.P.
7. Calorific value (C.V.) of fuel 43000 kJ/kg 43000 kJ/kg Mass of engine + mass of fuel fort hrs
used :. (Specific mass)1 = J.P.

Detennine the following : 240 + 34.084 x t

= 119.04 .,.(i)
(a) Type of engine used
(b) Duration of test run so that the specific mass (I.e. Supercharged engine
engine mass + mass of fuel supplied) remains the
N 1
same for both the engines. B.P. = Pmb x (AL) 2 x 60000
. mass of engine + mass of fuel]
[ Specific mass= t.P.

Solutlon:
3 3
Given : V, = 3.0 litre= 3 x 10- m = 137.25kW
(a) The given compression ratio for both the engines is
I.P. = -B.P.-- 137.25
0.86
= 159.6kW
Jess than 10, it implies that the given engines are petrol 11m

engines working on otto cycle. ••.A.us. 1

"la = 1 - (r)<y- 1)
(b) Naturally aspirated engine
1
N 1 - . 1 - (6.5>11.4 - lJ = 0.527
(B.P.) = Pl!lh . (A.L.) 2 x 60000 kW

Scanned with CamSc;,noer

r~. Enl!ines (MU·Sem. V-Mechl ~
~ 1.C~·~-~-==:~====~~-~ma.-.-_;4-4~2~---._!iEn~gil!ln~e~Lub~rl~ca~tJon~,Cool~~l~ng~&~~upe~-~
f· -~.~.
· s

P"" % " ' "· = o.s x 0.527 =0.2635 8

. f'h
" MechanicaJ efficiency of engine, 1')111 = 0.
flow rate of fuel,
?JsSS (1) Net Increase In B.P.
J.P. x 3600 {kg/hr) (a) Unsupercbarged engine
l1la == f'l1 x c.v.
159.6X 3600 I.P. of unsupercbarged engine
== 0.2635 x 43000
-_ 1..
p / m3 I nunx
. numbermin
of strokes xSwept volume, (VJ
== 50.709 kg/hr

Mass of engine + mass of fuel in t hrs

= l.P./m3 /minx~ xv,
(Specific massh- . . . l.P. -
250 + 50.709 x t
= 1s x 33200 x (3.4 x 10-3) =84.tS kW
= 159.6 ...(ii) '
B.P. of unsupercharged engine
Since·the specific mass remains the same, i~ follows
. = lPXT) 111 =84.15x0.8=67.32kW

· (b) When engine is supercharged

(Specific mass)1 = (Specific mass>i
240 + 34.084 t = 250 + 50.709 t Refer Fig. P. 4.26.7
- 119.04 159.6
T; = T1 x rPCy-l)ly = 295 x (l.8)0A11A =348.95 K
,
t = 14.3213 hrs '...Ans.
T2-T1 348.95-295 ·T =36693K
lli = T2-T1 ; 0.75 T2-2~5 ' 2 .

rP = :: ; p2 = rP x p1 = 1.8 x 1.013 = 1.8234 bar

T

Fig. P. 4.26.7

Swept volume/min,

Solution:
3
l.P. = 15 kW/m of free air I min.,

Swept volume, V, = 3.4 liter= 3.4 x 10-3 m3, = (.3 4 x 10-3)x 23300 = 5.61.m/mm
3 •

N=3300rpm, llv=0.8, p1 =1.013 bar, Unsupercharged induced volume,

T1 =22°C =295 K
Vs = 1lvX Ys1 = 0.8 X 5.61=4.488 m 3
Pressure ratio of blower, rP = E2
Pt
=1.8, Given : Blower delivers the air equal to swept volume of
engine at p2 = 1.8234 bar and
Adiabatic efficiency lli = 0.75

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 .. ;

. ' .

j'
l
I .
I . !' : :
II -.
·nes (MU:Sem~. V-Mech) .• -.

Equivalent volume of air at ~ conditions can be

~culatcd as follows :

= 1.8234 295 3
366.93 XT.0i3 X 5.61=8.1185 m /min

Rate of increase in volume inducted into cylinder.

V = Yi -Vs =8.1185-4.488=3.6305m1/min
Increase in 1.P. due to additional volume induced Refer Fig. P. 4.26.8.

= LP./ m 1 /minx V =IS x 3.6305 = 54.46 k.W Gh•en:

Increase in l.P. due to increase in suction pressure. Bore, d = 100 nun= 0.1 m I

Stroke, L = 110 nun= 0.11 m

= <Pi-Pi) Ys1
10
5
5 61
N = 20oorpm
= (1.8234-1.013) x "iOQOX 6o =7.58 kW
Torque, T = 150Nm
• • Total incrc3.se in LP.= 54.46 + 7.58 = 62.04 kW = 0.72
'lv
Total incres:se in B.P. = 11.. x Increase in I.P
'lm = 0.8
= 0.8 x 62.04 = 49.63 kW
T, = 25° C =298 K
This ioac:L.-.;c in power must be deducted by the power T = 65° C = 338 K
1
required to dri\"C the blo~·er. 3
21tNT 2000 ·
B.P. = 60 = 21t X"'60 X 150 x 10- kW
Mass of air ddh-crcd by blower,

P:. v,
. 5
( J.8234 x 10 ) x 5.61 = 31.42 kW
m = RT: = 287x366.93 =9.714kg/min

Po'11i-a ~u.ircd ro dri\•e the blower,

J.P. = Tb
B.P. 31.42
=Q.So =39.275kW

mxC='(T2 -T1)

(2.71~)_ J.005x(366.93-295)
= \60') .x O.S = 14.63 kW
Q c: 1210 l<Jhnln
Net increase in B.P. =TCY..al increaSe in B.P.
-Blower power (Pb) T3 =66•C

= 49.63 - 14.63 =JS kW

Fig. P. 4.26.8

Scanned with CamSconoe<

 ' . .

·. .
.
, :- . · Engines (MlJ-Sem. V-Mech) 4-44
i. d,.c. . . _ _ Engine Lubrication, Coolin
;· ~JlldiCated mean effective pressure, p;_ ... (ii)
·. 1210 = nlc x 1.005 .( T1·_ j 38 )
~ J) . . de - 39.275 ' Pu,X.LXAxn
.. J.P./ cylin r - 6 = 60 · ('')
we get,
;~ ·
:
~o\\1·
.
On dividing Equation (i) by Equation u
. .N
1 ·.
r (No. of strokes, n = -per/s)
2x60
31.4 x 60 %x 1.005 ~ (Ta- ~98 )
1210 = nlc x t.005 x ( T 2 -338)
i_ . 39.275 x 1
~ LxAxn
... p"' == 1.557 ( T2 -338) = ( T2 -298)
39 275 .
~x
. 1
6 ,, L(1t
-.·d2)N- x 1- T2 = 409.SK
4 2 60
From Equation (il),
39 275 1 x 4 x 60 x 2
2
::= =-=r-xo.11 X1tX(0.1) x2000 i210 = nic x 1.005 (409.s - 338)
2
== 454 kN!in or 4.54 bar _•••Ans. ••• Am.
;. P111 ~ = 16.765 kg/min ..
·Air consumption rate of engine . '
(Ii) . .
4.27 Comparison between Supercharging
Engine swept volume, ·
and Turbo Charging
v, = [~x(o.1)2xo.11J x 2~ ~ (MU-Dec.17)

= 5.18 m3 ./ min

:. Aspirated volume of air into engine

. . .
V = 'llv • V, =0.72x5.18

= 3.73 m 3 I min

Aspirated arr mass flow into the engine,

It is smooth at
. 1. Drive It is
comparitively high speeds but
• .EY. 1.75 x 10s x 3.73
m. =RT = 287 x338 not smooth not satisfactory at
low speeds.
. = 6.72kg/min
Illa •••Ans..
2. Control over Easy Difficult
exhaust
(ill) Air Oow of air into comp~r, nic ·(kg/min)
3. Special No special Require_s s~ial
Work supplied in kJ/min to compressor
exhaust exhaust exhaust manifolds
(Equivalent to B.P.) manifolds manifolds are design
needed
.= Gain in enthalpy of air in the compressor
4. .Efficiency Gives good Difficult to obtain
B.P. x 60 = ID.: · cp · CT2 - Ti) efficiency over good . efficiency
wide range of over wide .range
31.42 x 60 = ID., x 1.005 ( T2 -298) ... (i) operations of operations
since efficiency
By energy balance for air cooler we can write, of turbine blades
. is sensitive to gas
Heat rejected. Q = ID.,· CP • (T2 -T3) velocities
• I•

- --- -- - - --- ---- - -· - - - --- - - --·- - - -

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.. Engine Lubrication;:~1in. ·&:superc!lit/ '
.. .
.. \ .. ~

. 1. Mist lubricatio~ system

2. Wet sump lubric~tion system .

· S. Erosion
Such problem Blade erosion is (i) Splash system
does not exists common
(ii) Splash and pressure feed sy~tem
6. Injection No change Needs
Timing (iii) Fully pressure feed system
needed modification to
modification fuel injection Dry sump lubrication system
3.
system to inject
Oil p ump is needed to circulate .the lubricant under
more fuel per unit
time. It causes pressure to various parts of the engine..
overloading of Some of the lubricants in use are :
the cams and
other components (a) Solid lubri~ts - : graphite, soap stone,
7 . . Overloading molybdenum and milk stones.
Difficult to Easy to handle
handle momentary (b) Semi-solid lubricai:tts' : · calci.u m grease, soda·
momentary overload. grease, aluminium grea5e. ·. ;
overload
(c) Liquid lubricants

(i) Animal _o ils - whale oil, tallow oil, lard oil

etc.
Section - I : Engine Lubrication (ii) Vegetable oils - cast?r• linseed, olive and
palm oils.
The method of reducing friction by introducing a
(iii) Mineral oils.
substance called lubricant between mating parts is
Classification of oils is normally based on viscosity of
called lubrication.
oil.
Objective of lubrication are to prevent metal to metal
SAE has assigned 5 W/10 W/5 W grades which gives
contact between mating parts, reduce wear and tear,
the increasing range of viscosity at -l8°C. These oils
provide sCaling betw~n piston rings and cylinder
render starting of engine in cold weather easy. SAE
walls, avoid corrosion and reduce vibrations.
20/30/40/50 grades are defined in terms of increasing
Components of I.C. engines to be lubricated are
viscosity at 99°C. These oil work satisfactorily in
piston and cylinder, small and big end bearings, main
normal and hot weather.
crank shaft bearing, camshaft and its bearings · and
Muitigrade oils u5e additives for viscosity index ·
valve mechanism.
improvers which can work with more ~ one
Types of lubricants are solid lubricant, semi-liquid
viscosity at different temperatures e.g. SAE 10 W/30.
lubricants and liquid lubricants.
Service rating of oils for petrol engines is SA, SB, SC,
Requirement of an ideal lubricant are : form an oil
. SD and SE and for diesel engines it is CA, CB, CC and
film between mating parts, leave no carbon residue on
CD. Rating A is for light duty services and severity of
burning. reduce wear and tear, cleanse, should not have
services increases from A to E.
low sulphur, low cost and low tendency to oxidation.
Lubricating oils for two stroke engines have
Additives are compounds added to lubricating oils to
specifications as API TA (2T oil) and
promote the desired properties of a lubricant.
. API TC (Super 2T oil) series.
Types _of lubrication system are :
 -.,
~ ::·'; : .. ' engines. MU-Sem.V-Mech) · · - , ·
~. g,,,c.._section • II : Engine Cooling En ine l.Ubrtcatlon, C<>Olin .
n-
:water· temperature . to -exceed . beyond . 100. .
- · ~c -
.. . .
/ .-: .out of the total e~ergy input of ~e ~e_l_, only ,30 to improves engine performance.
. . e
. -: -. : IL is converted mto useful work. Remaind -. Evaporative cooling· -is .used for indu-strial · engm
_ 3771' • . _ . er of 1l
· . ·ed away by cooling medium (22 to 3001) . applications in which the st.eani .fonriation of cooling
cart'l 70
• m the
~ust gases (30-3~%) and about 12% is lost by way water is allowed. .Steam formed is ·condensed in a
diation, conduction and convection . lated into
condenser and its conde~te is reclJ"Cll
0f t8 •
_: 'Jf no -cooling -is provided, _the high temperatures _coo~g system.

'. un·gin the combustion cham~r leads to lub . . Additives are used for marine and · high altitude
c:~ · ncation
failure• distortion of parts due to thermai stresses, pre- applications e.g. 30% of ethelene glycol is used as
jgnition, power loss, efficiency loss and detonation. additive with 70% water.
JJaSic cooling systems are of two types :
Section - Ill : Supercharging I
(a) Direet or air cooling Turbo-charglrig
(b) IodireCt or water cooling
Power of the e~gine can ·be increased by increasing
Air eoollng is used for small capacity and aircraft
speed of the engine, use of higher C.R., utilisation of
engines due to weight criteria. Air is forced over the
exhaust energy, ~proving volumetric efficiency and
cylinder and to increase the heat transfer rates, fins are
increasing the charge density.
provided.
Out of all the methods given above, method of
_ types of water cooling used for medium and high
increasing the density of charge is most suitable and
capacity engines :
practical.
(i) Thermo-syphon cooling
The process of focreasing the densi-ty of inlet charge to
(ii) Pump assisted thermo-syphon -cooling increase the power output of the engine is -called
(iii) Cooling with thermostatic regulator supercharging. The device used for increasing the

(iv) Pressurized water cooling. pressure of air above atmospheric pressure is called
supercharger.
(v) Evaporative cooling.
Supercbaring is not suitable for S.I. engines since the
- The basic system of thermo-syphon water cooling
engine develops the tendency to detonation.
consists of a radiator with large number of fins through
Advantages of supercharging are :
which the water is circulated to water jackets of the
cylinder for cooling. Air is circulated ov~r the radiator (i) Increased power output

by a fan. (ii) Reduce weight to power ratio

- In pump assisted thermo-syphon cooling, in addition (iii) Reduce . the bulk of engine for · locomotive and
to above, a pump is used for circulation of water. marine applications

- . An additional thermostat is provided in the discharge (iv) To overcome loss of power at high altitudes
line of cylinder block of pump assisted -thermo-syphon Types of compressors used for supercharging are :
system called cooling with themwstatic regulator. (i) Engine driveri superchargers.
- It allows warm up of engine in a shorter duration of (ii) Rotary blowers. (Root blower and vane type
time. blowers)
- ~ water cooling system works under (iii) Centrifugal compressors.
pressure in the range of 1.5 to 2 bar and allows cooling

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• &Sue:-:·
Engine LubriCatlon, .Cooling . ·' :..:::·I
· . . . . . . . - U-Sem. V-Mech)
Methods of'turl>OchafBing are: · .· · .· ·':· · ~·· !~'.
,. . (1v) Turboch. argers
. . driven by exhaust gases of .the. •- ' •. ·•· • ,. •I

engine. .
J . • Constant pressure turbocbarging ..... ~ ~!
. A~ . . . 2. ·Pulse turboeharging · - . '\ :
.'

· · rboc'"
.. -..&-er utill"ses th
.·· : of the enoin · . e heat energy of the exhaust
c-C to run a gas turb. . . 3. . Pulse conve~r turbocharging ·
of turb· · · me and the power output '.:·
me Is used to run . . .
the same haft · the compressor mounted on
.s as the turbine.
This · · ·
high method is found swtable
. only for multicylinder ( Note : For answers refer the Section numbe·
· ·
speed_engines. . indicated In bracket.) · . rs
Power • put t o . mechanicall
. ·. .
given as10 Y ·driven supen:harger is
Section I : Engine Lubrication

Theory

Q.1
What do you understand by lubrication ? .
. . ... [According to Equation (4.22.3)) needed ? Enumerate. the various compo WhuI ia.
. nentsof

Methods of supercharging are engine ne~ed to be lubricated. · .c.

(Seetlon• 4.1, 4.1.1 and 4.1.2)
1. .
Supercharger·driv·en separately by a motor or any other ·
pnmemover. .
Write short note on functions of lubricating systems
Q.2
Geardri (Seetlon 4.1.1) ·
2. · ven· super· charger.
Discuss the various requirements of an ideal
3. Turbocharger. Q.3
lubricant. [Seetlon 4.2)
4. Coupled engine• compressor and turbine
· supercharger.·
What are additives used in lubrication system ?
5. Gear driven supercharger and free turbine. Q.4
Name few of them. [Seetlon 4.3)
Limitations of supercharging due to increased peak
pressures are : Q. 5 Write a short note on lubrication syste~ ~ In
heavy diesel engines. [Section 4.6.3)
(i) Increased weighL
(ii) Detonation in S.I. engines. Q. 6 Differentiate between wet sump lubrication and dry
sump lubrication. [Section 4.7.3)
(iii) Increased frictional losses.
(iv) Increased bearing friction losses and the load on Q. 7 · Enlist the function of lubrication system used In 1
.c.
engines and explain any one type of lubrication
the bearing.
system used in l.C. Engines.
(v) Me~ting piston top and preignition.
(Sections 4.1.1and4.7)
(vi) Overtheating of exhaust valves. .
Q. 8 What are the methods employed for lubrication of
At high altitude the temperature and pressure is given l.C. engines ? Discuss the method used for
lubrication of 2-stroke petrol engines. Enumerate its
by the relation :
(i) Teroperatore. T = T0 - Altitude in km x 5
advantages and disadvantages.
(I.013:'\ [Sections 4.4 and 4.5)
h = 67.5 T111 log10 \p)
Discuss the splash system of lubrication for 4-stroke
engines with a neat sketch. Why this system is not
supen:bargin8 is employed to overcome 1be Joss of · o. 9
considered as positive lubrication system 1
power of an engine at high altitudes due to decreased p
[Section 4.6.1]
andT.

scanned with CamSeanner

r~
j' ~'·.
~ .-
C en Ines (M~Sen. V·Mecti

DISCUSS the wet sump method of lubricatl · .

4-48

1.c.
Engine Lubrication, Coolin-g & Superchargln

Why the antifreeze solutions ar~ used ? Name ~uc~

·· , 10 . · on for
'· 0 . engines. [Section 4.6] · Q. 22

a solution. [Section 4.16]

:: Give a neat sketch of pressure lubricatl
O· 11 on system
and explain its working. [Section 4.6 • Section • Ill : Supercharging I Turbo-charging
31
Section II : Engine Coollng Q. 23 What are the methods of improving the engine
power output ? Which method is most suitable for
What is the necessity for cooling of I c . l.C. engines? [Section 4.17)
0.12 · ·engines?
oescribe a water cooling system of an automobile
Q, 24 What do you understand by the terms
engine. [Sections 4.11and4.14]
•supercharging• and ~superchargers• ?

Q, 13
WhY cooling is required in I
• ·
eng·inces
? ·
What
[Section 4.17.1)
would happen if the engine is overcooled ? 0. 25 What are the effects of supercharging the l.C.
(sections 4.11 and 4.11.2] engines ? [Section 4.17.2]

Write short note on various meth~s used . f Q. 26 Discuss the objectives of supercharging of engine.
Q. 14 · or water
circulation around the engine cylinder and cylinder [Section 4.18)
head for water cooling system.
Q. 27 Write a short note on difference between
(Sections 4.12 and 4.14.1] supercharger and turbocharger.
[Sections 4.17.1, 4.19 and 4.21]
0. 15 Discuss the working of aircooled engines. What are
fins ? Discuss the shape and sizes of fins and their Q. 28 Explain the need of supercharging and with a neat
relative merits? [Sections 4.13 and 4.13.11 sketch describe any one type of supercharger.
[Sections 4.18 and ~.20.2) ·
a. 16 Why baffles are used for aircooled e~gines ?
Q. 29 Why supercharging of SJ. engines is not very
[Section 4.13.2]
common? (Sections 4.17.2 and 4.24.1]
a. 17 Wrth the help of schematic diagram, ·explain the
Q. 30 Why do C.I. engines have greater potential than S.I.
function of thermostat in the cooling system.
engines for improvement in power output and fuel
[Section 4.14.1.3]
economy as a result of supercharging.
a. 18 What are the advantages and limitations of air. [Sections 4.24.1 and 4.24.2)
cooling system used in l.C. engines? Q. 31 Write short note on constant pressure
[Sections 4.13.3 and 4.13.4) turbocharglng. [Sections 4.26.1]

.a. 19 Bring out a comparison between air cooling system Q, 32 Discuss various methods · of supercharging.
and water cooling system in I. C. engines. [Section 4.31)
[Section 4.15] Q. 33 Enumerate the methods of turbocharging and
explain briefly constant pressure turbocharging.
a. 20 What are the advantages of pressurized water
(Sections 4.26 and 4.26.1]
cooling ? Discuss the working of such a system.
[Section 4.14.1.4] Q, 34 Why ttie power output of an engine reduces at high
altitudes compared to its rated output at sea level ?
Q. 21 What is evaporative cooling ? Where it is used ?
(Sec_tlon 4.26)
[Section 4.14.1.5]
aaa

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'·
Engine Testing ·and ·Performance
;

::_:.-

Syllabus

-Engine Testing and Performance

Measurement of Brake Power, Indicated Power, Frictional Power, Fuel <;;onsum~tion, Air flow; BMEP, Pertorrt\ance
characteristic of SI and Cl Engine Effect of load and speed on Mechanical, Indicated Thermal, Brake Thennai
Volumetric efficiencies, Heat balance sheet. 8J'ld

Aims of Engine Testing, IS Code and Definitions

of Brake Power, Frictional Power 5.1.2 Various Engine Losses and Energy
and Indicated Power Balance

5.1 Introduction The perfonnance of an engine is actually meant for the

engine power output and the efficiency.

5.1.1 Alms of Engine Testing This depends on various parameters and ·it can be
estimated and improved upon only with thorough
With the development of internal combustion and their
understanding of the influence of the various engine
testing procedures, an Engineer's task is to reduce the cost
parameters on the losses of the engine. The various losses
and increase the power output and the efficiency of. the
are:
engine.
(a) lleatlosses
er The alms of the engine testing .
(b) Friction losses
). To get the specified information which cannot be (c) Pumping losses
possibly determined by calcuiation.
The analysis of heat losses of an J.C. engine gives
2. To justify the rating of the engine and the guaranteed sufficient indication as to how efficient the engine is
specific fuel consumption. working. In case of J.C. engine the heat .is supplied by
3. To verify and confirm the validity of engine data used burning the fuel in presence of air and it is utilised in the
in designing the engine i.e. to confirm that the actual following ways.
performance matches with the design specifications.
Heat supplied to the engine - Heat in fud
The BIS has published IS 14599(1999) as the
standard for engine testing for determination of power,
i
specific fuel consumption and smoke capacity (for C.I.
+
Heat converted Heat rejected to Heat carried
+
·Heat lost to
into useful cooling water away by exhaust surroundings 11/
engine). The Indian standards for measurement of smoke IS work (B.P.) gases · way of raciation
or so on
8118 ( 1998) and IS 14553 (1998) may be referred.

.. .
.....
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 rf~ngi~S (MU~. V-M~)
I ·w;1.C·
i,1 ·~
...
.
· Brake Power
5-2

Table S.1.1 :
.
Engine Testing an

JS standanb tooOo to t00o4 ~

d perforrn8°~

~~,:;~~i~ ~:riD:?:t£~Z;2f:ff~I:~~
IS: Glossary of terms related to test
Pan I
10000 L--~m~eth~ods~----------
Pan II Standard reference conditions -
· ·ts and
Part ill Measurements for testJ.Ilg, Uil1
limit of accuracy -
· y specific
Part IV Specifies power, e ffic1enc .
fuel consumption and lubricating oil
consumption.

PartV Preparation for te5ts and

measurement for wear

Part VI Recording of test results

Part VII Governing test for constant speed

,
. 'fberefore, it follows that out of the engine power
pioduced (J.P.) equals to the sum of brake power and .
engines. Also, the selection . of
engine for use with electncal

I frictional power.
generators.

I Accordingly, J.P. = B.P. + F.P. ...(5.1.1)

Part VIII

Part IX
Perfoniiance .test
Endurance test procedures both for
5.1.4 Various Tests to be performed on 1.C. constant speed and variable speed
engines. It is performed after tests
Engines
specified ln part vm.
Jn order to determine the actual performance of the Endurance test for constant speed
engine following tests on the engine are performed. engines is carried and for 32 cycles
in which each cycle is of 16 hrs
I. Indicated power (l.P.)
continuous running. Before start of
2. Brake power (B.P.) next cycle the temperature of oil
sump is brought down to within 5°C
3. Mechanical efficiency
of its initial temperature.
4. Fuel-air ratio Enduraiice test for variable speed
5. Specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.) in kg/kWh engines is conducted for 10 cycles
(100 hrs) in which each cycle is of
6. Thermal efficiency and beat balance
10 hrs with interval of 2 hrs between
The various testing methods for evaluating the above cycles 10 hrs duration is divided into
parameters are being discussed subsequently. 5 cycles of each 2 hr duration.
Results obtained are corrected to
5.1.5 IS Standard Code 10000 to 10004 for standard reference conditions and
Testing of Engines compared to results of part VI
above.
IS standard code. 10000 (Part I to Part XII) to 10004
specifies the Indian standards for testing of vehicles. PartX Test for smoke levels for variable
speed engines.
These are as follows :

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 . . . ' .
·. Engine Testing and Perto · ·.·.'-
. . :. ' .·: ~

Part XI Information supplied by ·

manufacfurer test Certificates
IS:
Deals with specification for
10001
performance requirements . for
constant speed diesel engines up to
20 kW capacity.
IS:
Same as above but for engines above
10002
20 kW capaeity.
IS: ·
Deals with specification for
10003
performance requirement of variable
speed diesel engine for automotive
purposes.
IS: Fig. S.2.1 : Engine indicator <Mechanical type) .
Specifications for performance
10004 requirement for variable speed spark The gas tap connects through passages both to the
ignition (S.I.) engines for
cylinder of indicator and to the combustion chamber of
automotive purposes.
the engine cylinder.
Syllabus Topic : Measurement of Indicated Power The piston slides in the cylinder and the piston rod is
and IMEP
connected to straight line linkage through a spring of

5.2 Measurement of Indicated Power proper stiffness.

(l.P.) (Mechanical Engine Indicator) The straight line linkage is mounted on a swinging
collar which can rotate on the top of the indicator
The indicated power of an engine is the power
developed within the cylinder. In order to determine the cylinder.

indicated power it is necessary to plot (p-V) diagram The spring controls the movement of the piston
representing the actual conditions of the engine within according to the pressure of engine cylinder.
the cylinder since the area of (p-V) diagram gives the
A stylus (pencil) is attached at the end of straight line
work developed by the engine per cycle.
linkage so that it moves in a v~rtical line in proportion
Knowing the speed and type of engine the rate of work . to the movement of piston by magnifying its
developed can be evaluated.
movement.
The apparatus used for drawing actual (~V) diagram is
A drum, to which a paper or indicator card can be
called engine indicator shown in Fig. 5.2. l.
fixed, is mounted on a vertical spring and shaft.
Engine indicator consists of a cylinder, piston and
It is rotated by a cord wound round it? the other end of
piston rod. On the cylinder a coupling nut is fitted.
which is attached to a point on the engine whose
The coupling nut is connected to a gas hole tap which motion is same as that the piston of the engine cylinder.
is fitted to the cylinder head of the engine to be tested.

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l~~==~~~-~S-4~~~~=~=~=
movement of the stylus and th h .
.ri.P. vertical
•.,... . .
'. . vement of the cord combines to prod
figure 1cnown as indicator diagram., ·
. e onzonta1
uce a closed
p
. En lne Testing and Performance

i
! 'fhe area enclosed__on the indicator dia°""....
I
1 . .,, • I o• o.uu measures
th work developed dunng a stroke to a defi 'te ·
e UU SCale.
It should be noted that the stiffness of the . .
spnng is
chosen appropriate to the maximum Pressure in the
cylinder.
~ Disadvantage · Fig. 5.2.2 : Indicator diagram
Indicated power (l.P.)
These type of indicators are not suitable ror' (J-

measurement in case of high speect ·engines due to its

mechanical nature.
Let, Pm = Indicated mean effective pressure (N/cml ·
"B.. Advantage A = Cross-sectional area of piston (cm2) = 4
1t (d)2

Usually, these are found suitable upto a Speed of

1500r.p.m. where, d = Di~eter of piston or bore (cm)

S.2.1 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure L = Length of stroke (m)

(l~M.E.P.)
n = Number.of power strokes per minute
It represents that constant pressure which if it is acted
N = Speed of the engine (r.p.m.)
over the full length of the stroke would produce the same
amount of work done by the piston as is actually produced where, n = N {for two·stroke engine) ·
by the engine cylinder during a cycle.

I.M.E.P. can be determined with the help of indicator

diagram shown in Fig. 5.2.2. (for four stroke.engine since we get one power stroke
in two revol~tions of the crankshaft)
The area of indicator diagram can be measlired with the
help of planimeter. Force on piston = Pm x A (Newtc;>ns)
Let: a = Netareaofi.Ddicatordiagram(cm1 Work done per cycle = (Pm x A) L {Nm)
I = Length of indicator diagram (cm)
LP. = Pm A Ln (Nm I min)
K = Spring constant, N/cm2 /cm or, I.P.
. n
= Pm · A· L · 60 (Nm/s orW)
Therefore, Mean height of diagram = la
Pm· A· L·n
or, I.P. = X:
60 1000
(kW) · .•. (5.2.2)
i.nie.p . = ] ~ K (NI cm1 ...(5.2.1)

- - - -- - - -- - -- - - - ------- -
'"
"
'[

·. ~I.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 5-5

5·3 . ~easurenient of l.P. by Farnborough Balanced Engine Indicator

----:--..:...:=-=~~~~~~~~~~~:=.::.~--~~--:-:-
. ~
53
The schematic diagram of Famborought balanced engine indicator is shown in fig. · · 1·
J
Pull~-B -

Fig. 5.3.1 : Farnborough balanced engine indicator

cylinder and the pipe - D always corresponds to

It consists of a metal drum which rotates at the same
pressure in the distributor box.
speed of the crankshaft throu~h the pulleys A and B.
Depending upon the pressure in the engine cylinder
The paper, on which the indicator diagram is to be
being higher or lower than that the pressure in pipe _D;
produced. is wrapped round the metal drum. Hence, the
the valve moves on either side of the circular disc.
ordinate parallel to the ends of the drum in the direction
of rotation will represent the crank angle or time base. A high tension battery is so connected to point s that
when the valve moves on either side of these seats, an
A sliding piston inside a cylinder is operated against a
electric spark is caused to pass through the point at s.
helical spring. This cylinder is connected through
pipe - C to a high pressure air or gas bottle. Now, when the spark point S is at the beginning of its
stroke, then by opening the cork. the high pressure air
This bottle is also connected to a contact disc valve
through a distributor box and pipe - D. The disc valve from pipe - D will move the sliding piston, which in
tum moves the point S.
has a free movement between two circular seats one on
each side of iL It implies that the movement of point S is proportional

The piston is connected to a spark point (S) through the to pressure in bottle.

link.ages which transfers the straight line motion to Therefore, when the drum rotates, it will describe a
point - S of the sliding piston. helix over the surface of the paper on the drum with

An electric current passing through this·point causes a each spark given depending upon the engine cylinder

spark to pass through the paper on drum. pressure over number of cycles. The diagram obtained
represents the (p-V) diagram of the engine cycles. ·
The movement of point S is corresponding to external

Scttr11Ww1thC11JnSc1m1~
.· .' ~ t.C. Engines _<MU-Sem ••V-Mech) . . _
56 Engine Testing and PerforrnanE! ·
~BY
using lighter spnng, the suction
.
d ·
an exhaust .
. . . 1~
It is directly inserted into the engine cylinder bead, ·
. of the engme cycle can be well studied . · - : ·· . · Under
· With the a spark plug and its diaphragm is subjected to cy .
~p of tbiS indicator. . .
pressures. It utilises the Piezo eleetric effect.
· · · · artz .crystals
. Ele::c;.:.:.tr_o_nl_c_ln_d_lca_to_rs
_ _ _ _ __ As the cylirider pressure increases, the qu
~ are compressed and an electrical potential appears on
'fbe indicator diagrams obtained by the mechani al the crystals of a valve proportional to stress (pressure): . .
, c
. dicators discussed in section 5.2 and 5 3· . This electrical signal, which is usually small! is passed
in • give
-....nneous
c;.i•~
indicator diagrams due to the i· n Iti
'
e a effect of on to an amplifier for amplification of the signal and
the piston, give wavy lines due to vibrations caused by the output of the .·amplifier is applied to the vertical
deflection plates of the cathode ray tube in' the
springs and these represent the average dia'""""'"
o ......., over a
oscillograph. (Fig: 5.4.2)
1arge number of cycles.
Since the movement of the electronic beam being
'Ille electronic indicators have . been developed by proportional to the difference of voltage J:>etween two
.. bich the indicator diagram can be drawn fior the ·
.... plates and this voltage being proportional to cylinder
anaJ.ysis of individual cycles without having the .pressure, it implies that the vertical movement of th~
appreciable inertia effects. electronic beam will correspond to cylinder pressures.

~ · An electron le Indicator has the following four At the same time the electronic beam is deflected in
essential parts horizontal direction in proportional to the speed of the
engine.
1. a pressure pick up mounted on the engine cylinder. Th~ combination of these two perpendicular deflection
2. a pre-smplifying device.
produces the pressure - tiII1e diagram.
3. a time based recording device. In case horizontal deflection is made to vary according
4. a display circuiL to the piston displacement, it will produce the (p - V)
A pressure pick up, also called pressure transducer, is
diagram on the fluorescent screen of the oscillograph.
sOOVID in Ftg. 5.4. l. The displacement of the diaphragm can be transmitted
Lead to amplifier to the transducer element which may be a (i) piezo-
electric (ii) electro- magnetic (iii) strain gauge type
(iv) capacitance type.
However, for internal combustion engines, the piezo-
electric type transducers are found to be most
satisfactory since these are sensitive and the effect of
temperature (heat) on its performance is negligible.
Fluorescent
screen

Quartz aystals

i-..i~- Electrode
~...LL....,i:.s
" - - - - Diaphragm
Hot Horizontal Vertical
disc deflection plates defledlon plates
Fig. SA.1: Pressure transducer
Fig. 5.4.2 : Cathode ray
 . ·· ~
..' . . ... ~

~I.e. Engines (MU-Som. V-MOch) 5-.7.

Engine Testing and.Perfonnanee.

=
Syllabus Topic : Measurement of Brake Power and BMEP
.....
5.5

Measurement of brake power is an important test carried out in the test schedule of an engine. Brake power represents
the useful power available at the crankshaft.
It is determined with the help of a dynamometer coupled to the engine crankshaft The dynamometers are classified as
shown in Ta~le 5.5.1. ·
Some of the important type of dynamometers for measurement of B.P. are being discussed here.

~ Classlflcatlon of dynamometers
Dynamometer

I
Absorption type

I
' ., '
Transmission type

.I
Mechanical
friction type
I.
Hydraulic

'
Electric Belt
transmission
type
''
Eplcycllc
gear train
type
J
Torsion

~
J

5.5.1
Prony
brake

Rope Brake Friction Dynamometer

Rope
brake
I
Eddy
current
type
'
Swinging
field
type '
Motoring
eddy
current
type

Spring balance
For laboratory purposes, the rope brake friction
dynamometer is shown in Fig. 5.5. l is used. Wooden pieces
Flywheel
This dynamometer is attached to a brake drum or
Rope
flywheel attached to the engine shafL

The rope wound round the flywheel carries wooden

blocks and the two ends of the rope are attached to the
spring balance, S and dead weight (W).

The power of the engine is absorbed as frictional heat

created between the rope and puUey surfaces.

Fig. S.5.1 : Rope brake friction dynamometer

rd
 ~~
E.:~~I;:·'.. ~ I _:
>". '...
·.·. •. . .
-"-".""------· .. ..... ,. '

W?:.:~- '. ... .. . . . . .

,. ~1&...
..
r~~·; engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
.. 5-8 . .
'·
. . . d P..erformance
~t.·
Engine Testing an -m
· W = Dead weight (Newtons)
•/ ...... . · 5.5.2 · Prony Brake .
s = Spring balance reading <Newtons)·
A prony ~rake .dynamomete~ is .shown in fig: 55·2·
Rti = Radius of brake drum.or . of a frame with
I t consists . two brake s hoes' usually

~de of wood, which are clamped on the flywheel rim

flywheel (effective)
as shown in Fig. 5.5.2.
D+d
=~ The pressure of the brake shoes on the flywheel can be
adjusted by the spring loaded nuts on the frame . .
D = Brake drum diameter, and A load arm extends from the top of the brake which .
carries a hook and the hanger on which load weights
d = Rope diamet~r
are hung.
N = Speed in r.p.m.
When the brake shoes are pressed on the rotating
flywheel, it opposes the engine torque and the power is
Brake load or net load = (W - S)
dissipated in overcoming the frictional_resistance.
Braking torque = (W - S) ~ · · 1s· c onverted into
Since the power absorbed by tinctaon
(W - S) ~ x 27tN heat, this dynamometer needs to ~ cooled.
Brake power (B.P.) = 60000 (kW) ...(5.5.1)
Let, W = Weight on hanger (N)

With the help of brake power, the brake mean effective L = Distance from centre to flywheel to
pressure (b.m.e.p.) can be calculated from the following the hanger called load arm (m)
equation,
N = Speed (rpm)
(b.m.e.p.) ALn <PmJ ALn
B.P. = 60000 = 60000 ... (5.5.2) Torque = Wxl ...(S.5.3)

x l) 27tN kW
B.P. -_ (W
60xl000
...(S.S.4)

Spmg
Brake shoe Load arm

Hook

Weight hanger

Weight(W)

Fig. 5.5.2 : Prony brake

- ------~---- ------ - -·---- --- - - ·

SCanned w ith CamScsnn~r

 .· . .

.:.f~r ,·. c. Engines <Mu-s .

.... .,
·. . . .. . -.
em. V-Mech) . · s-.9
&. ., AdY8ntage ·
Thepronyb~d · . ·. . . · --. · · . . . ·. . .· .·.
~ _• .. . YDamometer ts simple m consbuction, cheap and easy to consbuct.
c.s. · Use - · .·,,
' ,., ,:i;n '- ~ - ' '." • • :·

It is Used for ~eas . .. . . . .

· . urement of brake power for low speed engines.
.• . ~
,. 4 ,
.
5.5.3 . HyClraullc Dynamometer
. ' ,-.
'· ·· -
The hydraulic d
ynamometer was develOped by Froude in 1877.
Fig.. 5.5.3 shows the Pan· of a hydrauhc
· dynamometer. It consists of a shaft supported m · haft bearin
s · · .; · · •·
gs. The
earned by the ti fri . . . . tastng ls
an - ction trunnions so that it is free to swirl about the same ax.is as the ax.is of the shaft. .

r Water inlet
from pump

Slulce gate for load control

Shaft

Fig. 5.5.3 : Hydraulic dynamometer

The shaft carries a rotor in the form of semi-elliptical The output can be controlled by controlling the sluice
cross-section divided one from another by means of ~ates which can be moved in and out partially or fully
oblique vanes. to obstruct the flow of water between the rotor and
The internal faces of the casing are provided with liners casing.
which are pocketed in the same way. The resistance offered to motion of rotor reacts on the

The pockets in rotor and liners together form an casing which tends to tum on its antifriction roller

elliptical receptacles round which the water runs across supports. This tendency is countered by means of a
at high speed. lever arm carrying weight 'W' which measures the
torque.
The engine shaft is directly coupled to dynamometer
WN
shaft. The water is circulated to te rotor to provide the Brake power = K ...(5.5.5)
hydraulic resistance and it carries away the heat
developed due to absorption of power by water. where, W ,,;, weight on lever arm (N)

The water is discharged from the rotor at high speed N = speed (r.p.m.)
from its periphery into pockets formed in by the casing
liners, by which it is then returned at diminished speed K = dynamometer constant

into rotor pockets near the shaft.

r ::_
'j ~ i.~~ Engln~ (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
.··~ . #2 : . . 5-10 Engine Testi~g ~ PerfonnanCe "
··· ·· .~ Use
t :. '' Its stator is fitted with. a number of electromagnets and
...1 - . This dynamometer is useful for measun' b ak '
· ng r e power the stator cradles in the trunnion bearing.
over wide range of power and s~ds . .
When the rotor rotates, if produces the eddy currents in
;
'j • .'
..
~ Advantage
the stator due to magnetic flux set up by the passage of
'i.::
These are accurate, simple in co~truction, and free field current in the electromagnets.

L
r
from vibration and maintenance. These eddy ·currents oppose the rotor motion, thus
loading the engine.
5.5.4 Swinging Field Dynamom~ter
The torque is measured with the help of torque arm and
It consists of an electric generator with its fi~ld system the load as in the other types of dynamometers
mounted on the trunnions. explained above.

The casing of the generator can revolve due to This dynamoineter also requires to be provided with
unbalancing of the applied and reactive torques. some cooling arrangement since the produced eddy
currents are dissipated in producing heat. ·
The torque supplied to the field of the dynamometer
and the reaction of the electromagnetic induction on ~ Advantages of eddy current dynamometer
frame causes it to revolve about its shaft.
1. It can measure high power output at all speeds
This is
. counterbalanced by applying the external dead
therefore, these are suitable to test automobile and
load or by the spring force.
' aircraft engines.
The speed of rotation is measured.
2. Its size is small compared to other dynamometers.
The product of the applied external load, the load arm
3. The torque developed is smooth and continuous under
and the speed will give the power transmitted.
all operating conditions.
a Use
4. These dynamometers can be produced in all sizes for
This type of dynamometer is usually used to measure
measurement of power.
brake power of high speed engines.

5.5.5 Eddy Current Dynamometer 5.5.6 Transmission Dynamometer

(Mechanical Type)
Fig. 5.5.4 represents the principle of working of an
eddy current dynamometer. It consists of a rotor disc Transmission types· of dynamometers are based on

made of steel or copper. The rotor shaft is supported in calibrated measurement of total strains in a load
carrying members.
the bearings and it is coupled to the engine shaft.
Stator These type of dynamometers are also called as
torquemeters.

A transmission type of dynaniometer that employs

beam and strain gauges is shown in Fig. 5.5.5. It
consists of strain gauges applied to a torque
transmitting shaft.

The torque is measured by measuring the angular

displacement of the shaft which is indicated as the
strain of the strain gauges.
Fig. 5.S.4 : Eddy current dynamometer

scanned with C.mScanner

 . · :-:· :. . ··. ··:

·-.- ··

._. . ~-1.c. Engines (Mu-sem.

. · ·· Engine Testing a~ Pe~ .,. :-~:· <· _-
~. ·
V·Mech) ~11 . .
· . .
~
,
onl'I.~.:~ .... ·. ,.
.. ·
. . •·
.... ._.. .

..,
..... :

·.. .

Fig. 5.5.5 : 'l'raosnmsion dynamometer that employs beam and strain gauges

A complete four arm bridge is used to minimise the er Effect of frf ctlonal power on performance of
effect of ternperature and the gauges are arranged 10
. l.C. engine
pairs such that the effect of load in either axial or
Friction losses play an important role in deciding the
transverse direction on the strain gauges is avoided.
perfonnance and design of an engine, since, the increased
1bcse dynamometers claim to have the accuracy upto
friction losses means :
0.25%. These ha\:c been developed to mcnsurc torque
in the range of 15 to 3500 Nm. (i) reduced availability of power output.

a Use (ii) increased capacity of cooling load since the frictional

power is converted into heat which is partly canicd
Such dynamomctcr are found suil4ble for use where the
continuous transmission of load is essential. away by cooling system and remainder in the exhaust

gases.
Syllabus To.pie : Measurement of Frfctlonal Power
(iii) increased brake specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c) and

5.6 Measurement of Frfctlonal Power (iv) decreased mechanical efficiency.

(F.P.)
er Effect of speed on F.P

1be d.iffecence between LP. and B.P. is called Jt should be noted that the friction losses increase with
lrictional power which includes the pumping losses the increase in speed, hence, it reduces the B.P. and
due to induction 3.nd. e.xha.ust. friction losses in bearings
increases brake specific fuel consumption. Therefore, the
and otha moving parts, air friction of flywhe.el and the
speed bCcomes an important factor in deciding the
power n:quired co drive the auxiliaries such as
maximum power output which can be obtained
gm'emor. Iubricaing oil pump. water circulating pump
economically.
etc.
2
F.P. increases as square of speed i.e. N theoretically.
Therefore, F.P. = J.P. - B.P ...(5.6.1)
1
However, it is seen practically that, F.P. oc N .6
approximately.

. -· ·· .....
 5-12 . Engine Testing and Performance

er f.t'ethoda of measurement of friction ~war The graph is extrapolated back . to .uro fuel
(f.P.) consumption which cuts on the negative X-axis at
point A.
The friction power of an engine can be detennined by
The negative intercept on X-axis represents the
we following methods : ·
frictional power at that speed on the engine. The
Method• of measurement reasoning is as follows :
of friction power When B.P. = O, the fuel consumption at this power ·
represents the fuel consumed to overcome the friction
1• 8~ ~e_a~urement of Indicated and brake power
losses.
2. Wlllan's line method Since the variation in fuel consumption rate and B.P. is
linear, it implies that the extrapolation of the almost
3. Morse test straight line part of the curve as negative _intercept on
4. Motoring test X-axis at zero fuel consumption will represent the
friction power. ·

Fig. CS.I : ~ethocls of measurement of friction power er Limitations

1. This method is only applicable to compression ignition
5.6.1 F.P. by Measurement of l.P. and F.P.
(C.I.) engine.
Indicated power developed by the engine can be
2. Engine must be run at constant speed throughout the
measured with the help of an indicator and brake power can
test since friction power varies with the increase in
be measured with the help of a dynamometer as explained
speed.
above. The difference in l.P. and B.P. will represent the
3. This method gives approximate friction power due to
frictional power.
the errors involved in extrapolation.
5.6.2 . Friction Power by Willan's Line
Method 5.6.3 Morse Test
+ (MU· Dec.12)
This .method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation 'f!!<X""//i'/<fi1• ,.::;~;+"•' . • , ..... • ···•'rll~'-'r...,.·---: A
1

·';~~-.' ·":v.·
method. In this method a graph between the rate of fuel
~~~~~~'{Yli).'i''0:~;;·,;,; 7 .~ ./;?--- -' .: ·· · ,, · ·:~- <. · ., · / >,<,>
consumption (kg/hr) taken on Y-axis and the brake · 1'"'•',' ~"~' Morse;~est ,is conducted . on · t.C. Engi_nes ?
power (kW) on X-axis is drawn when the engine is run '1tib~ ·, ~~,.· ~~- tor ·rinaing ·. the · r~ui~·
/f.'-;k,:"~. ' : ·, . .
at constant speed as shown in Fig. 5.6.1. ararnete·r:80d It's limitations. '' .

a Use
5 Engine speed = 1400 RPM
The test can either be used for determining for
~
~ indicated p0wer or frictional power of a multicylinder
Cl>
e internal combustion engine by cutting off each cylinder in
~
q:: tum.
G>
:l
LI. 1 In case of petrol (S.l.) engines, each cylinder in tum is
A,,/' rendered inoperative by shorting the spark plug of the
-4 0 4 8 12 16 20
-8 cylinder and in case of diesel (C.I.) engines by cutting off
Brake power (kW)
the fuel supply to cylinders successively.
Fig. 5.6.1 : Willan's line method

--- - · ---- ·- ·- -- ------·

scanned with Cam.Scanner
 . .. ·: ; .: '
',,> . • ·, ,.

-~ l~c.:· ~n · i~~s (~U-s: . . v· . ..

·. . . em•. ·Mech 5-13 .
..~
· Assumptions ·
I ; J

· Coriside~ ~ four · . d · , · . ,. . . . .
t 0· d cy110 er spark ignition engine coupled
a Yllamometer. Thro h th . . .
. ug out e test the engme is run at Though the measurement of frictional power is f; • ·
constant Speed 0 f N · . ·
. · r.p.m. It 1s assumed that the pumping · . I ed .m measurernc Clirly ·
and mechanical fri ti · · accurate however, the errors mvo v
. .
cylinder 1s worki
c on losses are the saine whether the
.
'
· F.P. by this method are :
m~
ng or not. Also, the throttle position is kept
co.n stant tiu;ougbout the test.
l. In petrol engines using·common intake manlroI<is ~
Let: affect the distribution of mixt0re and th~ volllrnc .
B == B.P. of the engine when all the four . ·. . lric
cylinders are working efficiency of each cylinder.

Bi = ·B.P. of the engine when cylinder - is l 2. The use of common exhaust mani~olds and the CIJttin
cut - off off the cylinders may cause pulsations in the ~...L g
"'Uaust
1f2 = B ·p · o f the engme
.
when the cylinder - 2 is
system, which in turn will aff~t ~e perfonnaiice of lhc .
cut-off engine.

B3 = B.P. of the engine when cylinder - 3 is cut-off 5.6.4 Motoring Test

and B4 = B.P. of the engine when cylinder-4 is cut-off.
In motoring test method of determining the frictionai
I,, lz, 13 and 14 be the indicated power (l.P.) developed power, the engine is run upto its rated power ·till steady
by cylinder numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively and their state conditions are reached. The power developed by
corresponding friction power (F.P) be F , F~. F and F •
1 3 4 engine .is absorbed by a swinging field dynamometcr
Total brake power, connected to engine shaft. Either the ignition of a petrol
engine or the fuel supply of ·a diesel engine, as the case
(B) =(I, + 12 + 13 + l4) - <F1 + F2 + F3 + F4) ...(i)
may be, is then cut-off.
B1=(12+13+14) - <F1 + F2 + F3 + F4) ...(ii)
By suitable changes in electric switching devices, the
On subtracting Equation (ii) from Equation (i) dynamometer is run as a motor at the same speed at

B - B1 = 11 . ••• (5.6.2)
which the engine was run.

The output of the motor is measured which would

Similarly, we could write the equations when the other
represent the frictional power losses of the engine. In
cylinders are cut-off in turn as follows : ·
order to maintain the operating temperatures of the
B-B2 =12 ...(5.6.3) engine, the cooling water system is also cut-off during
B-B3 = 13 ... (5.6.4) the motoring test.

B-B4 = 14 ...(5..
6 5) · c:r Errors Involved in measurement of F.P. by
motoring test
On adding Equations (5.6.1) to (5.6.5),
However, the motoring test does not give the true
Total indicated power,
friction losses at the test speed and load for the
following reasons :

1. Temperatures during the motoring test are lower

than those in a firing engine due to cooling by the

Frictional power, F = 1-B ...(5.6.7) incoming air and heat transfer to the surroundings.

2. Reduced temperatures reduces the lubricating oil

F.P. = 1.P. - B.P ...(5.6.8)
temperatures and increases oil viscosity, then:fore,
it increases friction power.

Scanned wit h CamScanner

 . ., ..
_ _
..
~· ~
. .
· . · · ce
f . .~ 1.c: Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
']

5_1·4
: Engine Testing and Performan -
,. · R.. . .
. 3. The pressure and load on: bearings and piston rings ~5~.8~_:S~p~e~c~l~fl~c:_:O~u~tp~u~t------:-----
are lower than firmg engine, it reduces frictional
power.

4. The Clearance between piston and cylinder is more

due to reduced temperatures in the cylinder. It
reduces the friction losses. B.P. ... (5.8.1)
5. Friction power is also affected due to air being
Specific output = AXL f
drawn at a temperature lower than firing· engine . Therefore for a given displacement of the piston the I
I

since it is not heated from cylinder walls.

B.P. can either be increased by increasing the speed of the
engine or by increasing the brake mean effective pressure.
i
!
'
·'
6. Back pressure is more than the firing engine since
Syllabus Topic.: Volumetric Efficiency
i
after expansion, the required pressure difference is ~
not available to impart kinetic energy to expel the t
5.9 Volumetric Efficiency '
exhaust gases.
+ (MU- oec.12, Dec.13, 0ec.1_6 )
'
However, motoring test gives fairly good results since . . ··,;i:r
the increased and reduced friction losses almost
balance each other.
1
This method is very useful for finding the friction
losses caused by various components by progressively
I
stripping off the engine component f~r research
purposes.

Mfi!Chanlcal Efficiency, Specific Output,

Volumetric, Thermal and Relative Efficiencies It is the indicator of the measure of the degree to which
the engine fills to its swept volume.
5.7 Mechanical Efficiency It is defined as the ratio of actual mass of charge
inducted during suction stroke to the mass of charge
corresponding to swept volume of the engine at
+ (MU - Dec.12, Dec.16) atmospheric pressure and temperatiire. Accordingly,
,Universit
*i.:.;i.""~·~,-;

~
..· .,, -i .

Questions Volumetric efficiency,

r,·;?.~y[>.~fin~ ,'M~cti~nica1 efficiency:·.-:.~·
.....,.·.-:<:~ :· ... ,..
J>-·..,--::1•~.2lii4iiant..-i'll ~
.........~_, .... ,'. ,. .. ~~:: -.· · ., (·•':.:,~.4-'\ :~ ... ~~~~.-:1.V•·
Mass of actual charge inducted
Tlv Mass of charge corresponding to swept volume at attn. p and T
'\ :~t'. ou_t ~nd define vario~s:.·anglne ·efficle~ci~~'{w;tti.~~
..,, . . . . . ..·. . ~. : ·. . :· '" ... , '°"i''· ...(5.9.1)
·-air tentative values tor.the rnooe·m engines· F:r
~0~.\~:~:-f· :~ -~ · )...:,.~ ~-::;; .:.f:;,/~:·:;·:·:<;:~,.a;w1~ma1:1~
Alternately,
rr Definition of mechanical efficiency at
_ Actual volume of charge inhaled suction conditions
llv - Swept volume

...(5.9.2)
Swept volume of the engine is· determined by known
Therefore, dimensions of the cylinder i:e. by its bore and stroke.

B.P. Actual volume of mixture inducted is determined by

Mechanical efficiency, Tlm = I.P. ...(5.7.1) measurement of fuel and air flow rates (explained in
Section 5.13 and 5.14) at the known speed of the
engine during the test.

i\\l\\\"\~\\\'l\\\\ll<CM<"'«<d«
 . . l ..

.-, .

. _. ;~ 1.c. Engines MU-Sam. V-Mech)

·. Relative Efflcl~ncy ·

er Definition of relative efficiency

Syllabus Topic : Brake Thermal and Indicated
Thermal efficiency
. /
5.10 /Thermal Efficiency
Therefore.

Relative efficiency, . Tlr

= Indicated themal efficiency lJ
Air standard efficienc~

...(5.11.I)·
Sometimes, Tlr is also calculated based on brake

-
thermal efficiency.

Syllabus Topic : Fuel Consumption

5.1 ~--···Sp~cific Fuel Consumption (s.f.c.)

,,_,../··
~ (MU· Dec. 13)

Thermal efficiency of an engine is the indicator of

conversion of heat supplied into work energy. It is either
based on LP. or on B.P. accordingly, we have two types of
thermal efficiencies :
It indicates the relative economy of a particular engine
(i) Indicated thermal efficiency, Tli
when compared to the other engines.
. (ii) Brake or overall thermal efficiency, Tlb or Tio
r:sr Definition of Brake specific fuel consumption
Let. filr = Fuel consumption in kg/s
C. V. = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg
Indicated thermal efficiency,
f J.P. ...(5.10.1)
~ Tli
t b.s.f.c. =tITir
=/\ • CV
., . ~x ..
Therefore, B .P. x 3600 •..(5.12.1)
Brake or overall thermal efficiency'

Vi b or Tio =rffirxB.P. v
C. .
. ..(5.10.2)

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.
·
. .
'

~ i.C; Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

. >1 5-16 Engine Testing and. Performance
Fuel and Air Measurements
The mass flow rate of fuels ~ui)ply is,

5.13 Fuel Measurement ~ = Vo~ume x Density of fuel •..(5.13.1)

TlDle .

Where, density of fuel

Fuel consumption of an engine may be expressed either
in terms of volume or mass of fuel supplied in a specified Pr = Specific gravity of fuel x density of water Pw
. 3
tiJDC. (But, Pw = 1000 kg Im )
The two basic types of fuel measurement are : a. Disadvantage

Types of The . disadvantage of this method is ·that it does not

fuel measurement
give exact mass flow rate due to variation in density
(i) Volumetric type fuel flowmeter with temperature.

(a) Orifice fuel flowmeter 5.13.2 Orifice

.
Fuel
. Flowmeter
(Volumetric Type)
(ii) Gravimetric type fuel flowmeter
A orifice flowmeter is shown in Fig. 5.13.2. Its
Fig. CS.2 : Types of fueJ measurement
working depends . on the pressure drop across the
5.13.1 Volumetric Type Fuel Flowmeter orifice.

A simple a.i:rangemcnt for measurement of fuel supply

in laboratory is shown in Fig. 5.13.1. It consists of two Calibration scale

0 0
spherical shells.of I00 cc and 200 cc capacity. 4 1
Fuel from tank 6 2
Ttree way cock 8 3

10 4

12 5
14

To engine

Fuel to engine Fig. 5.13.2.: Orifice fuel Dowmeter

Fig. 5.13.1 : Fuel measurement by vol~bic type Dow meter
In the Fig. ·s.13.2 two orifices A and B are shown
- These are connected to two-three way cocks so that one which are precalibrated in terms of the fuel used by the
spherical shell feeds the engine while the other is filled engine and the corresponding amou.Dt of volume of fuel
from the fuel tank. used/hr can be read on calibrated scale.

The time required to feed the given volume of fuel is Orifices can be changed along with the corresponding

noted. calibrated scale for different rates of flow.

 ' • '. • -.'. • I I
.' ~ ,·.

fM i.e. En~n~s (MU-S~m. V~M~h) 5-17

·s.:13 .a· Gravlm~trlc Fuel.Flowmeter

· '.

- ·: .Fig. . 5. 13.3 . shows . the . ammgement for direct

'()rfftce plate .
. '
.·. .. ·' .·
measurement of the mass o_f fue.l suppUed.

.· When the measurement of fuel supply js not required, ...

· the valve B is closed and the valve A is kept open so
that the fuel from fuel tank is directly supplied to the
engine.

When the measurement of fuel flow is required, both

the valves A and B are kept open. The quantity of fuel
i
Air Intake
to engine
in flaSk is weighed on the balance.

After this the valve A is clo~d and the valve B is kept Fig. 5.14.1 : Air flow meter

open so that the fuel from flask flows into engine and It consists of a surge tank of capacity (40Ckioo) times
the ti.me is measured. to the displacement volume of the engine so as lo

The quantity of_fuel in the flask is again weighed. In reduce pulsations.

· this way the mass flow rate of fuel supplied to the The surge ~ is connected to the intake side of the

engine can be determined. engine _with an orifice of cross-sectional area A and of

know~ coefficient o! discharge Cd.
~ ::.::::? ~· ~~ $~
~i-~F;~I tank *'~ The pressure difference causing the. air flow is
~E~~ ~· >' :~-~ ~/:;.~-~~
} measured with the help of a water manometer:
A (Valve)
_Let (MI)w be the pressure difference measured in cm of
water and (AfI)air the corresponding pressure difference
in cm of air. Based on unit area of manometer, the head
in terms of meters of air is given by,

Pan of weighing balance (L\p) = (Llli)w x 1 x p..,

= (MI)air x 1 x Pair

Fig. 5.13.3 : Directweighing or fuel flow

Pw
(Llli)air = - . (Llli)w ...(i)
Pa
Syllabus Topic : Air flow 3
where, Pw = 1000 kg I m

5.14 Measurement of Air Consumption The volume flow rate of air is given by,

...(5.14.1)
5.14.1 Air Flow Meter

The air flow meter is shown in Fig. 5.14.1 for = . Cd . A.... / 2g . Pw x (Ml)w ... (5.14.2)
measurement of air consumption in a laboratory. \J
Pa

Il1air = V Pa

. . IDmr = Cd . A x '12g . Pw . Pa (Llli)w :..(5.14.3)

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 ------------- ..,,.... .... . . .

.' ~c. engiitOs (MU-Sem. V-Mech) . 5-18 . .Engine Testing and ·performance

·... •14.2 Viscous Air Flow Meter

5
, _for accurate measurement of air flow. Alcock viscous air flow meter is shown in Fig. 5.14.2.

Honeya>mb matrix
0.5 mm x D.5 mm x 75 mm

Toe!'lgine ··

Dry air fitter

Fig. 5.14.2 : Alcock viscous air Oow meter

However, mechanical and electrical tachometers are

This meter uses .
. an element where viscous resistance is
affected by the tem~rature variation and they are not
the Pr_incipal source o~ pressure loss with negligible
very accurate.
kinetic effects. Therefore, it gives a linear relationship
For accurate and continuous measurement of speed a
between the flow and the pressure drop.
magnetic pick up placed near a toothed wheel coupled
- The air is passed through the air filter so as to remove to the engine shaft can be used.
any contamination in it The magnetic pick up will produce a pulse every

The air now passes over the viscous elem~nt consisting revolution and a pulse counter will measure the speed
accurately.
of very large number of passages in the form of
honeycomb; each passage being triangular size Syllabus Topic : Heat Balance Sheet
(0.5 mm x 0.5 mm x 75 mm approx.)
5.16 Heat Balance Sheet or Energy
The pressure drop is measured with the help of a
Balance
manometer.

Felt pads are fitted in the manometer connections to + (MU-May 12)

damp out fluctuations.

Measurement of Speed

5.15 · Measurement of Speed Heat balance sheet represents an account of the beat
supplied in fuel and released in combustion and its
- The speed of the engine can be measured with the help utilisation in the engine. Necessary information ·
concerning the performance of the engine is obtained
of ta~hometers (mechanical or electrical), mechanical
from the heat balance sheet.
counters and timers, stroboscope, electronic pulse
counters etc.

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 · . -· ~
• ' • !~ .. • ·1~
·. ,

~I.e. Engines (MU.Sam. V·Moch! 5·19 . . - Engine Tes~ng and Pe~

Jn ord Cnlculnu:o~s for. expenditure of heat are
. as follows : - · ·~
.....
er to drnw n heot- balnncc
·
sheet, a complete test
on the engine must be carried out while the engine is (o) Heat equivalent to B.P." · ., · · ·. ·. .
run at constant load. · · Bp
. . Heat equivalent to brnke power per mm = . . x 60 _Ck!/ftlhi)
Heat supplied: Energy is supplied to the engine in the ...(S.16.l)
fom1 of fuel supplied to the engine, its heat being (b) Heat rejected to cooling water
rcfoased during combustion. Heat carried away by cooling water per minute.

Heat supplied =ni, x C.V. (kJ I min) ...(5.16.1) = IDw x Cpw x <t..o - lv.i) ~..(S.16.3)
where, m, = mass flow rate offuel (kg/min) where, m,.. =·mass of cooling water circulated in kgt~.

C.V. = Calorific value offuel in kJlkg Cpw = specific heat of water= 4.187 kl/kg}(
lwi = cooling water inlet temperature (oC)
Heat expenditure I Heat utilised : Heat energy of the
fuel is partly converted into useful work equivale~t to two : cooling Water outlet temperature (OC)

its B.P. and the remainder is carried away .by cooling (c) Heat carried away by exhaust gases
water, exhaust gases and some of heat is lost in Heat carried away by exhaust gases/min
radiation, incomplete combustion, lubricating oil, = ni8 x CP8 x (t8 - to) . ...(5.16.4)
,which remains unaccounted for.
where, m 8
= mass flow of flue or exhaust gases {kgtmin)

or, m, = ~ass flow rate of air, ni0

+ mass flow rate of fuel, fir . ...(5.16.5)

cps = specific heat of gases

= temperature of e~aust gases ( C)
0
lg

lo = room temperature (°C) or surrounding

temperature .

Table 5.16.1: Heat balance sheet

Heat supplied by 100 (a) Heat In B:P. = B.P. x 60

Combustion of
(b) Heat rejected to cooling waler
tue1 =mi x c.v.
= ffi. x Cpw x (le:! - 1c1)

(c) Heat carried away by exhaust

gases =iTig x Cpg x (lo -to)

(d) Heat unaccounted due to radiation etc. (by difference)

-· ,·' 100%

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r :.!~~~~~~~~===~=,;;._,.:l~"';::::"::~:Eng:l::ne:T~e~s;ti~n=gan~d:P:e~rf:o:·:·:".-
.. . . rmance
·.;..-.-.· .gl ·es {MU-Sem. \'-Mech) 5-20 near to ~
i J...I'.-- For oi>titn.u m
-: ~'1.c. en " . 'c0mbustion almost
. . " . - bles Affecting Englne Per1onnance and performance.

\farla-4?.2'!.!l~m!P~ro~v~e~m,:e::n::.t:E~ng!!o:\:.:.:n;.;;;;.e.;..P_ert_onn_a_n_ce_ .. 4. Englne speed the mass flow

"""1"2• o gine increases th
;:::- Hect\ . lncttaSC in speed of the en • uL However, c

~ ng Engine
Variables A . .rate of air. It .me...........
_,..,..., the power outp
friction losses.
.,.17 Pe·rtormance peeds also .mc-"'"'"
,......,._ the .
increased s · . uld be adjusted s 0
1niportant · variables which affect the engine timum of the engm. e sho
Thus the op rfi rmance.
perronnance are as follows : 0
as to provide the optimum pc . rcharging o f
_._ .....,e and supe .
Variab\es Affectlng
Engine Perfonnance
... s. ~ of intak~ ~l>_
engines
'\ .Compression ratio
will provide better
~
flow rates ·· · fl
Higher the and power output. Mass ow
2.Air-fuel ratio volumetric efficiency hargm·g the engine.
. ved by superc
rates can be unpro h · g is not
3.Rate of combustion and ignition timing · es the superc argm ·
But in case of S.l. engm ' f d tonation
4 .Engine speed
·
employed due to inc
. rcased tendency . 0 ooth e
whereas of supercharged C •I . e ngincs run sm .
5.Mass of intake charge and supercharging of engines \

Fig. CS.3: Variables Afrecting Engine Performance

5.18 Methods of Improving Engine
.. 1. Compression ratio
Performance
_ Tue increase in compression ratio increases the thermal Basically• the engine performance can be . .improved
efficiency of the engine. However, increased C.R. ratio either by increasing the energy ·mput t o the engine or .by
increases the pressure and temperature which results . roving the conversion efficiency of engine, following
imp .
into higher friction losses of the engine. c - performance ·
methods are suggested to .unprove the e n<rine

_ Moreover, increased C.R. tends to increase detonation l. By increasing mass flow rate of mixture.
in S.L engines. Thus the C.R. is limited to a certain 2. Supercharging the engine.
value_for better performance.
3. Use of larger piston diameters.
.. 2. Air-fuel ratio
4. Use of fuels of higher calorific value.
Lean mixtures arc used for economic running of the
5. Increased engine speeds.
engine while the stoichiometric air-fuel ratios arc used 6.
for development of maximum power and during By improving its volumetric efficiency by reducing
acceleration of the engine. pressure losses in intake m anifolds and reducing the
-+ 3. Rate of combustion and ignition timing mixture flow restrictions.

7. Use of higher compression ratios.

- In case of S.L engines the igniting timings arc adjusted
to provide the combUStion rates such that the maximum 8. Use of . fu ,-1 additives , e xhaust gas recirculation.
pressure occurs to the beginning of power stroke i.e. at
T.D.C. for smooth running of the engine.

- In case of C.L engines, the fuel injection is so timed

that it provides the half of total pressure rise during
 /'.':,'.::;~
·.··. ·=:..•.· · ... '. ·;·'· ·: ' ' ,
. ...·.. ·.·. : , ' . · '

. . ~I.e. Engines (MU-s~~: V~Mech) : . 5-

21 .
·
• • •
: Engl~e Testing and.Pert~ ...<:_·.· .::\;
. ~~· - • ,· • • ••• • • ., ·, ' • .· .· .:. ,• , -~ : ,! • .-~ :

Syllabus Topic. p rf · · be observcid ~the I.P. increases when i.n.." ' · - t

S.I. and C E • .·e ormance Characteristics of . - · 1t can . . . , . . . . , ·-..c.p . : . . .i
.- · , . ·1• . nglne - Effects of Load and Speed on or the speed or both of them increase. .· '. ;·.( .... .- . "' · 'i
· Various Efficiencies · .
_ .. The i.P.· w~s first with the increase in speC<f if~· .·· "1
.- . ~\
5 · 19. . P,erformance Charact~rl~tlcs of an inlet conditions .are kept con~tant. . .'.~

Engine ._ However,.after a certain limit the rate of increase of lP · ·· "

is reduced with increase in speed because of drop ~.
.- Engine Performaoee Characteristic~ are the Graphical pressure at intake and reduction in ~o~~tnetric ·
Representation of Engine·Performance. efficiency.
Laboratory tests are performed to dere°rmine 1.P., B.P., Mechanical losses increase with increase in Speed due
mechan1c
· al efficiency,
· thermal efficiency and specific · to which the increase in I.P. is offset by·the inereast<t
fuel consumption. The perfonnance characteristics of losses, therefore, the mechanical efficiency red11ees
S.I. and C.I. engines are being discussed below. with increase in speed as shown in Fig. 5.19.i(b).
' .
The effect on brake specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c.)
with variation in speed is also represented in
Fig. 5.19.l(b). At low speeds with increase in Speed the
b.s.f.c. reduces since the volumetric efficiency and ·
meehanical efficiency are high.
After certain ~peed the b.s.f.c. , increases because of
Speed Speed reduction in volumetric efficiency and increased
(•) (b) mechanical losses.
>
~ Point-X represents the economical speed for minimum .

l~
fuel consumption for the engine.

Fig. 5.19.l(c) shows the variation of volumetric

u
:s
CD efficiency with speed. The volumetric efficiency
e::::s
reduces with the increase in speed because of drop in
~
pressure at suction caused by increase in velocity of
Speed
charge to be inducted.
(c)
Fig. 5.19.1 : Performance curve ror S.I. engine The suction valve will oply open when pressure inside
the cylinder is slightly below the surrounding pressure,
5.19.1 S.I. Englnes thus the effective suction stroke is reduced.

Fig. 5.19.l(a), (b) and (c) represent the performance It reduces the volume of mixture inducted lowering the
characteristic curves for a variable speed S.I. engine. volumetric efficiency.

At full load_the throttle is kept wide open and the speed

5.19.2 C.I. Engines
is varied by adjusting the brake load.
+ (MU - Dec; 16)
The I.P., B.P. and fuel consumptions are measured as
discussed earlier. Similar tests can be carried out at half
·load by changing the brake load to half of full load at
the same speed.

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r ~­
r··
I .. .. -d·Perforrnance.
rfJf G engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) Engine Testing an .

~···
5-22
; . fig. 5.19.2 shows the pefforinancc cwves for
.... .cJ. engine at various speeds.
B.P.
--- 0

~I

Rich mixtlJreS
·~
_ _.J....-_ _ _

Lean mixtures -

Speed
· v 5 Mixtllre strength
Fig. 5.19.4 : Brake thermal
fig. 5.19.2 : Peafomlance curve for C.L engine . . f C I engine is
It shows that the thermal efficiency 0 · ·
fig. 5.19.3 shows the variation of ·b~~ fuel . . d the specific fUel
higher than that of the S.I. engme an
consUIDPtion Vs B.P. for S.I. and C.I. engines when run . s is not much
at ~onstant speed. . consumption in case of C.I. engwe -
affected with variation in load on the engine.
The teSt is. carried out by keeping the speed constant
... . and by varying the throttling from no load to maximum · · . e between brake
Fig. 5.19.4 shows the performance curv
or overall thermal efficiency (l'\o) arid mi~ture strength.
toad in case of S.I. engines or by varying the fuel
supply in case of C.I. ~ngines. · -

It could be seen that in case of S.I. engines the b.s.f.c. · - It shows that with slightly weak mixtures the thermal
fjrst decreases with increase in load while working at .
efficiency is maxunum ·.
smce the fue l supplied. will be
.
part loads upto a certain minimum value and then it .
utilised to maximum extent.
starts increasing rapidly with further increase in loads. .
. the e ffi1c1ency
While . . . ·.1s 1ow w1"th very lean mixtures

because of low~r maximum temperatures· attairied after'

S.I. Engine
combustion and also the efficiency is low with rich
x mixtures due to incomplete comblistion of fuel. . --.

5.19~3 Effect of Load on Different Engine

· ·· Parameters
B.P.

F"ig. 5.19.3 : Perfonnance curve for S.L and c.L engines at _

constant speed

_ Beyond full load the curve starts forming a loop

backward beyond point - X which shows that the
output decreases but the fuel consumption increases. It The engine speed of an engine is maintained constant
is due to the fact that the mixture supplied to the engine with the help of governor and the ,load on the en~ine is
is too rich and lot goes as unburnt in the exhaust. ·varied. The variation of indicated thennal . efficiency,
Such a condition of the engine is called choking. In mechanical efficiency ·a nd brake specific fuel consumption
. )

case of C.1 engines the b .s.f.c. Vs B.P. curve is more Vs percentage of load on the engine is shown in
uniform and the specific fuel consumption is lower than Fig. 5.19.S(a), 5.19.S(b) and 5.19.S(c) respectively.
S.L en · es.
 .·. "
! .,

engine Testing ·and Perto~ ;-.:"· ·:~- ·;

~ l'.c. E~gines (~U-Sem. V-~ech) ~23 . . . . _.. . . -: . - . ._, '...
(c) . Brake-~.-uic tuel conswnpdon : .. . ' . ·,..
·-~
·. · . . F" S.19.S(c), it" is : obs.erved - that the -.
Refemng to Jg. · · - ··

~-1 i M~
~·1
·
reduces w1 "th load upto 70% to
. 80%. of IQad ··
i:.1. b .s.f .c. . . b "th furthc . . ..
. n is efficient ut w1 r tncrcasc..
since combusuo . . . . .
f c reduces s10ce at higher loads the
in load, the b.s. · · · · . . ·
:· r··· . I·. ..··--r. .. .
····~ friction losses me
.
c. I. eogmes,
. rcase considerably. While in case or ·
. ·
the b.s.f.c. keeps on reducing upto 90%
· ·
-
.
0 25 50 75 100 ·o 25 50 75 100
Load% Load%
load.
·C mparlson of Performance of S.1•.
(a) .'Ii Vs load (b) 'Im Vs load 5.19.4 0
and c. I. Engines
. .
oted that higher indicated mean effective
It shou ld be n
. to higher power· developed for a given
pressure results 1D
. · Th comparison between S.I. and C.1 engines
displacement. e · ·

0 25 50 75 . 100 125 Low, siitce the

(i) Power
Load% output/unit use of high
weight C.R. makes the
(c) b. s. f. c. Vs load
engine heavy.
Fig. 5.19.5 : Performance curves of S.L and C.L engines at
Acceleration High due to Low due to
constant speed (ii)
low inertia high inertia
The conclusions are as follows :
(ill) Power Low due to High due to
(a) Indicated thermal efficiency : output/unit · low C.R. high C.R.

The indicated thenllal efficiency increases with the displacement

increase in l_oad for S. I. engines. While for C. I.

5.19.5 Performance Maps
engines. the indicated thermal efficiency first incre~s

to maximum at about _40% of load and then decreases Major variables to evaluate the performance of an
engine are : ·
with, increase in load as shown in Fig. ~.19.S(a).
(b) Mechanical efficiency: (i) Engine speed
(ii) Brake power (B.P.) or load
Referring to Fig. 5.19.S(b), it is observed that the
mechanical efficiency increases with load for both type (ill) Piston speed

of engines. Since friction power is less than the rate in (iv) Specific fuel consumption
increase in B. P. of the engine.
Therefore for the critical analysis of an LC. engine .
Mechanical efficiency of C. I. engine is more than the under all .con~itions of load and speed, a set of curves
mechanical efficiency of S. I. engine at the same load can be drawn which are independent of the size of
since friction losses in C. I. engines are less compared engine. Such a map of curves is called the
to s. I. engines. performance map.

scanned with camScanoer

 and p~rfo~ce
Engine Testin
·nes (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 5-24
- . . - effective pressure
0.06 ti.W/an2 of piston area
loads since the the fnctional mean
almost remains the same.
for a C.L
rformance_ maP .
Fig. S.19.7 shows the pe
engine.
!,6.0 Following observations can be made :
t
s:J
4.51---~:----1~~~=--:.tt,74---~ . .
(i) b.s.f.c increases with increase
·n bmep (i.e. due to
1
F
that tow A. ·
3.0 · _,,.,,. in laod). It is due to the f act
me•..,...,.., . unburnt
ratio at high loads causes mcreased .
-'~" increases at low
carbon. Whereas. the b.s.f.c CU3V • al

5 10 15 20 loads because of the decreased niecballlC

Piston speed (mis)
efficiency.
Fig. 5.19.6 : Performance map or a S.L engine (ii) Minimum b.s.f.c is attained at almost half the
· corresponding to its
These performance maps can be used to predict the maximum bmep i.e.

performance of geometrically similar engines because maximum power.

the performance parameters are used in generalised
10.s---_,...---.,.------,---1 bsfC

form by convening rotational speed (N) into piston

speed and power output as power output per unit area
of the piston.

1be performance map of a S.L engine is shown in

0 .15
Fig. 5.19.6.

The minimum consumption in kg/kWh shows the point

i-----4----i---~::::::::=::::...-' 0 .05 \<Wtan2
of maximum efficiency. It could be seen from the map, of piston area
it occurs at low piston speeds with high bmep.
4 8 12 16
lt is evident that bs.f.c increases with decrease in bmep Piston speed (mis)
because of the reduced mechanical efficiency at low
Fi . 5.19.7 : Performance ma of a C.L en •

Formulae Used

1. lndJcated mean effective pressure.

Net area of 1nd~cator diagram (a) .
Pnv- Length cf irullcator diagram (f) x Spnng constant (k) . .~.
lo'·••• •
f~

·~
.

..,• .·
2. L p - Numbe f -nd Prr-1x A x L x n (uW)
-~
:
.·. / ,
·.
.. .; .

•- _r o. cyn ers x 60 x 1000 "'

. •~ l'·
.· ··' .,

Where,

A = Area of cytinder = ~ cf ~

L = Length of stroke
. ~:-

n: Number of strokes J min· ,. .

' , ,-;
:_ : ,.. ; ..·:..-. ,, ':;

. /

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 ; • ·· .

. .

~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 5-25

:··... ·· n =N cTwo stroke.erlQine)~-' .· : .. ~ . .

. -· ·. -~
. · ..
..
,:
N . .
. ·.. ·:· :_ :-~ .-,
n =·2 (Four stri:>ke ~) ·i
.~
~-
3. B.P. =(W-S)f\,x 21tN c~
· 60 x 1000 ..... ,

B.P. .,, Number of ~rs x Bm x Ax L x n (kW) ·. ,.. ·-....

. . . 60x 1000 J • - •• •• ~ . I
I

4. F.P.= l.P-B. p

S. F.P. by Morse test '\ I

l.P. (I) = 4 B-(81 +Si+~+ B,)

\
16. - Indicated thennat efficiency, T\i = LP.
I
I ~x~~
7. Brake thennat efficiency, Tio or llo= B.P I
8. Relative efficlency

.
_ B.P.
' llr - Air standard Efficiency
~xc.v.

I I

9. b.s.f.c =~ x 3600 (kg/kWh)

1
10. Mass flow rate of 8Ir,

. _ma =C~ xAreaof~x...J2gpw ·(Mi).

Where, Pair x (Afi)!f;r ~ p..:x (Mi)• .

11.• •·echan
· I.cal effl • p~ Tl"
m .
.
.
ctency, 11_.n
.. '
=-B.P.
LP·
= "-""' = -=
PrrJ lb
. .

12L Heat Balance sheet

- - -- . ·"' - - -. ... ~ -":""- .

-
. - .. -··- ·-' , -. .. - . ~- .- ... . . ... -- . -.
-
t -
·.
,_ -.
Heat balance sheet . .
- - .
. . -
-
. . -~~Heat_ suPPlied ~ kJ/min %
; ..
-..
' ·... ~
...
.Heat Expenditure - ..-. . . kJ/min %

Heat supplied due to - 100 (a) Heat in B.P. =B.P. x 60 - -

Coi:nbustion of (b) Heat rejected to cooling water= ni,, x CP". x (~ - tc1) - -
fuel= file x c.v.
(c) Heat carried away by exhaust gases = nig X CPZ x (tg -to.) - -
(d) Heat unaccounted due to radiation etc. (by difference) - -
.. - . ..

-
Total.
.- - 100% . -
. Total
- . " ·-· -.
: -
100%
r.--· ~<,:· ~ . .
. .- . . : .
F·: . . ..
, -.
· ~ 1.c. Engine$ (MU-Se~. v~Mech) . ·-:: -.,~ ,· ' .

Iii¢ , ' . . .. . 5-26 E~~in~ Testing and Perfonnang! ·:

" '.
exa111Ple 5.19.1 .'
' .
~ -petr:o' engine develops a torque of 10 Nm, at a speed of
- 1500 rpm. The Indicated power of the engine is 1.85 kW.
Find the frictio(l power. _
solution: 1
eoglne"develops brake,mean effeciiye?, pre,~lj~9 .,,. , ,_:: J< _;Kt

liii{~:i:li~l~o~,ffti~
Given:

Torque, T =10 Nm.

· N =1500 rpm. - 1.P. =.l.85 kW
, ~;,', · 6081 P,).wer loss -·-
~ ·~ !~ ~~·-
Brake power (B.P.) ·= To~ nN ;: .. . ' ' '· :' :;.;.......

~ Jii._ . ~--. ~qfj~fil~L<;QJl~!JUJP~Q11~ ·

Solution:
10 x 2n x 1500
= 60000 =l.57 kW Two stroke engine therefore, no. of strokes / mm, 0 =N·
F.P. = I.P. - B.P. Given:
Tli =25% =0.25; Tim= 0.75; fir =25 kg/hr
. = ·1.85 - 1.57 =0.28 kW ••.Ans.
Brake mean effective pressure, Pmb = 5 bar;
Example 5.19.2

A single cylinder, four stroke gas engine has a bore of 18 cm

C.V : _;:, 42 MJ/kg =42000 kJ/kg; L = ~- (square eng~e)
and stroke of 26 cm. It runs at 400 rpm and employs hit and ti.can piston speed =:= 2 ~~,15 m Is .
miss method of governing. Positive and pumping loop mean · = 15 x 60 =900 m I mm .
effective pressu~s are 6 and 0.3 bar respectively. The actual
L
number of cydes perfonned per minute were 180. ·The (i) Cylinder diameter d, and crank rytdius, R !"' 2
engine has a mechanical efficiency of 0.75. Find the B.P. of
the engine. I. P.
11·1 = '
SOiution: ffirxCV

Given: I. p = lli x rllr x c. v

=26 cm. N =400rpm.
d = 18 cm. L I.P = 0.25 x ( 3~) x 42000 =72.92 kW
Positive m.e.p. =6 bar, Negative m.e.p. = - 0.3 bar
B.P. = l.P. x Tim =72.92 x 0.75 = 54.69 kW
n = 180 strokes/min. Tim =0.75
B.P. = Pmb x A x L x n (kW)
Net indicated mean effective pressure, 60000

[n=N and 2LN=900m/m.in]

( s x 105 ) 'X ( ~ d2 ) x ( 900 I 2 )

54.69 = 60,000

= d = L = 0.1363 m = 13.63 cm ••• AllS.

60,000

= 11.31 kW
R = 2L =: -13.63
2 -= 6.815 cm ••• Ans.

:. B.P. = LP. x Tim= 11.31x0.75 =8.483 kW ••.Ans.

Sconned w ith ComSconner

 • 1' . ~. ·.

...' . . ..
~-

: ~ 1.6. ~ngines (MU-sem.·v-Mech) . . 5-27.

. Eiiglne Testing and Pert~ · . ·
. ::=- w

. (U) Test sPeecl of the engine, N (W ~ S) = lSOO N,

Pmi = 3.75 bar, - -- .
.. .... ·
~
... ···.

Piston speed = 2 LN D~= 180 cm and_D, = 3 cm _

900 = 2 x0.1363 x N . :. M~ brake drum radius

Db+2D, = 180+22x3 =93cm=0.93m

N = 3301.5 rpm •••A.ns. Rt,= 2

(iii) Frictional power loss ( F.P.)

Cooling water,
F. P. = I. P. - B. P.
mw = 600 kg/hr=~ = 10 kg/min,
= 72.92 - 54.69 = 18.23 kW •••Ans.
c~nw = 42oc.
(iv) Brake specific fuel consumption (b. s. r. c.)
361 kg! .
ni. .= 361 kg/hr= 60 nun,
Dtr(
kg I hr)
b.s.f.c .= B. P. (kW )
T = 3000 C To= 200 C,
· 25 ' ,
= 54.69 = 0.4571 kg/ kWh ...Ans. cPg = 1.01 kJlkg K

!~'Pte s.19A MU - Ma 13. 12 Marks . ; ;.?:~;,~ Bore, d = 400 mm= o.4 m.

L:'.<'\~/~ ·;· · :, . · . . · . ·· · . _, ·· ~. ,;,' ;
;lrra'test on a single cylinder 4 stroke diesel engine with. oo~; stroke, L = 450 ~ = 0.45 m .
!.:;:~~ •.·.'!. d • ·:·>.,.§..• .' - ~~~
~400 mm and stroke 450 mm, the folloWing observations.w.e~e.
'~~0 =· ·. · · ,.. ·· · · · :': ::: ::'1 (i) Mechanical efficiency, 1'1in •
~o~_~tion of test = 1 hr .·
'.f:~el ~nsumption =7:5 kg · Pmi x AI4fi (kW)
I. P. = 60x l~ .
:c·.v. of fuel= 44500 kJ/kg
t~ . ...... . ..

,Tcitahevolutions = 12000/hr. 1t 2 N l
= Pmi x 4 d x L x 2 x 60 x 1000
'.Indicated Mean effective Pressure= 3.75 bar
. -Net Brake load =1500 N l
. •
Br~e drum
. diameter= 180 cm
= (3.75 x 10s> x 41t (0.4) 2
x 0.45 x T
200
x 60 x 1000
R0pe drum diameter= 3 cm ...:. . ~

;Jacket Cooling Water= 600 kg = 35.343 kW

Rise'.in cooling water temp= 42° c (W - S) Rt, x 21tN
,Totai air consumption = 361 kg B. P. = 60 x 1000 (kW)
Exhaust gas temperature= 300°C . . ·
= 1500 x ~~ ~~ 1t x
200
;Room.temperature= 20°c "
. . "
= 29;217 kW
h~t of exhaust gases= 1.01 kJ/kg-K
) •

,.:Speclfic
'Calculate : B.P
Tim = J.P.
:(i) . Mechanical efficiency , , , ·· -' ·'. · .:
~Qi)·, ~Indicated and Brake therma! effici_enc:;' . ··_.:~-" ;::/.,, ~ ·~,;r/~ .'Im = 0.8267 or 82.67 % ...Ans•
'oraw up heat baJance sheet on mir:iute t?asis;'. ;, ·.... ;(:'':·.}J
(ii) Indicated thermal efficiency, 111 and brake thermal
Solution:
efficiency, 'lb
Duration of test =1 hr; rll, =:' 7.5 kg/hr;
l.P. 35.347
fli =
c. v. = 44500 kJlkg; rilr x c.v. ( 3~)x44500
12000
N = 12000 rev. !hr= ~ =200 rpm,
= 0.3813 or 38.13 %

scanned w it h camSca nner

F
r.: ·. -, ~~~·~l.£C~.E~n~g~in~es~(M~U~-S~e:gm~.~V~-M~ec~h~)'======~s-~2~8~=====-=-=~E~n~gl~n:e~T~esti~·n~g:an~d~Pi:erf;;o:;;rma~-; ; n_; ;i ce
. .' .
\' :;p 1lb ·= .TJLX Tim= 0.3813 X 0.8267 = 0.3152 or 31.52 % . .. B =
2
k ('1, -F. P. ) ' .. (ii)
(iii) ~eat balance sheet on minute basis
!(11 - F.P.)
B2 2 .
Tim (at half)oad) = T2 - B2 + F.P;
In tuel 5562.5 (l) In B.P = 29217 x 60 1753.0 1
2(1 1 -F.P.) 11 -F.L
:. ,. rii. xC. V. (ii) In coolilg water, . 1759.8
..:::..----= I, +F. P.
7.5 44500
=rox = m.xc... x(Allw 1'1m = 21 ( 1 - =1
F. P .. ) + ~· P. . 2 ( 11 + F. P.
)
1
= 10x4.19x42
(iii) In exhaust gases, 1736.9 40-F.P
:. 0.65-40+F. P.
= nig X C119 x (T0 -T0)
40 x 0.65 + 0.65 x F. P. = 40-F. P.
= (ni. +'"') °" F.P. = 8.485kW
fTv - To)
= ( 361~ 7.5 ) x (i) B. P. ( = B1 ) and frictionaJ power at full load
312.8
1.01 x (300-20) ...Ans.
F. P. = 8.485 kW ( from above)
(iv) Heat losses
••• Ans.
wiaccounted for due B1 = 1, - F. P. =40 - 8.485 = 31.515 kW
to raciations etc.
(ii) Mechanical efficiency at full load, 11...i

B, 31.5l5 . 07879or7879 % ...Ans.

Timi= ""I;'"=~= • ·_

(iii) · Indicated thermal efficiency at full load, 111

fib _ _.Qd_ - 0.3808 or 38.08 % ...Ans.

Tlj = - 0.7879 -
Timi

(iv) Clearance voluine, V c when Vs= I litre = 1000 cc.

Vs+Vc 1000+ Ve
Compression ratio, r - vc 8 = Ve

vc = 142.86 cc. •••Ans.

Solution: MU - Ma 08, Dec. 16, 5 Marks
Given: Tlb =0.3, I. P. (1 1) =40 kW·( at full load),
Tlm = 0.65 (at half load), C.R., r = 8

(i) Brake power and frictioDa:I J,ower at full load

Assuming F. P. remains constant at various loads.

Let 11 and B 1 be the I. P. and B. P. respectively at full

load.
... (i) Solution:

Let J2 and B2 be the I. P. and B. P. respectively _a t half Given: d = 150 mm= 0.15 m, No of cylinders, n 1 = 4,

load. No. of strokes I min, n N = =1200 I min;

L ._
B. P. = 265 kW; (i= 0.9

scanned with CamScanner

 ~ . · . . . ·.
and Pert~~ --

. •· l.C.
. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech : 5-29
(a) . Brak · · . · Solution: ·
. . . . e mean eftiect"ive pres.sure
. ( bmep ), Pmb
Bore , d = 300 J]llll =0.3 JYUn,
B.P. = PmbXAxLxn
60 x _1 000 x n1
=
stroke, L 450 JJUil 0.45 Ill. =
time for testing = 60 JJUil = 1 hr. N = 2io·rpm,

·m, = 7 kg i.e. riit = 7 kg/hr

= 60x 1000 C.V = 45000 k]/kg, Pmi = 5.867 bar,

= pmb X 41t X (0.15)2 X (0.9 X0.15) X 1200 X 4 X---1- net brake Joad, (W-S) = 130 kg'
265 60000 .=130 x 9 (N) =130 x9.81 (N)
Pmb = 13.885 x 1ds N/m2=13.885 bar . ••. Ans. Brake drum diameter, Db :::: 1650 nun= 1.65 m,
(aT>w = 40°C,
(ii) Mean. p·ISt on speed, = 2 LN = 2 x 0.9d x N niw = 500 kg/hr ;
= 2 x 0.9 x 0.15 x ~ mis
1 .. T, = 3()()"C, .U. =300 kg/hr. =1.()04 kJJkg K c,,
Prni x ALn
= S.4 mis ••. Ans. J.P. = 6oxloOO(kW)
1t N I
(iii) Torque, T =. Ponx x 4d.2 x L xz:><6Q x 1000
T x 27tN
B.P = 60000 kW :::: (5.867 x IO ) x
s· 1t
4 x (0.3)
2 5 200
x 0.4 x z I
x 60 x 1000

= T x 2 1t x 1200 .----
.
60000 = 31.l kW
•••Ans. ~- S) Rb x 21t_!! (kW) = (W - S) 1tDb N
T = 2108.SNm = 60 X 100 60X 1000
B.P.
(iv) Sq~n~ of the engine 1}0x9.81x1t x t.65 x 200 --22 04 k
L = 0.9D =0.9 x O.lS =0.135 m ::: 60 x 1()00 • w
· · d ::> L, the engine is over square. •••Ans- · (i) Mechamcal efficiency 1lJD.
...
f]~{~~~R:J,ti~1lt'
c ':;;~~f;d,-;r:. :v;m:~µ:.;,::;.,-~:~~;;;
;:;~~:'7. ,-::~-. B.P. 22.04 0 7087 · 70 87 m
LP
=3iJ= . or • -10
'~:!j~\~~!iDllM•@•IOWtJMfiMI. 'Tlm=·
·;· ::;;::
&'_-;--
, -:;
..,'.'"'."':"
....::'"'
. -:
.- -
. --
.• -......-.. - -.,,_
- .. - - -

, am
;,·;:;.J;;,~:o?cl'.i ~:;<:;>;,. ' \<''!'·,, ,,.,,~~.~.. 1":¥?~ \
:.': nal-ton.'_sil'J.91~ ,cylinCler,i fol.tr:'strok:
\i'· •. •...

. (il)' Indicated thenn>I eflidency, 111 and brak• lhermal

hl¥~1t1~~g;;t~;r~Jti~11'iy,; efficiency, 1lb

.11ot,1imit ;.6o;min' · .;• ·· ,

·11.~;}~!tf~~~~§t~~~t~fE~1~l .
,,,,;~}'..fTc"'
i!ri<!ii:Ste'd (h .rriean etteclil!•
. : · ·.· ·· ••
pressiire;.-·:.·•r/)
·· • ... ,. ·. . . ·
:.M67 bar{· ;J;:;J
,, , ·~·,.,"·« (:.•"·'.'«\''•· .'
11~
= 0.3554 or 35.54 %
:::: Tli X Tlm == 0.3554 X 0.7087

<"1f&'t!!l~l/~f.i~~keted·1fi1ln~.~~}Or ~~kp'.: tJtTf~4'

(ljl,iii)>(<iali /oad : 130 kg;,: erOak dru11r diairi0ter/ .165Q.....,
·(\ \,.. == o.2519 or 2s.19 It!.
., .,~
•4•9~.~JR""~
-10
,.. , )(>f'.J\ick•led OcO()ling , water' : : 4Q
(iii) Heat balance sheet
Mass flow rate of gases,

IIlg == ID + IDr := 3~ + 7 == 3<.rl kg/hr

8

1Deteim1n0:::;i,Mechamcal/ ef(la~ncy. ;; , .' , , ,..,, "·"'1"' ,.,..,

4
~~•:••~·,•··~·~:L~--------------------~

Scanned with C1WT'1Sconner

~-- -
. . ~ 1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) Engine Testing and Perlorrnan~
5-30
ii> .
A) Jleat supplied in fuel Solution:
.( 7
: : ffir x _c.v_ =60 x 45000 =5250 kl/min Number of cylinders; n1 =
Fuel consumption, Vr = 10 cc in 20.4 seconds
(B) Jleat utilized
3
Air consumption, V. = 0.1 m in 16.3 seconds
(i} In ~.P =22.04 -~~? =1322.4 -~/mi~
N = 3000rpm
(ii) In cooling water= ni"'.' x Cpw x (~T)w Load=l7kg;
3
500
. Density of air, Pa = 1.175 kg/m,
= 60 x 4.1~ '<..~~ =1396.7 kJ/min
Specific gravity of fuel, Sr= 0.7
(iii) In exhaust gases = 1 x CI'& x (TI -, To) m C.V. = 43 MJ/kg =43000 kl/kg ;
307 . . -.
=
60 x 1.004 x 300-25 1412.7 kJ/min =
Dynamometer constant, K =5000
(iv) Heat losses unaccounted due radiations etc.,
(1) Air-fuel ratio, (m. I~)
= H.S - (Heat utilized) (Srx Pw) x Vr
= 5250-(1322.4 + 1396.7 + 1412.7) IDr = time
10 1
= 1118.i = kJ/min .. = (0.7 X1000) X('100)1 X2Q.4
The heat balance sheet on per minute and = 343.14 x 10- 6 kg/s
percentage basis can be drawn as follows.
<Pa·V = 1.175X0.1
0)
· Heat balance sheet
Illa = time 16.3

= 7.2085 x 10- 3 kg/s

In fuel 5250 100 (i) In B.P. 1322.4 25.19 Illa 7 .2085 x 10-
3

~Q In cooling 1396.7 26.60 A.F. ratio = -:- =343.14 x 10- 6

water IDr
(iii) In 1412.7 26.91 = 21.01: 1 ••.Ans.
exhaust
gases (2) bstc, Di (gm/kWh)
(iv) Heat 1118.2 21.30
losses B .P. = ~ 17
; : = 10.2 kW
unaccoun
ted for ffir(kg/hr) 6
343.14 x 10- x 3600
racfiation bsfc = B.P. 10.2
etc
Total 5250 100 5250 100 = 121.11x10- 3 kg/kWh
~~~-'"';;·--:/~w~·- ,,......~· :l ~ ...-~.....~·~,_..., ··-t..,.. , . ...o/. , ,....,,,~.....,.,.,~. ~~-~::;;_·"'{/:_:~;~.. :-:=~fiT ~~
= 121.11 gm/kWh
---

;Example 5.19.8 ·' · ,,_,, '·,"''"' ,,,.::., ...Ans.

r:;.tf;:-}~~:~:..:r·· ~·~ ~...... ~· -< -~:~:~.- -~~·<'. ~
,r,, ... • .> •• .':· ~_. ,::,, '.: .' ·-:-~--~='···~-~:,.~· i~;~'.-·~::~~::>~:'.~~~r:~-~~-
(3) Brake thermal efficiency, 'lb
i~~~-!11~f~~~;~7'- r~Y? of.!8~rstr~~~·~:~~ng~e_gyJ~nd~r_, . ~~,r,~?'-~:~
ter:ig1ne.Jfith fuel consumption time for 10 cc ts 20.4 s.and·-a1r!
B .P
f~nfulmptio~~ time tor_
I .,,::..;,·..,,, . ~..~. .. . ;.'... . . , .
o:fm"3 is 16:3-s
. .- . .
:TheJoad is·1]·1<9:0;
:· . . . ~ , -;:,,". ~ -c.. "'''
llb =
;th~/spe~d, of :sooo.·; rpm. , Find ,also •' brake : specific :..fuef ffitXC.V.
l~rl~~~P,1I~t~ ~n :'9~wh. ~~~--•. brai<~ ~!~~rm~\ -_· ~ttfo~~~§~~; 10.2
;AsSiJme
f~- .."'·l"·..-"'·... ·;,&
the
.. :':ti:·~-~
-
density 'of air as 1.175·kg/m :and specific
. : . • :-
gravitY:.
;:~,-~ .~.,....,~""'"'-"" $;
.··_ _' ,: :: .... .) - ·:', __ ; ... __ . =(343.14X10-6) X43000
er~~!;!<iJ>_e 9f}'he lpw~r ~~ati~g v.a!~~:9~.:.fl;l~.us .~ .;1J/KQ'.
[~fh~. ~ff~rri()rr)~ier.coils#lnt:.is'. ~90ot2::::::':~~;,)~~,2'1'F~~:ri~;~~ = 0.6913 or 69.13 % •..Ans.

ScQnned with Ca mScOOnel"

 - :: . ':-:. - . .
i ·. ·.....~
!~
. :·· '

l.C. Engines MU-Sam V-M~; , .. 5-31

' ·• .

.
wer for 5 cyliriders fi~g. ·
. :•.
~1 · t'"-~1;~\:;;-,.·:r;;::>~·:•tr,:·r .., ..,.,•.. ---~ ......_.. .., ··-'.C'c;:;;··,,1-::~:'.';·:~o"':::-,;~;_;.;7';_~7~··-~;~;r~ ' . -· rak • l··

~1 ~~~~Pkt s~19.9 HllM•l§Mf.J :;:. ·5. <}fr"-~;:-:,~,~-""~'.;;:_,-;;~ -~~;\!':•'!§~?;:

P
. ·o

Average b e . .· 'i
1· ;,J-~i?:-l:;:::'~-:t:'.tf. :~.'.~: .: >· ··-::-·-,· ---~ -\ ·:::-.-2:::::<:;::::1,:s~ ''J:.\~r ~.:1r:;,_-iir,~ · . (W _ S)i x Rb x 21t x N
~1t9~(~t~e - cy11_ncie(ea~1ine::e~91n&;:ha,.~~-~~'-~- ~~~;
t ...~·~i. ~- ..~......,,
~· ~ ~.· .-.···-~~:(.I B1 = 60X 100
<1 ,.: ,:;. ; .. _>

1ao mm' s~rOke.'.The eflgine is eoupl~_to~a~ .

.. •.••· ., , ' .· ::. •::.'':°. -.. . ··• '.: .• > .l. ·- ,_;

I t~9,m~'bore arl<f
~<~~~~'e'(tJY~,rlip¥,et~r.: ~~~~( ~; :n\~1~s· '~! '4§o :rut\/"~~
la2oO;:AP,Mj/ith '. all ;cylinder$ flring·.the_ne~·- !OA~}s.,;350 . ~/ B1 =-
2 ~0~·x~·~0.~4.:.;X:.::2:::1t:;:X_3_2_00_ =33.51 kW
~
60X 100
. ,.

~!;::~~j~~;~x:i;9t~~
;~;~O}·~?-Esti"!lat.e ..tr.i~ ipdiAAteq _mean:~ff~Gtlv~: pr~~u~~ "~~; = 6 (46.91-33.51) = 80.4 kW

u:~. ~::33~~ii•:J;~:;.t~~
t43;MJ/kg':.Ji1e cooling.water' flow.rate ls 70 _kQ/rnln and,,tht:( J.P. =
Pmi x A L ·
60X 1000
0
x number_of cylinders
r~~~ri~~_-rise :is .10°c~ : Duri~g te;t_th~ -~~9i~e'. i~· ~ric1~8,d:
'f:'·'i);..,,_ ,_.~.. •' • .$-:('' • )~.... -~ 1t N 1
. """' :--;.- . • •

fiti_a:t)ox;and ventilating·air is blt>Yt'.n _up.tti~.u9h:th~.-~x,~t ' '

. • . •. .. ·-:;. ..: ' \.':/''. . .,.....,' ',.... (,,.'':" '·.

J.P. = Pmix 4 d2 xLx~ xyx6()xlOOO .

rii~ft.;1,s',:k,~~in: ~fj?-_~09::,1110_ ~-~. l~~~{tb.~~ ~~;;~f~j~~ 3200 I
;Praw.:t1~t~tance Sh~etfor the ~ngine_ on ~O,llnut~. ~is.~1·,,..: 80.4 = Pmi x ~ (0.08)2 x 0.1 x 2 x 6 x 60 x 1<ii)
Solution:

Number of cylinder, y =6; . Pmi

= 999692 N/m =9.99692 bar 2
•..An,,
. sheet on per minute basis
2• Hea!)>aIance .
Bore,d = 0mm=0.08m
A -: -·
'\... ~-
B;;t supplied in fuel,
Stroke, L = 100 mm= 0.1 m;
= m, x C.V._= 0.33 x 43000 = 141~ kl/min
j · .. •

Brake radius, Rb = 400 mm = 0.4 m

B : Heat Utilised :
N =3200 rpm. Net brake load, (W - S) =350 N (i) ~~~!1_=._16.91 _X>6J)_=2814.6 kJ/min
Net average brake load when each cylinder is cut-off i.e.
(ii) In cooling water = ~ x ~P.!.-~!.-
For remaining 5 cylinders, (W - S)1 250 N = .. ~·

=70 x 4.187 x 10 = 2930.9 kJ/min

IDr = 0-33 kg/min, - -
. · ..:. - .oi x C x (T - TJ
(iii) Heat to venb1ating "'" - --~ .. s P& _ _ 2 ...---
C.V. = 43 MJ I kg= 43000 kJ/kg
=15 x 1.005 x (335 - 290) = 678.4 kJ/min
.
= 7.0 kg/min. ;
Cooling water,
---m,.

T... = 10°c
Heat balance sheet can be drawn as follows :
. ·~; -.,
'Heat ::.
Illa = 15 kg/min; 's0p~lied-;
...... ... ___
I7°C=290K Infuel 14190 (i) InB.P 2814.6
Ta = i-:::...=.:~--i---1

(ii) In cooling water 2930.9

T, = 62° C 335 K =
(iii) To ventilating air 678.4
1. Indicated mean effective pressure, Pm1:
(iv) Heat in exhaust 7766.t
B.P when all cylinder firing,
gases and other
(W - S) Rb x 2 1t N kW
losses
B = 60X 1000
Total 14190 14190
350 x 0.4 x 21t x 3200 = 46.91 kW
B = 60X 1000
 .....
~(·. · '
~..
~:· .·.

~ 1.c. ~~51.."9-'."10
~•~~--· ~~:=~:.~~:~~~-~,..
..,r,; ... ~· ::~· ••
A.t;p;\~1 • .....
·~--;--_t1;•'"-...,...
·~~ . . .:. "V ~;...'",.'J'f':;~~":'"">'t
5-32 andPerf~

~--. ,
,
,..
;
"
• :
.
~~·~ '.·.~ ~ • ·>:-.. • • : ·f .... • • .. •
'-''1' ~,'."--· .. r _-.,:,i'1
.-:..t ~1,.·".;~./IJ{r>. .. \'-/~ 1 (ii) bp =2n N WR 2 x 1t x 350 )( (65 x 9.Sn )( O_d

~L~~-f : . ·.
·, ··. · • .; .•· · ·e· · •o'/• '.'.f···/""~ 1<' · :4

f~ ~ . ·00..·: . . .: ·. . .
~;:.;·.·:: , a tw(>-stroke . eng~~~ :~vtf thtn~1~<.:.·.~~;:;"i}~'1 }{'.! 60,000 .()(),000
" ' " •.•,, ... ng _ rf!S~~.·at
:· '• «'·.~ -.::-· ·-.: .>._·... :. ·.. ":: . ~ ' -~: ?~i =lJ.68kW
l\'r .. . sso ,.pm . . .. :. . . . . . . . . ;" .,,...·i
~t : -.'
bT' rake toad=..65 kg' ' . .· . :··'. .:, ,......: '.\:·:::'..'··;"·l
-':'~.; (iii) Heat supplied in kW

~;·~ ·~r ...... ·. - :_ .. :" .._ . :. . _.:, . ~_:.~<\~~ =iii, CV= (413600) x 43,000 == 47.8 kW
~~·~"~~m~tl_on ~:4 kg.I~ .. · :" ._ ·: ;. <:··:" //.;;.::\}1
~~( C;oollng wate~ flo~ ~~te =_.soo :~g/tJ .· . . ._ ·!'~'.../.: ~.:\; :;i;X;,-i Heat lost of cooling water= m (Cp). [TWO - T.J
w

l· ,':·~'~.~· water tempe,mture ~t.tnlet 1:120° c•.• ,. . ;.::;: ·'.):>;:·'<;S.:'i =(500/3600) x4.2x[40-20]=11.7 kW
Heat Jost in exhaust gases

= (32;dl,x 4 x 1.0 x [400 - 20]

.cil~meier :;;:22 cm::!
:(i~0
= 13.9kW
Heat balance sheet

I 00 Heat in bp 11.68 24.4

supplied
by fuel
Heat lost to 11.70 24.5
cooling water
Heat lost to 13.90 29.1
'
I..
Solution: exhaust water

Unaccounted 10.50 22.0

Given : n N ; N = 350 rpm; = W =(65 x 9.81) N; . heat
. .
m, . = .4 kg/h· ·' m
Pm = 3 bar·' .... · w =·500 kg/b·' (by difference)

Tw1 = 20°C; Two = 40°C; Ta1m = 20°C Total 47.80 100 Total 47.80 100.0

Tc,= 400 C; m/fllt = 32; d=0.22m;

L = 0.28 m; Break radius= R = 112 m

c.v. = 43,000 kJ/kg; (CiJes =1.0 kJ/(kg-K)

To find : (i) ip (ii) bp and (ill) heat balance

2
3 x 10s x 0.28 x (1r/4) x 0.22 x 350
(I') lp=
. PwLAn
60,00Q = 60,000

·... . ::.· .
~ :..
 ..
·
. , f'
· ,~ :'
i

' .
·t·
rJ·
andPerto~

11.2 . 3. SS L~/ - • .
._ (18 + 1) = . ..e>tmm.· .
60

(ii) Heat carried away by exhaust gases /min.

= Heat gained by water in exhaust gas calorimeter .-

Output of generator = 210 A at 200 V
from exhaust gases + heat in exhaust gases at
Generator efficiency = 82 % exit from exhaust gas calorimeier above room
temperature.
Fuel used = 11.2 kg/h
= D1w X C., X ( l,a - lw1 ) + m1 X CPI (t1 - t,)
Calorific value of fuel = 42600 kJ/kg

Air-fuel ratio = 18:1

-s: x 4.18 x 36 + 3.55 )('. 1.05 (98 - 20)

= 1454.6 + 290.7 = 1745.3 kg/min.

Mass of water circulated thrOugb calorimeter
(iii) Heat lost to jacket cooling water
II\: = 580 litres or 580 k8/b
= 0.32 x 7952 =2544.6 kJ/min.
Temperature rise of water, ~-lwi = 36oc Heat balance sheet (minute basis)

Temperature of exhaust gases at

exit from calorimeter = 98°C Heat supplied 7952 100

Ambient temperature = 20° c '(i) Heat equivalent of ~.P. 3073 38.7
'Heat lost to jacket cooling water= 32 % of the total heat '
(ii) Heat carried away by exhaust 1745.3 21.9
supplied
gases

Specific heat of exhaust gases = 1.05 kl/kg K (iii) Heat lost to jacket cooling water 2544.6 32.0
Total power generated = VI (iv) Heat unaccounted for (by 589.1 7.4
difference)
= 200x210::42000W=42kW

Power available at the brakes of the engine, Total 7952 100

42 .
B.P. = 0.82 = 51.22 kW

Total heat supplied to the engine = Fuel supplied per

min. x calorific value offue)

1.2 x42600 =7952 kl!mm.

= l60 .

(i) Heat equivalent of B.P. =51.22 x 60 =3073 kJ/min

Mass of exhaust gases formed per minute

= Fuel supplied/min.

(:ratio+ 1); [~ratio means air-Fuel ratioJ

 ~ -- .· ' · , .
..
~ : :~\ '._;:• : . . . ··.. ,. ...
~ ....
-.~
.,:;·:.
·... . . . . .
..
~

,,::·. ·~~- '='. .; · ~

·',.'

;.-_:·~ ~ 1 .b. En Ines MU-Sem. v-~ech) ..

>: ~n:
·r )f:-.. \~
· . puration of test = 1 hr,
(\
I

- ··r'
r·j
d /
Bore, d = 300 mm= 0.3 m

L = 450 mm= 0.45m,

All firing 2040 -t1 cylinder . 1835 .
. m, =8.8 kg/h, N = 200rpm 11
1 cylinder 1830 alh cylinder 1860
00
Pmi = 5.8 bar,
2 cylinder 1850 9th cylinder 1820
c.v. = 41800 kJ/kg, rd 111
3 cylinder 1850 10 cylinder 1840

<W:_~)-~:0: J~60. ~. _·-- Db = 1.22 m, 111

4 cylinder 1830 11th cylinder 1850
111 111
5 cylinder 1840 12 cylinder 1830
. ~ =650 kg/hr, ATw = 22°C; 1855 All firing 2060
N
Number of strokes, n =2

Pmi·ALn ' . )
.(
l.P. = 60
x
1000 __,. /
,'
\ . _ _ -- -
. = (5.8 x lol xi (0.3)2 x 0.45 x 2~ x ~ Solution:

Given: Nuniber of cylinders, n1·= 12,

= 30.75kW ·-~
d = 35 cm = 0.35 m,
B.P. = (W-S) 7t ~ ~ " "·
60 xJOOO L= 60cm =0.6 m, N = 210rpm.
...---- 1860 X7t Xl.22x200
= Number of strokes n =N per minute since two _stroke engine
()(p<lOOO
WN
B.P. = 180
= 23.76kW

(I) Mechanical efficiency, 1'1. Average brake load when all engines are firing
2060
. B.P W = :i040; = 2050 N
11m = I.P
'--- ·- . - ... W.N _ 2050 x 210 _ kW
23.76 . . BP
. . = 180 - 180 - 2391 . 67
= 30.75 =0.7728 or 77.28% •..Ans.

(I) I.P.
(ii) Brake thermal efficiency, 1'1b

B.P Net indicated load,

TJb =
~xc.v. Wi = 12xW-(B1 +B 2 +B 3 +B4 +B5 +B6 +B7
' · ~~-- -

23.76 + B 8 +B9 + BIO+ B 11 + B 12)

= (3~)x41800 =
..
12 x 2050- (1830 + 1850 + 1850 + 1830
.

= 0.2325 or 23.25 % ...Ans.

+ 1840 +1855 + 1835 + 1860
+ 1820 + 1840 + 1850 + 1830] =2510 N
.· : .. ··,. , .'·.
·
·..', :,:. ' : ·:·:<·~~
.. ......
·:.': .
; .. ._,.
.·:.. . ·. .. ;:· . ·...' :

e"91~t8sthig and Perf~:. . .

·s-35 . . .. ', . -. . 14
-.:wt X.N . ·2s10 x 210 . - x
~ o.74 1000 = 740 kglm3 ·· ·
· ,··....

.~. · J.P. = · ·130 . = 180. · =·2'2s.J3k.W . -Ans. ... ~

c.v = 44 MJ/kg =44000 kJn-..

'"'6
:'
(U) : Mechanlcal emctency, Tl.
· brak i--..1~ when cylinders are cut-ff in.order
· ·· B.P. 2391.67 . · Net e UiiU" . - ' . ·
: Tl.. ..= . 1J> = 2928.33 = 0.8167.or 81.67 9' -Ans.
(W-: S)1 = 110 N, (W - Sh= 1~ N,
(ill) -Brake mean efl'ective pres.mre, p
..
.... (W- S)3 = 104 N, (W- S)4= llON
pmbxALn . . 11:
B.P. . = x
60 1000 x Number of cylinders ; A =4d 2
(I) Eugine torque, T.,

= (W _ S) =160 x 0.37 = .59.2 Nm

2391.67 =· pmbx~x (0.'35)2 x0.6 x 21ox 60 :iooo Tb Rt, -Ans.

2 (U) BMEP,p_.
Prob = 9.8645 x JO' N/m or 9.8645 bar
Tb x 21tN
B = B.P. = 60X 1000

59.2X2X7tX2800_1
= 60X 1000 ~ 6 kW
- 73

B.P. /cylinder, B1 = !!£:.

4
=174.36
.
=4.34kW

Pmb.xAxL N
B1 = 60X 1000 x2
7t 2 2800 1
4.34 = Pmbx4 (0.045) x0.1XTX1600

2
Pmb = 11 .695 x 10' N/m =11.695 bar •..Ans,

(ili) Brake tbennal efficiency, 'lb

B.P x 3600 17.36 x 3600
'lb = = 6 x 44000
~xc.v

No. of cylinders, m = 4, = 0.2367 or 23.67° %

. . . N
4 - strok e engme 1.e. n = 2 (iv) s~~c fuel consumption .

Bore, d = 45 mm= 0.045 m IDr 6 . .

= B.P = 17.36 =0.34S6 kgJkWh
stroke, L = JOO mm= 0.1 m,
(v) Mechanical efficiency, 1Jm
N = 2800 rpm;
.
IDr =6 kg/hr,
Net indicated load,

Torque arm, ~ = 0.37 m, I = 4 (W-S)-[(W-S) 1 + (W-S)2

Net brake Joad, (W - s) = 160 N + (W-S)3 + (W-S)J

specific gravity of fuel, S1 = 0.74 or I = 4 x 160 - [ 110 + 107 + 104 + 11 O] = 20'J N

:. Density of fuel, Pr = s, x 1000

scanned w ith camsc.anner

r
. .•
.
.

5-36 Engine Testing and Perfo~ ·

209 x 0.37 x 21t x 2800 Q = ritrxC.V.

= 60000 = 22.67 kW
1
~
5
= x43000
B.P. 17.36
fl111 = LP. = 22.67 x 100 ~ = 76.56 % •..Ans. •.• (1)
= 7525 kJ/min (100%)
(v0 Indicated mean effective
.
presmre
.
Heat utiw.ed for brake power,
Pmb 11.695
Poi1 · = 1lm =o.7656 =15.275 bar ...Ans. Q. = ,31.5 x 60 = 1890 kJ/min
...(2)

Heat lost to engine cooling water,

~ ·= m_.1 xCpwxht1
= .S:x4.187x56=2110.3JcJtmin ... (J)

Exhaust gas calorimeter calculations

Let TJi be the temperature of exhaust gases entering the

calorimeter in °C.

Heat given by gases = Heat gained by calorimeter water

.. ~-Cpg·(Tg1-Tgo) = Oi.,aCpw·Atz

.. llir c1 + AJF ) • cp, . ( Tgi - Teo) = m..z cpw • Atz

.. 10.5(1+19.l)xlx(Tsi-82) = 454x4.187x36
Solution:
TIi = 406.3°C

Given: Heat carried away by exhaust gases,

A _. ~°'
B. P. =31.5 kW, rilr= 10.5 kg/hr, ~ = ~Cpgx(Tg1-T0 )
-r- ~
10.5 • • ii:
C.V. of fuel = 43000 kJ/k:g = 60 ( 1+19.l) x 1 x ( 406.3 ~ 17) r.,,. :. '"-f ~
A.F. ratio = 19.1, T0 = 17°C = 290 K = 1369.4 kJ/min .. . (4) ~ -;: ~. • ~

Jacket circulating water (Engine), ~ 1 = 540 kg/hr,

(At1) (engine) = 56°C

Heat lost due to radiations etc,
.; ~ ;17 . ~.­
~ ~ ( 1-r::.f ::.,
Calorimeter circulating water, ~ = 454 kg/hr, = 7525 - ( 1890 + 2110.3 + 1369.4)

(A~) (calorimeter) = 36°C = 2155.3 kJ/min ... (5)

Heat balance sheet on kJ/min and percentage basis.

Temperature of exhaust gas leaving calorimeter,

T '° = 82°C, Cpg =l kJ/kg K.

 ... . .~: ·.

··Engine Testing and Perfo~,·

. . .. .· . :- .. . . *:" ~
~: 450 kg/hr~ Teoiperature ri~ in oolo~r~ ~oC · ·..
\
. m. · .
. Tao= 90oC; A.F. ratio, m;= 20: l;
In fuel,Q 7525 100 lnB. P.,Q1 Ambient temperature, To= 17oC; CPI= 1 kJllcg K
1890.0 25.12
In costing 2110.3 28.04 · Tora! heat supplied to the engine,
water,01
Q = dir x c.v =~ x 44,000 = 7333.3 kJ/miq
In exhaust 1369.4 18.20
gases, °-3 Heat utilized for brake power, Q1= 32 x 60 = 1920 kJ/min
Lost in 2155.3 28.64 Heat lost with engine cooling water, .
radiations,
530
Q. - ,;, x cpw x At I = 60 x 4.187 x 50 = 1849.3 kl/min
Q1-..._,1
Total
cLb) 7525.0 100
Exhaust gas calorimeter calculations

m. = riir( 1 + ~) =10 ( 1 + 20) =210 kg/hr

Heat given by gases =Heat gained by water circulated In calorimeter

:. ~ • CPI (Tsi - Tao> = ~ Cpw ·A~

210 x 1 x (Tsi-90) = 450 x 4.187 x40

Temperature of gases at exhaust from cylinder,

T si . = 448.9°C

Heat carried away by exhaust gases,

. 210 .
~ = ID, •CPI X ( Tgi - T0 ) = 60 X 1 X ( 448.9 - 17 )

= 1511.6 kJ/min

Solution: Heat loss unaccounted for in radiations etc,

Gi~en: B.P. =32 kW, lltr =10 kg/hr, C.V. = 44,000 kJtkg, Q.=Q-( Q, +Q2 +Q3) =7333.3- ( 1920+ 1849.3 + 1511.6)

~1 = 530 kg/hr, Temperature rise in cylinder, At1 = 50°C, = 2052.4 kJ/min

Heat balance sheet on kJ/m.ln and percentage ham

In fuel, Q 7333.3 100 (i) In B.P. (Q1) 1920.0 26.18

(ii) In Cooling water(Qz) 1849.3 25.22

(ill) In Exhaust gases (Q3) 1511.6 20.61

(iv) Heat losses due to radiation etc. (QJ 2052.4 27.99

TotaJ 7333.3 100 ;E(b) 7333.3 100

·- - -- --
r
'
'

~ i,.C. Engines (MU-Sem~ V-Mech)

5-38 ·. e~glne Testing and p~rtoimanE!
= (370 50~ 21t x 400

...Ans.
= 8.043kW
(ill) Brake mean ell'ective pressure, pmb

pmbxALn n: 2

B.P. =
(But, A= 4 d)
60000
. .. ' 200
8.043 ~. Pmb x ~ x (O. I6l x 0.2 x 60()00;
5 2 ••.Ans.
Pmb = 3 x 10 N/m = 3 bar
(Iv) BSFC

rllc - -1&... =0.3481

BSFC = B.P. - 8.043 . ·
kg/kWh •..Ans·
.

(v) Brake thermal efficiency, fib and indicated thermal·

Solution: efficiency, 111
B.P. 8.043
Stroke length, L = 200 mm = 0.2 m. Tlb = = ( 2.8 ) .
rllc x c. v. 3600 43~
Boresd = 160mm=0.16m
•..Ans.
= 0.2405 or 24.05 %
filr =2.8 kg/hr, Speed, N =400_rpm.
Number of strokes, n =~ = 4;>° = 200/min. Tlm = Pmb
Pm1
=/s.
=0.4

Brake drum diameter, Db = 1.2 m; :. 111 = _2!! _ .Mfil = 60.13% ••.A.ns.

Tlm - 0.4
Db 1.2
Le. Ri, = 2 = 2 =0.6m

W =370N,S=50N,

Spring Constant. K = 1 bar/mm

Area of indicator diagram, a = 300 mm2

and it length. l =40 mm
c.v. = 41800 kJ/kg
(i) Indicated mean effective p~ure, Pm1

Pm1 = la 300
x K = 40 x 1 =7.Sbar Ans
-· •

(ii) Brake power (B.P.)

cW - S) Ri, x 2n:N
B.P. = . 60000

- - -- ----· - -------·-~----- ··----.

 ..,_ .......
..
~.. ' . .. '
:.·.· :. .·~7··>\. :. . :.~
· ~ 1.c.~g1nes (M~Sern. V-Mech)
·. . . .. .. .... '

· . 5-39 · . .· Engine Te~~g. and Pelf~ · .~. /\

1-.; . . Sol,uttor. · ~· _·. ., ·' .
! .·
. ·. (iii) ~ dry exhaus~ gases: Ma5s of ~xruwst gases:_·: . :.: . ~· <, .
. ·N~r ~f cy~dcrs, Y ·.=:' 6, 4.- s~ke engine . . 70 . .
.m. = m. + m, =~ :t' 60 = 29:1667. kg/mm ·. · .:.· . _._

"
i.e. n "= ~, Borc·d= 180mm=0.18m;
Mass of "2 in fuel,
, ....
. Stroke, . L 70
= 200 ~ = 0.2 m. N =:= 1500 rpm m:. :
-"t12
0.12Xoi, :0.12X 00. = o· .0833 kg/mm
· · " " "

B.P. = 245 kW; m.e.p, Prn1= 8 bar, ·

• 70
:.Hz+! 02~"20. 2kg+ 16kg ~ 18kg
,_ m, = 70 kg I hr= 60 kg I min 18 . 18 .
• = ~ x- =0.0833XT =0.7497kg/nun .
llltfia 2 2 .
c.v. = 44 MJ /kg= 44000 kl/kg,
Mass of dry exhaust gases,
Fuel has H 2 = 0.12 kg I kg of fuel Air, -
. m.1• = m.• - --itiQ
m:. -291667-0.7497=28.417kgmin
- • . .
m. = 28 kg /min, nl_. =85 kg /min , Heat~ dry exhaust gases,= ni.1 x CP&. x (T' -1:0>
(At)w = 42°C, Cooling oil, ~ = 50 kg I min, = 28.417 x 1.045 x (400-30) = 10987.4 kl/min
. (A9o =. 24°C, Cp0 = 2.1 kl/ kg K (iv) Heat in water vapour due to presence of "2 in fuel · . .

Room temperature, T0 = 30°C From steam tables at PH20= 0.035 bar we get,

Exhaust gas temperature, T, = 400°C T, = 26.7oc, Ilg = 2550.4 kJ/kg , h,= 111.8 kl/kg

CP, = 1.045 kJ I kg K, He'at lost per kg of steam. h = Ch, - h,) + cp (TI - TJ

Pmo = 0.035 bar
Pm1XAxLxn = . (2550.4- 111.8) + 2 (400-26.7) =3185.2 kJJkg
I. P . = 60 x 1000 x Number of cylinders
Heat lost in steam= m;.20 x h = 0.7497 x 3185.2
N l
= Pmi x 47t x d 2
x L :>< 2 x y x 60 x lOOO (kW) = 2387.9 kJ/min

.s 7t 2 1500 1 (v) Heat lost in oil,= nio x CPi;i x (At)0 =SO x 2.1x24
=(8x 10 )x 4 x(0.18) x 0.2 x -
2
- x6x60x
1000
=2520 kl/min
=305.36kW Heat balance sheet on kJ I min basis
(1) Mechanical efficiency, Tim

'1m = ~::· 3;~ 6 = 0.8023 or 80.23 % •••Ans.

In fuel 51333.3 InB.P. 14700.0
(2) Heat balance sheet on Per Minute Basis In cooling Wate( 14947.6
(a) Heat input or Heat supplied,
In dry exhaust 10987.4

= rDt xC.V= ~ x ·44000=51333.33kl/min

gases

In steam 2387.9
(b) Heat utiliud
In oil 2520.0
(i)In B.P.= B.P. x 60 = 245 x 60 = 245 x 60 =14700 kl/min
Unaccounted for 5790.4
due to heat loss in
(ii) In cooling water = IDw x cpw (&t),.. = 85 x 4.187 x 42
radiation etc.
=14947.6 kJ I min Total 51333.3 51333.3

scanned wilh CamScunne1

····.-..

En Ina T~ng and Performance·:,

Beat utUhed .·

In B.P: =B.P. x 60 =37 x 60 =2220 kl/min

In cooling water= iii,, x Cpw x AT,,,.
=15.4 x 4.187 x 36 = 2321.3 kl/min
(iii) Carried away by exhaust gases,

= Di. ~p' <T,-T~ =cm.+ m..> cpg ('I',-TJ

= (3.8+ 12.J2)x 1.17X(410-20)
= 1811.5 kJlmin
Heat unaccounted for
=A-B =7461.3-~220+2321.3+1811.5)
5o1ut1on: =1108.5 kl/min
cv.-of fuel = 43890 kJ/kg, IDc = 10.2 kg/h, Heat balance sheet on per minute basis

· N = 1900 rpln, ~ =3.8 kg/min, C.R. =r =15• .

Torque, Tb = 186 Nm 2220.0
In fuel 7461.~ 1. InB.P.
Cooling water, . ~ = 15.5 kg/min, 2: · In Cooling water 2321.3

AT,,,. = 36°C, 3. In exhaust gases 1811.5

4. Unaccounted due to 1108.5

ExbaUSt gas temp., T1 = 410°C,
radiation etc.
Room Temp., T0 = 20°C, Cpg ~ 1.17 kJ/kgK 7461.3
Total 7461.3
1. B.P.
Example 5.19.20
Torque (f.J x ro . Tb x 2nN 1
BP = 1000 (kW) = 60 x 1000 kW A four stroke petrol engine develops 50 ·kW of .indicated
power and consumes 16 litre of petrol per hour of specific
186
= ~~~~=37kW ••• Ans. gravity 0.755. The calorific value of fuel used Is 44500 kJ/kg .
Find its indicated thennal efficiency.
2. B.S.F.C. If the engine runs at 3000 rpm when it develops 50 kW
power, find Its bore and length of the stroke if the Indicated
B.P. 37
B.S.F.C.= mean effective pressure is 5.2 bar.
. = (10.2~
IDtX C.V.
3600
) X 43890 Assume, length of stroke =1.1 x bore.
Solution:
= 0.2975 or 29.75% •••A.ns.
Given: LP. = 50 kW; Yr = 16 litre/hr;
3. Heat balance sheet on minute supplied
Specific gravity of fuel= 0.755 ;
A. Beat supplied/min
10 2 c.v. = 44500 kJlkg ; :N = 3000_rpm;
= DltX
. .
C.V. = 60· X 43890 = 7
4613
. kJ/Ill1D
.
Pini= 5.2 bar; L = 1.1 d.

Scanned with CamScanl'lef

 i_.''·
. ·.· . ' .
.. ·

... .·· ~t~. Engln~s (MU-Sam. V-Mech)

Fuel consumption/hr.
5-41

.· Relative efficiency.
Engine Testing.&nctP~'
. . . . .. ·..

ii, = · V~lume flow r~ x demity Indicated thermal efficiency 111

Tl, = Air standard efficiency Tl.
= 16 x 10- (m ~) x 0.755 x 10
3 3 3
(kg/ m3)

= 12.08 kg/hr
•• 111 = 11, x fl. =0.55 x 0.524
= o.2882 or 28.82 %
Indicated thermal efficiency•.

Tli = l.P. _ SO Given:

filr (kg Is) x. C.V. - (~;,:) x 44500 Brake mean effective pressure (b.m.e.p) =·725 kN I m
2

N
speed. N = 40 revolutions/s and n = 2
= 0.3348 or 33.48 % ...Ans.

N
PmAL2 Brake power (B.P.) =Number of cylinder x (b.m.e.p.) AL n
LP. = 40
60000 3 1t 2
= 4 x (725 x 10) x4 x (0.075) x 0.09 xT

= 23062 x to3 W = 23.062 kW

· Bore. d = 0.1645 m or 16.45 cm Brake thermal efficiency.

B.P. 23.062
Stroke. L = 1.1 d =18.095 cm fib = . = ( 9.2 :'\ .
Il1c x c.v. 3600') x 44000
Example 5.19.21
= 0.2051 or 20.Sl % •••Ans.
A four cylinder, four stroke petrol engine 75 mm bore by
90 mm stroke operate~ on Otto cycle and has a compression B.P
ratio of 6: 1. The efficiency ratio based on indicated work Mechanical efficiency. 11m = 1.P
being 55%, calculate indicated thermal efficiency. Take fib 0 .2051
specific heat ratio 1.4, when running at 40 rps, the engine Also. 11m = ~ =().2s82
2
develops a brake mean effective pressure of 725 kN I m ,

uses 9.2 kg of fuel/hr of calorific value of 44000 kJ/kg. = 0.7116 or 71.16% ...Am.
Calculate brake thermal efficiency, the mechanical efficiency
and specific fuel consumption in kg/kWh. Specific fuel consumption
Solution:
Il1c 9.2 (kg/hr) Wh ...Am.
= ' B.P. = 23.062 (kW) - 0.3989 kg/k
Given: d=75 mm=7.5cm; L =90mm=0.09 m;
2
N =40 rps ; pinb =725 kN Im Note : Mechanical efficiency could also be determined as

follows:
Compression ratio, r = 6
1.P.
Relative efficiency. rt, = 0.55 ; 111 = nicxC.V.
y =1.4; riit =9.2 kg/hr; c.v. = 44000 kJ/kg. or, I.P. = 0.2882 x i~ x 44000 = 32.406 kW

Air standard efficiency for Otto cycle.

. •• Tim = ~:· =ii:: = 0.7116 or 71.16%
na --
'I
1-_L:
(f)y-1
1- (6) . !-4-1=0.524

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 ·Engine Testing and PerforJT1811~ ·

Spedflc heat of exhaust gases, c,,

.
m,
. . .
= m.+rn,=rn, (. Jm .
:: + 1

= 608 ( 20 + l ) = 2.8 kg/mm.

. .

Heat given by exhaust gases

= Heat received by

= llicxC.V. = 3~x43000
= 95.56 kJ/s or kW.

B. Heat utilized

(i) In B.P. =27 kW

(ii) In cooling water= m,..·Cpw ~ Cw.,- lw; )
Solution:
·= ~x4.18x(75-22)=25.85kW
Given : I.P. =33 kW, B.P. =27 kW,
fir= 8 kg/hr, c. v. = 43 MJ/kg = 43000 kl/kg (ill) Heat carried away by exhaust gases,

Engine cooling water = ~-CP1 x(tg;-fu)

t WO =75°C, IDw = 7 kg/min = ~ x0.975 x( 528-24) =22.93 kW

Calorimeter (iv) Heat losses unaccounted for due to

tgi. = 528°C, tgo =87°C, IDw1 = 12 kg/min,

radiations etc.,

( t WO ) C =48°C, t0 =24°C,
= H.S. - Heat utilized in

A. F.ratio, ~ = 20, Cpw = 4.18 kJ/kgK (B.P. +cooling water+ exhaust gases )
flt
= 95.56 - ( 27 + 25.85 + 22.93 )

= 19.78kW.

scan ned w ith CarnScanner

 .. . """

.,bl \lS.SS lOO f,) B.P. ~M 1CS

~ Q~
....,. :s..~ ~11'15

Solution:
(i.l ~ t'.2.9S N.00 tl.P. • -4l kW, C.V. of t\1t'l • 4~600 kl/kg.
l}.\9lllS .
.!!!... l\)
(111 u-.. . . .~ i\\'i'S ro:ro n\ • 0.18'1 ~/mtn, . • "

- -
b ll'<
ti);) ~(b) Wntct' cln."\1l3l00 h\ c.•d1aUi'l sns cnlorim~tcr,
tlXl
n\.. a SSO llhr a 3S0/60 kl:l I tuh\

111=. l.P. =c S) Tut\l.'ICrnlU~ of C.\b:mst s:1ses ft\11\\ cnlorim~t~r, t1 za 98~

ll1t x c.v 3600 x -*SOO.)
Hc.-st l\>St ro C\'l\.l\ing W'l\tcrj~'.ktt. Q.,.. • ~'2 % of tQ(:d h«al ~uppll«I
= 0..."\453 34-53 %
Gt' .....\ns. C""'::: 1.0.S kl /kg K
B.P.
l\ = M:w now r.itc of :\tr,
'.27
~xc.v =( 3~)x4300) n\. = ti'< x A.F. n1tlo =0.187 x 18 = 3.366 kg/mln
n\ = n\. + n\ = 3.366 + 0.187 = 3.553 kgl min
= ().2825 lS.25 %
Ol" ........\us.
.
B.P. 27
T)CI= LP:"=n =0.818tors1.s1 % ......"'-ns..
A. Tobl.l ht-at mpplled in fuel, Q

4.. Uses of r' law Q= 1i1t x C.V =0.187 x 42600 =7966.2 kl/min
It h3S been :!pplicd in cne1~;y balance fur engine
B. Heat utilisl'd.
cooling "''31ce, £3.S cilorime.ter and in he3t bal:mcc sheet (i) In B.P. = B.P. x 60 = 4-2 x 60 =2520 kl/min
fur finding the beat k~.....~s.. • ••.Ans.
(ii) By \WJtU dn.·ulaml m (''tJlonitu·tu,
S.. Assumpdom made
= lt~. x ~(~th.
Heat in F.P. is not included in he3t bruance sheet since
580
the frictional beat is diss.ip31M to cooling w:ttcr, cmied = 60 x+.187 x 36 = 1457.1 kl/min
by c.~""t gases and lost ro surroun~"'S etc.. ··-·\ns.
(ill) Heal lost tu cooling walerje1~t.

Q_. = 0.32 x He~lt supplied in fuel

= 0.32 x 7966.2 =2549.2 kJ/min

(iv) Heat carriru away by ~.\-Jum.st gasa,

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~
n.
_:·.
i_

· _· ~ 1.c. En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech En lne Testing and Perlonnance

=3.553 x 1.05 x (98 - 20) = 291 kl/min Solution:

(a)
(v) Heat losses unaccounted for due to radiation etc,
=
Given : N 4000 rpm. 11v =77%, 11m =75%,
=Heat supplied in fuel - Heat utilised in (i) to (iv)
m, =18 kg/kg of fuel
= 7966.2-(2520+ "1457.1 +25~9.2+291)
Piston speed = 2 LN =600 m/min,
= 1148.9 kl/min
Pm = 5 bar, fir = JO lit/hr.
Heat balance · sheet on kJ/mln and percentage
ball& Density of fuel, Pr = Specific gravity x 1000
It can be drawn from above data as follows :
= 0.73 x 1000 =730 kglm3
:. m, = 1~ (~) x 730 ~) = 7.3 kg/hr
In luel 7966.2 100 ~) In B.P. 2520.0 31.63
Rate of air consumption,
(ii) Water drcWited ii calorimeter 1457.1 18.29
m. = m. x Dir =18 x 7.3 =131.4 kg/hr
(iii) Lost ~ cooing water In water 2549.2 32.00
lacket Assume S.T.P. conditions as :
frv) Heat carried ways by exhaust 291.0 3.65
P, = 1.01325 bar, T =25°C 1
~

(v) Heat losses lllBCCOl.llted for 1148.9 14.43 -But P1• V1 = IDa ·R·T 1

7966.2 100
Tola! 7966.2 100 (1.01325 x 10s) V1 = 131.4 x 287 x (273 + 25)
3
11
~
••.A..m. 1
v. = 110.91 : =
Example 5.19.24
(a) Obtain the cylinder dimensions of a twin cylinder, two
stroke l.C. engine from the following data :
Actual air consumption, V1
Engine speed = 4000 rpm ;
Volumetric effidency, Tlv =
Volumetric efficiency =77% Swept volume, V1
Mechanical efficiency = 75% ;
Fuel consumption= 10 litre/hr 1.8485
v. = 037
Specific gravity of fuel= 0.73 ;
Air-fuel ratio =18 = 2.40065 m3/min ...(1)
=
Piston speed 600 m/min ;
l.m.e.p =5 bar Piston speed, 2 LN = 600 m/min.
Also, determine the power output at S.T.P. ~nditions.
Assume R for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK. · . :. Stroke, L = 600 600
2N =2 x 4000
(b) After performing an energy balance trial at full load for a
diesel engine generating set, the thermal efficiency was = 0.075 m = 75 mm -.Am.
foond to be 16%. It was noted that· percentage heat
a,bsOrbed by cooling water· was 40% and heat carried Let, _'d'.be the diameter of the cylinder.
away with exhaust was 40%. Comment on the
abOVB results and suggest for improvement In V, = Number of cylinders x Stroke volume
performance.
x Number of strokes/min.

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 . . - ~

m- l.C. Engines MU-Sem. V-Mech)

2.4006s = 2x (i d2 • L) x 4000 (since, n =N)

II . 24
· 006S = 2 >< ~ • d2 x 0.075 x 4000
i

Bore, d = 0.0714 m = 71.4 mm

••.Ans.
PmXAXLxn
J.P. =
60 x lOOO x No. of cylinders
5 1t .
( 5 X 10 ) X 4 (0.0714)2 X 0.075 X 4000 Solution:
=
60x 1000 x2
Given : Number of cylinders, n 1 '= 8,
= 20.0lkW
Bore, d = 9 cm, Stroke, L = 8 cm
· • Power output or B.P.
C.R. r = 7, N = 4500 rpm, Brake arm. lb= 50 cm = 0.5 m
Mechanical efficiency, 1}m= ~:.
.
Brake load W =42kg=42 x gN=41 2. N

or, B.P. = Tim • (l.P.) =0.15 x 20.02 ~ = 4.4 kg, c. v. = 44 MJ/kg = 44000 kJ/kg,

= 15.0JSkW ...Ans. . T 1 =27_°C, p1 = 1 bar, m: = 6 kg/min.

(b) Given
(1) Brake' Power (B. P.)
~erma] efficiency = 16% (Brake load x Brake arm) 2 n N kW
B.P = 60 x 1000
Heat absorbed by cooling water · = 40%.
(41'.i x o.5) x 2 x 1i x 4500 =""" 1 kW
710 •••Ans.
Heat carried away by exhaust ' = 40%
= 60 X 1000

Thermal efficiency of 16% _obtained is too low for a (2) b.m.e.p (pmJ .
diesel generating set Consequent to this, the heat absorbed
(pmJXALxn ·
by cooling water and heat carried away in exhaust is high. B. P. = 60 x 1000 x 01
. Probable reasons may be : .

1. . Air-fuel ratio is low. Check for timing of fuel injection (n =~ being 4 stroke engine)
and adjust the fuel supply.
1t 2 N 1
Pb = (pmJx4 D xLx2 xn1-x 60000
2. Leakage past the pisto~ rings. Check the worn out.

3. High friction losses due to lubrication failure.

4. Adjust ignition timings.
.s N ·
or, Pmb = 6.36 X 10 '""""! = 6.36 bar •..Ans.
m

(3) b.s.f.c.

b f _ · Mass flow rate of fuel (kg /hr)

.s..c. - Brake power, (PJ

=
4.4
10 : (min:\
(kg /mm). x 60 I;") x 97_1 (kW)
1.

S\;;Jm>e..>d w 1lh Ca rnScarmc r

~ -
~ .. :..
: Jo·~. - •

...Ans,

· (4) Brake spec_ific air comwnptlon

B~
~1r specific air consumption =Rate of air consumption
B~
J hr

{6) X60
= 97.1 =:= 3.708 kg/kWh -Am.
(5) Brake thermal efficiency (fl.,)

fib = B.P. = 97.1 (kJ Is)

~ x C.V. (10~ 60 kg Is) x 44000 ~
4

= 0.3009 or 30.09 % ...Ans.

(6) Volumetric efliclency, 1lv

Swept volume for 8 cylinders,

1t 2
V, = 4D xLxn1

(AIQw = 125 mm of water 0.125 m of water, =

p1 =755 mm of Hg, T.= 24° C =297 K.
Rate of swept volume,
Bore, D = 70 mm= 0.07 m,
N 1t ( 9 ":\2 ( 8 ":\2 4500
v, = v, x2 = 4 x \Joo) x '...too) x 8 x-2- stroke , L = 64 mm =0.064 m,
3
= 9.161 m I min C.R., r =9.8, ~ =5.83 kg I hr,
1bcoretical mass flow rate of air at suction conditions, C.V. =43.9 MJ or 43900 kJ/kg, .
• P1 • V, 1x tcr x 9.161 . B.P. = 18.23 kW, N =2500 rpm,
(mJ, = R · T 1 = 287 x (27 + 273) =10·64 kg/mm
Number of cylinders, n1 =4 , Working strokes, n = ~
Volumetric efficiency,
(I) Volumetric efficiency, 'llv
Actual mass flow rate of air, m,,
1lv = 755
1bcoretical mass flow rate of air, (m.)1 Pa = 76-0 x 1.013 =1.006 bar
6
= 10.64 = 0.5639 or 56.39 % ...Ans. Pa
Density of air = P. =RT
, I

(7) Air·fuel ratio 1.006 x 10

6
3
= 287 x 297 = 1.18 kg/m
Air-fuel ratio Pres~ure drop across the orifice ~·m of air,

= (~ x :~ =0.125 ~ ~~
=e·® =6
13.636
••.Ans. (L\h).

= 105.9 m of air

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 .: ' '
:··.
.... ·."-~
. ..... ' ·. ·. '

~·. .

·~Le~ e~gl~s <Mu-Se~. v-Mech> ·.

.
... ... • '

B.P_ 18;23 ·= 0.lS64 ·.. . ·

· Actuai volume flow rate of air from the orifice, 'l}b = ~><C.V
-(5.83:'\
360()Jx43~
.
. .., :
. .•
·";

· · v.· = Cd. A '\)2g (Ab)1

•••Alb_

0.62x[~x(0.028) ] xv2x9.81x105.9
2
=

Rate of swept volume for all the cylinders,

7t 2 N l 3
V1 = 4. D xLx2 x 6() x o1 (m /s)

7t · -. 2500 1
= 4 x (0.<rl)~ ?< 0.064 x -2- x 60 x 4

'Tlv = 0.0205 m3is

= .Y&_
. = 0.0174 77 84 77
0.0205 =0.84 or • w
D/_
••• Ans.
v. .
Given : Number of cylinders, D1 = 8,
(U) Brake mean eft'ectlve presmre, P..,
PmbxAxLxo Bore, d = 9 cm, Stroke, L = 8 cm
B.P = XD
60000 1
C.R, r =7, . N = 4500 rpm, .
N 7t l2
= pmbx4 D xLx2 xn1 x 60000
=
Brake arm, lb 54 cm = 0.54 m
7t 2 2500 _1_
18.23 = pmb x 4 x (0.07) x 0.064 x -
2 - x 4 x 60000 Brake load, W = 42 kg= 42 x gN = 412 N
2
pmb = 8.8818 x Hr wm = 8.8818 bar •••Ans. . =4.4 kg,
IDr c.v. =44 MJ/kg = 44000 kJ/kg,

(ill) Air fuel ratio,-::-- iii. = 6 kg/min.

m,
(1) Brake Power (B. P.)
Pa· v. (1.006 x HY) x 0.0174 . (Brake load x Brake arm) 2 1t N kW
m. = R. T. 287 x297 B.P = 60 x 1000

= 0.02053 kg/s = 73.93 kg/hr (412 x 0.54) x 2 x 1t x 4500

= 60x 1000

AF. ratio = ~-~-1268·1

. - 5.83 - • • •••.Am.
= 104.84 kW •••A.m.
lDt
(2) b.m.e.p (pDI.,)
(iv) Relative efficiency, '1r based on brake thermal (pmi,) X AL X n
B.P. = 60x 1000 xn 1
efliclency

Air standard efficiency, ( n = ~ being 4 stroke engine)

11. = 1 - (r) 1<r- 1> --1-~

(9.8) ·
=0.5986
 ~; .
~~.:~ ;~ . .-
; •• • 1

:. :

'.hf! .c: 1 Engines MIJ-Sem. V·Mech) 5-48

· Engine Testing and Pe.rtormance
P.;_(p · ! 2 N
b - mi)X4 D XLx2 Xn x-L
. I 6000() Volumetric efficiency,
,·- ·'

97.l =(pmi)x~ (ifx>J x(i\ Actual mass flow rate of air, oi.
. 100) · 11v =
4500
x 1 Theoretical mass flow rate.of ;Ur. (IDJ,
··' . 2- x8x----.; 60000 6 ...Ans.
= Jo:64 =0.5639 or 56.39 %
.or, Pmb = 6.36X105 J;
m (7) Air-fuel ratio

= 6.36bar ....Ans. . . m. 6 . ...Ans.

(3) b.s.f.c. Air-fuel ratio = iii, =e~) =13.636
b.s.f.c.
= Mass flow rate of fuel (kg I hrl
Brake power, (PJ
4A (kg /min) x 60 (!!!!!!
= To' ·· ) x . 1
. hr 97.1 (kW)

= 0.2719 kg/kWh ••.Ans.

(4) Brake specific air consumption

Brake specific air consumption ,,,; Rate of air consumption I hr

. B.P.
(6) x 60
= 97.1 =3.708 kg/kWh Solution:
(5) Brake thermal efficiency ('ll.) ..
Given : CV =42 MJ/kg =42000 kJ/kg,
--:B::.:.P:.:·:...._ _ 97.1 (kJ Is)
llb = . - ( 4.4 .l (k!1 llb =30%, B.P. = 44 kW (at full load)
IDr x C.V. IO x 60 kg./ s) x 44000 \kg}
l. F.P, IP and Tlm of engme at full load .
= 0.3009 or 30.09 % ...Ans.
The negative intercept on X-axis of Willan's line ·
(6) Volumetric efficie.ncy, Tlv
represents the F.P.
Swept volume for 8 cylinders,
Therefore,
1t 2
V, =4D xLxn1
F.P. = 8.7kW ... Ans.

= ~ (1 ~)
2

V, x (1 ~) x 8 m3 /stroke J.P. = B.P. + F.P.

Rate of swept volume, = 44+8.7=52.7kW ...Ans.

2
N n 9 ':\2 ( 8 'J Mechanical efficiency T)m
v, = v,x2 = 4 x ( 100) x loo)
4500
x&x-2-
B.P. 44 .
3 Tim = IP =52.7 =0.8349 or 83.49,% ••• Ans.
= 9.161 m I min

Theoretical mass flow rate of air at suction con.ditions, 2. Mechanical efficiency at part loads, Tlm
. . . ..

Pi · V, 5
lx 10 x 9.161 . .
B.P. at part load = B.P. of full load x Part Joad
10 64
(mJi = R · T1 = 287 x (27 + 273) = · kg/mm
and J.P. at part load = B.P. at part load+ F.P.

~1111WwiU1 Cctrr\ScclmM!'!
 . ~·-
• I
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~ I.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 5-49

. Engine Testing and Pe·rfolnb·~..: .
~ice
B.P. Zioi
(i) At 75% load • .!
Mechanical efficiency, rim= J.P. .-
. ~.P. = 44 ?< 0.75 =33 kW ;. J.P. = ·1B.P.
1:' =· o.208 = 25 kW
Tl = g _· B.P. _ 33
m l.P. - B.P. + F.P. - 33 + 8.7 Combustion equation . for stoichiometric air can be
written as:
· = 0.7914 or 79.14 %' •••Ans.

(ii) At 50% load

Air
B.P. =. 44 x 0.5 =22 kW
· mass of 0 2 + mass of N
Tl B.P. 22 :. Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio= mass of fuel 1-
m = l.P. (= B.P. + F.P.) = 22 + 8.7
11 x 32 + (11 x 3.76) 28
= 0.7166 or 71.66 % •••Ans. = (7X 12)+ 16X 1 =IS.I: 1

(iii) At 25% load . Since mixture is 10% rich, the actual A.F. ratio .

B.P. = 44 x 0.25 =11 kW = 15.1 x (1 - 0.1) = 13.59 : 1

l.P. = 11+ 8.7 = 19.7 kW Stroke volume for 4 cylinders

1t 7t ' 2 ..
11
= 19. v, = d2 xLx4= 4 x(0.07) x(0.09)x4·
Tim 7 =0.5584 or 55.84 % •••Ans. 4
-3 3
3. Bra~e specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c) = 1.3854 x IO m

,, "'". B.P. 44
b = ; 0.3 = :. Rate of volume handled,
IJlrXC.V. IDrX42000 N
v, = V1 x .n =V,x2
44 · · 44x3600
D1r = 0.3 x 42000 kg/s =0.3 x 42000 kg/hr
= ' 12.5714 kg/hr . .
Actual volume sucked,Va
'llv =
b.s.f.c =~ 12.5714
B.P. = 44 = 0.2857 kg I kWh ••• Ans.
Stroke volume, V1 ·

:. v. = v xn • 'ly
= ·l.3854x0.75 '= 1.0391 m /min
3

:. Mass of mixture (m·J

5
(1.013 x 10 ) x 1.0391 = m 1 X 287 X (27 + 273)

:. m 1 = 1.2225 kg/min

Solution: Since the A.F. ratio is 13.59: 1.

Given: d=70mm=0.07 m, L=90mm=0.09m, Therefore, the mass of mixture (13.59 .+ 1) = 14.59 kg,
B.P. =20 kW, .N =2000 rpm in which it has 1 kg of fuel.
 r'~
,(;~~~E~ng~in~e~s(:M:U:-S:e~m~.V~·~M~ec~h~)~~~~~~~~
~
5~0 ~~~;;;;;.;;;;;;;:=:~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~
.
·. . -· wa1 fueJ consumpti'on, .
.·;. J.C FueJ consumption in (kgls)
~l~ ~
Jllr = 14.59 = 14.59 = 0.0838 kg/min m, = fueJ consumption ~ x Specific gravity.

(f) JDClicated thermal efficiency

x density of water
J.P.
flj = ~xc.v. 6.74 x 10- 3 -3 kg/.5
- x0.735x 1000 := 1.376x JO
3600
25 (i) Engine torque .
0 38
=( ·: ) x 43ooc) T
'
= (W - S) ~ =155 x 0.356 = 55.18 Nm ...AJJs.
(li) - Brake mean effective p~e {p.,w) ·.
= 0.4163 or 41.63%
...Ans.
Tx21tN _ 55.18 x2X1tX2800_=16.lSkW
(If) Brake specific fuel con.rumptioo in iqVkWb B.P. = 60x 1000 - 60x 1000

N
b.sJ.c.
= Illr _ 0.0838 x 60 (kg I hr)
1t 2
pmbx4d xLxz . .
B.P. - . 20 (kW) But' B·P· -_ x Number of cylinders
60x1000
= 0.2514 kg/kWh ...Ans. 1t (_5.1.'\ 9
2

16.18 ,= pmb x 4 x \100) . x 100

Example 5.19.30
2800 4
A four cylinder petrol engine has bore of 5.7 cm and stroke x-2- x (60·x 1000)
9 cm. Its rated speed is 2800 rpm and it is tested at this
speed against a brake which has torque ann of 0.356 m. The :. Pmb = 154848 Nfm2 : 7..549 bar ...Ans.
net brake load is 155 Newton and fuel . consumption is
(ill) Brake thermal efficiency (TJi)
6.74 litre/hr. The specific gravity of petrol used is 0.735 and it
has low calorific value of 44200 kJ/kg. A Morse test is carried B.P. 16.18
out and cylinders are cut out in the order of 1, 2, 3 and 4 with T}b = ffitX
. C.V. =(1.376 x 10 - ~ 44200
corresponding brake loads of 111, 106.5, 104.2 and
· 111 Newtons respectively. Calculate for this speed, engine = 0.266 or 26.6 % ...Ans.
torque, brake mean effective pressure, brake thennal
(iv) Brake specific fuel consumption (b.s.f.c)
efficiency, specific fuel consumption, mechanical efficiency
and indicated mean effective pressure.
b.s.f.c.
~ =1.37616.18
= B.P. x w-3 x 3600 (kg/kWh)
Solution:

Given : =5.7 cm, Stroke, L = 9 cm,

Bore, d
= 0.3062 kg/kWh ...Ans• .
Rated speed, N =2800 rpm, (v) Mechanical efficiency (t)m) and CPm1>
Torque or brake arm, ~ =0.356 m,
Indicated load,
Net brake load, (W - S) =ISSN
C.V = 44200.kJ/kg,
(W_- S)1 =-111 N, (W-S)2 =106.5 N, 11 = (W - S) - (W - S)1 = 155 - 111 =4 4 N

(W - S)3 = 104.2 N, (W-S)4 =111 N I2 = (W - S) - (W - _S)2 =l5S - 106.S =48.5 N

l3 = (W-S) - (W - S)1 = lSS - 104.2 = 50.8 N

Li = (W - S) - (W - S)4 =155 - 111 = 44 N

Scanned with Carnscanoer

 ·., - .. ,~
•
. • . =-'-·. . ,,

andPerto~
~ l.C. En Ines MU·Sem. V·Mech 6-51
i.e. F1 = 178 N, F2 a 187 N, F, = 18~ N, F4 == 182 N
:. I = 44 +48.5 +50.8 +44 = 187.3 N
Fuel consumption, V1 = 0.568 litre in 30 seconds
Tlm = Brake load, (W-S) 155
Indicated load (I) = 187.3
= 0.568 x 1o- 3 m3 in 30 llCcond
= 0.8276or82.76% ...Ans.
sin specific gravity = 0.73, C.V. =43000 kJ/kg,
P111b 7.549
Al so.rim= - ---
Pml -0.8276 t = 30 seconds, m. = 14 kg/kg of fuel I

:. Indicated mean effeetivo pressure, t, = 760°C, CPI = 1.015 kJ/kg K

Pmti 7.549
= 18°C, to = 56°C,
Pm1 = Tlm =0,8276 = 9.1216 bar ...Ans. •1
ambient temp., t'0 =21°C,
ExampleS.19.31 ,
mw = 0.28 kg/s,
. During a trial on a four cylinder petrol engine running at Brake Power (B) and Indicated power (I)
50 rev/s, the brake load was 267 N when all cylinders were
working. When each cylinder was cut In tum, and speed Brake Power (II)
returned to 50 rev/s, the brake readings were 178 N, 161 N,
182 N and 182 N. When all cylinders are working
Using these readings, determine the brake power of the F • N _ 267 x 50 =29.34 kW ...Ans,
engine and estimate the Indicated power and mechanical B = 455 - 455
efficiency.
~ _ 11sxso = 1956kW
For the brake, Brake power = ~;~ , where F =brake load In B, = 455 455 .

newtons and N in rev/s. The following results were obtained F •N 187 x 50

during the trail : B
2
= 45s 2
= 455 = 20.55 kW
Fuel consumption = 0.568 litre In 30 seconds
Specific gravity of fuel= 0.72
B
3
= B4, since F3 = F4 = 182 N

Calorific value of fuel =43000 kJ/kg F3 • N

:. B 3 = B 4 =455 =
182 x 50 .
=20kW
455
Air-fuel ratio = 14 : 1
Exhaust temperature = 760°C .
Indlca.t ed power (I)
Specific heat capacity of exhaust
gas= 1.015 kJ/kg K
Cooling water inlet temperature =18°C = ·4x 29.34-(19.56 + 20.55 + 20 + 20)
_Cooling water outlet temperature ~ 56°C
Cooling water flow rate =0.28 kg/s = 37.25 kW ...Am.
Ambient temperature= 21°c
From these resultS, draw up the heat balance sheet In kJ/s Mechanical efficiency (flm)
and as a percentage of energy supplied.
TJ111 = 'B.P. 29.34
"f.P." =37Ts m
= 0.7877 or 78•77 -to ".Am.
Solution:
Heat balance sheet on kJ/s and percentage basis
Given : N = 50 rev/s,
(i) _Mass flow rate of fuel,
Brake load when all cylinders working, F = 267 N; .
v,
Brake Joad when cylinders are cut-out successively mr = t x sp.gr x density of water

_ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ -~«<'<v~.WJ:~N;~$~~
_ _ _ __........

Seamed with camScann@f

 ,.
.
.
'
""~ '·' .-
. ':'"'
·)if ·Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
.-~1.c. 3 5-52
' - - !9568x10- ) Enaine Testing and Pertorman~
::: · 30 .x 0.72 x 1000 ==0.01363 kg/s
Example S.19.32

f{earsupplied in fuel= m, x C.V = 0.01363 x 43000 A four cylinder four·stroke engine of 100 x 120 mm cylinder
,
size was tested' at 1600 rpm and the following rea
· dings were
=586.1 kJ/s obtained:
Fuel consumption =0.21 litres/min
. cu> aeat utilised Specific gravity of fuel= 0.74
Net load on brake = 400 N .
.. '
(a) In B.P. = 29.34 kW or kJ/s
Constant of dynamometer, K =20380 and
(b) Carried away by cooling water BP - ·w (N) N (rpm)··. . kW
.• - K rn

=
Calorific value of fuel 44 MJ/kg
Assuming so% mechanical efficiency, calculate:
= 0.28 x 4.187 x (56- 18) =44.55 kJ/s (I) Brake thermal efficiency
(If) Indicated thermal efficiency
(c) In exhaust gases= m' x cp, (t, - ~)
(iii) B.S.F.C.
But m, = (m. + 1) m, (iv) IMEP
Solution:
= (14 + 1) 0.01363 = 0.2045 kg/s
Given : No. of cylind~rs, n, =4,
:. Heat carried by exhaust gases
bore, d = 100 mm =0.1 m,
: 0.2045X1.015 X(760-21)
stroke, L = 120 mm= 0.12 m, Brake load, W =400 N,
= 153.4 kJ/s
c.v. = 44 MJ/kg =44000 kl/kg,
(d) Heat loss unaccounted for due to radiation etc.
Mechanical efficiency, Tim =0.8,
=H.S - Heat used in (B.P. +Cooling water+ Exhaust gases)
· = 0.27 litres1·mm.,
Fuel consumption, Yr · N-- 1600 rpm.
= 586. l -(29.34 + 44.55 + 153.4)
.;. Mass flow rate of fuel consumption,
= 358.8 kJ/s
Heat balance sheet in kJ/s
m r = Yr (-:1~ x Sp.gr x density of water
.:
"Heat
.:: .
= (0.27 x 10-3) x 0.74 x 1000 =0.1998 kg/min.
' IUpplJed
(i) Brake thermal efficiency (rti)
(a) (b)
WN
Brake Power (B.P.) = 20380
In fuel 586.1 100 8.P 29.34 5.006 400x 1600
= 20380 =3 t.4 kW
cooling water 44.55 7.601
exhaust gases 153.40 26.173 Brake thennal efficiency,

Unaccounted 358.8 61.220 T]b = . ( B.P.

kg) =
31.4
(0.1998:\ 44000
for m, \-s- x C.V \. 60 ) x
Total 586.1 100 586.1 · 100

'·-

Sconned with ComSctlnoer

~ 1.C: Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 5.53
. Engine Testing and Perto~
~
= 0.2143 or 21.43 % ...Ans. · Solution:
Given : Number of cylinders, n1 = 4,
(II) Indicated thermal efficiency (11 )
1

.!k 0.2143 Bore, d = 75 mm= 0.075 m,

'll, = t'lm = Q:s =0.2679 or 26.79% . '·, ••.Ans. .
stroke, L = 100 mm =0.1 m, Ille = 4.92 kg/hr .
(ill) Brake specific fuel consumption (B.S.F.C.)
. c.v. = 44 M1/kg=44000 kJ/kg, .
= rite(kSJm)
_ (0. 19~8 x.60) ''1 • vc = 115 cc= 115 x ~o
-6
m,
3

B.P. (kW) - 31.4

y = 1.4, B.P. = 15.24 kW,
= 0.3818 kg/kWh ...Ans.
B, = 10.45 kW, B2 = 10.38 kW,
(lv) Indicated menn effective pressure (pm1)

Ip B.P. 3.14 a3 = 10.23 kW, B4 = 10.45kW

· · == Tlm = o.8 == 39.25 kW
(a) LP. of each cylinder
B ut, I .P. = pmix4
7t 2 N
d xLx2 xn 1 x
1 kW
60000 I.P. of 1st cylinder, 11 = B - B 1 = 15.24- 10.45

39.25 = Pmi x4
7t 1600
(0.1) >:< 0.12 x-- x 4 x
2 1 = 4.79kW
2 60000 ···Ans.

.·. Pm1 == 7.809 X 10s N/m

2
=7.809 bar ...Ans. J.P. of 2nd cylinder, J2 = B - B 2 = 15.24 - 10.38

· = 4.S6kW ···Ans.
I.P. of 3111 cylinder, JJ .= B - B 3 = 15.24- 10.23

= 5.0lkW ••• Ans.

J.P. ~f 4th cylinder, J4 = B - B 4 = 15.24 - 10.45

= 4.79kW •••Am.

I.P. of the engine, J = JI + 12 + 13 + J4

= 4.79 + 4.86 + 5.01 + 4.79 ,-'

= 19.45 kW ~..Am.

(b) Mecbanieal efficiency, Tim

B.P. . 15.24
Tim = I.P. = 19.45

= 0.7835 or 78.35 % ... Am.

(c) Air standard efficiency, Tl.

7t 2 . 7t (7~2 100
Stroke volume, Vs = 4d L =4 x \lO) x 10

= 441.78 cc

S1.:;,mr1'l.~ w 1lh CamSc:unL'f

 .: fLi.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
5-54 . . I

·:.. . . . . Vs+ Ve 441 78 Engine Testing and Performance

. . 'inpreSSion ratio, r = V =- · + I ts . r
-;. co c 115 - =4.84
:. No. of strokes/min, n ~ ~ =J500, · ~ =4.465 -~g!hr,
n=t l · I
'la ...:.{)(Y-1)= 1....:- _
r (4.84)o.4 c.v. ='43 mJ/kg =43000 kJ/kg, ,··,

= 0.4678 or 46.78 % . ·
••.Ans. Tb = 52.5 Nm, T1 =37.8 Nm, T2 = 36.7 Nm•
(d) . Brake thermal, 1)b and indicated the
. .
tJ, emc1enc1es
nnaJ, T3 = 36.4 Nin, T, =37.6 Nm.
(i) Brake power
'lb = B.P. _ 15.24
Tbx 21t N 52.5 x2 X1t x 3000
UlrX C.V - (.4.92.'\
.
-
\3600) x 44000
(B.P.) = 60 x 1000 - 60000 . . .

= 0.2534 or 25.34 % •••Ans.

= 16.49kW ...Ans.

(U) Indicated ~wer (l.P.)

1) - ~ 25.34
i - flm = 0.7835 =J2.34 % ... Ans.

(e) b.s.f.c_ B .P. =~ =15:24

4.92
=0.3228 kg/kWh ... Ans.
.= 4 x 52.5 -(37.8 + 36.7 + 36.4 +37.6) =61.5 Nm
T1 x 21t x N 61.5 x 21t x 3000
(() Relath•e efficiency w.r.t. B.P. and LP. .:. I.P. = 60000 .. = 60000 .

(i) Based on B.P. : = 19.32kW ...Ans.

T]b 25.34 (ill) Brake specific fuel consumption .
Tlr = ~ = 4638 = 0.5416 or 54.16 % •••Ans.
D1r
(U) Based on I.P : B.S.F.C = B.P =(4.465) x 16.41 9 ,
Tli 32.34
. llr = ;--= 46.78 = O.7007 or 70.07 % •••Ans.
= 0.2708 kg/kWh ••.Ans.
a
(iv) Indicated specific fuel consumption
'
,Example s.19.34 IMIO•lJWwj
I• • ' • I
D1r 4.465 .
;The fo!Jowing particulars refer to a Morse test on a fou/ I.S.F.C. = I.P =19_32 =0.2311 kg/kWh ••.Ans.
'cylinder, four stroke petrol engine, Cylinder bore = 60 mm, . J
'~e = 90 mm, R.P.M =3000, ' i
! (v) Mechanical efficiency
'fuel consumption= 4.465 kg/hr, . ,! B.P 16.49
"S;_.v_ot fua!=43 MJJkg :..:/:. ·J
. ___ ·__
11m = T.P =19_32 =0.8535 or 85.35% ••.Ans.

No.2 . Ho. 3 · . . Ho:{ -:

Example 5.19.35
cyllnder cyfJnder cy11~-
cut-otr . cut-off .: cut.Off;: A four cylinder, four stroke petrol engine uses air-fuel ratio of
·Brake 52.5 :rl.B 16 : 1. It developed an output of 72 kW at 2400 rpm. Other
ro(que : data available on test is :
_· (Nm) -
=80 %,
Mechanical efficiency
;0etennine brake power, indicated power, B.S .F.C., . ~.s.i:.c;'
. . • , • . . -~ ~ •.~· 7 ~-{~ Air standard efficiency =54 %,
~8!1~ rri~hanrcal efficie11cy. _., · ·.: .... .-_: _ ·:.,.... >
Relative efficiency =70 %,
Solution: Calorific value of fuel used = 45000 kJ/kg;
Given : d = 60 mm =0.06 m, Volumetric efficiency = 78%;
L =90 mm =0.09 m, N =3000 rpm, Stroke =1.20 x diameter.
Suction conditions =1 bar, 27°C

&et
 -
!
! Engine Testing and Perfo~ce ,
~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 5-55

De~ennin~ the following : •• Volume~

f mixture supplied/S, '
· ·\ ·
. ·.·
(i) compression ratio . mRT o:os995 x 287 xp7 + 273) .
v = =---
p = 1 x 10 .
(ii) . indicated thennal . efficiency and . brake thennal
I
•I efficiency 3
'i (iii) b.s.f.c. · = o.07745 IIl /s .
(iv) bore and stroke. .
.v
Solution: flv = swept volume/s
I
I (i) Compression ratio
:. swept volume/s .. =
0.01145
0.78
=9.929 x 10-2 m3/s
1 - -·
Air standard efficiency-. 11. = 1 - (r)y-1
But,
1
= (~ d2 x L) x Number of cylinders
0.54 =. 1
Swept volu111e/s
- N -.
:. Co~pi:ession ratio, r = 6.97
x2)(60
· (ii) Indicated thermal efficiency and brake thermal
efficiency 7t 2 240
9.929xl0-2 = 4 xd xl.2dx4x2x60
Indicated thenrutl efficiency Tli
Relative efficiency, 11, =
Air standard efficiency Tla Bore, d = 0.1096 m or 10.96 cm -Ans.

• Tli = 0.7 x 0.54 = 0.378 or 37.8% ••.ADS. = 1.2 d =13.15 cm

fib = fli X Tlm := 0.378 X 0.8

= 0.3024 or 30.24 % ...Ans.

(ill) b. s. f. c.

B.P.
fib =
·llirxc.v.
7
:.111r = _ ;
0 3024 45000
kg/s = 0.005291 kg/s

= 19.047 kg/hr.

b.s.f.c. = ~=
B.P. 19.047 =0.2645 kg/kWh ••.Ans.
72 Solution:
(iv) Bore and Stroke
Given: N = 1500 rpm, B.P. (at full load)= 50kW,

Since, air-fuel ratio = 16 : 1 0

Slope ofWillan's line = 8 ,
:. Mass of mixture supplied = (1 +AF. ratio) tDr
ffir at 10% load = 2.46 kg/hr ,
= (1+16) x 0.005291
c.v. = 42 MJ/kg = 42000 kJ/kg
= 0.08995 kg/s Refer Fig. P. 5.19.36. Tue willan's line bas been drawn
Since,pV = mRT according to given data. •
 ' .. . ,··,.. ·.
. ~ ...

.. Engine rest1np and r

CD
CD
-· ~ ~
CD
"
"O ~
"O "O
.B .B .B 7'
.e ~
..,~
j.
... ~
l .

.
~ '
.:..·
~ . r
'C'
~4
ti)
~
-
·E
- c

0 5 10 15 ·20 25 45 50

r+------------- x - - - - - • - - - 2 5 - - - ' - - - load_. (kW)

Fig. P. 5.19~
(I) Frictional power (F.P) · B.P. 30
fib = . = 3.lS 000
The negative intercept (x) on X-axis represents the F.P. m,x C.V. 3600 x 42

10% of load =0.1 x B.P. at full load = 0.8163 or 81.63 % •••Ans.

= 0.1 xSO=SkW (Iv) Mechanical efficiency at 40% load i.e. at B.P.

40% of load = 0.4 x SO = 20 kW =0.4 x SO= 20 kW

B.P. 20
60% of load = 0.6 x 50 =30 kW Tim = I.P. (= B.P. + F.P.) = 20 + 84.13

By measurements, ~at B = 3.15 kg/hr= BO and ~at = 0.192or19.2% ...Ans.

F =2.6 kg/hr= SF (v) Brake torque, Tat 40% load i.e. at B.P. = 20 kW:
Consider similar As ABC and EDB,
B.P. = T~N kW
BO AR . 3.15 _ 2.46
0 E = ER' ~ + (30 - 5) - x
20 =
Tx2n:x 1500
60000
x = 89.13 kW
T = 127.4Nm ••• Ans.
F.P = x-OR=x-5
= 89.13-5 =84.13 kW •••Ans.

(li) Fuel consumption at 60% load

= 3.15 kg/hr (from above) ••• Ans. Section I : Combustion In C.I. Engines
(ill) Brake thermal efficiency at 60% load
The aim of testing of engines is to confirm the engine
i.e. at B.P. =30kW performance as per design specification and justify the
rating of the engine.

Scanned Wilh camscanner

 .... .;
' . . .
,'
r
l.
.· ; .
/
~ .,

' .
J•

I: . /J~ l.C.-En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech) 5-57

r'
ii .
I : .··~
lnd.icated power (l.P.) of the engine represents power

I developed within the cylinder. It can be determined by :

(i) Engine indicator (mechanical type)
Volumetric efficiency•
Mass of actual charge inducted _
1/
11 Mass of change corresponding to swept volume at atm. Po and To
(ii) Farnborough balanced engine indicator

(ill) Electrical indicator .P ) . It represents the mechanical

Fricdon power (F • • .
Brake power (B.P.) rep~sents the useful power
.
fricuon 1osses
·and the
pumping losses of the engine.

available at the crankshaft. F.P. :: J.P. - B.P.

Methods of its measurement by various dynamometers
. · can be measured by following methods .
are : Friction _Power . .
(i) By measurement ofl.P. and B.P.
(i) Prony brake
(ii) Rope brake (ii) Willan's line method

(iii) Hydraulic dynamometer (iii) Mo£Se test for multi-cylinder engines

(iv) Swinging field dynamometer J.P. · :: 4B - (B 1 + B 2 + B 3 + B 4)

(v) Eddy current dynamometer

(iv) Motoring test
. (vi) Transmission dynamometers t methods include volumetric and
FueI measu remen
PmALn gravimetric type flowmeters . .
l.P. = 60000 (kW), n
Measurement of air consumption with the help of
= number of working stroke box type air flow meter is .g iven as :
N .
n = 2 (four stroke engine) V = Cd A °'12g (Ml)air

n = N (Two stroke engine) = c,A'\f2g· :: ·(AH).

Area of indicator diagram .
Pm . dicator di agram x Spnng constant K
Length o f 10 ... According to Equation (5.14.2)
(W - S) &, x 21t N W)
B.P. = 60000 (k

B.P.
= Torque x 21t N kW ...According to Equation (5.14.3)
' 60000
· · B.P. Another method used for air consumption is viscous
Mechanical efficiency, Tim= LP.
air flow meter.
Heat balance sheet represents the acco\Int of energy
Dlr
b.s.f.c. = B.P. x 3600 (kg/kWh) supplied in fueland its corresponding expenditure. It is
drawn either on kl/min basis or on percentage basis.
Thermal efficiencies,
(a) Heat supplied
I.P. B.P.
Tli = ; llb = .
~xc.v. IDtX C.V. Heat supplied = ffir x C.V. (kl/min)
Indicator tbennal efficiency !Ji (b) Heat energy utilised/expenditure
Relative efficiency, Tlr - Air standard efficiency Tia
(i) In B.P. = B.P. x 60 kl/min
Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle, (ii) Rejected to cooling water

Scon ned w ith camsconner

 -. .- . .
-:~ ·:·~~ ~-~~;~ :
{~;;:> :· ,· _,
~ ,_. .? ... . ..
-:-~ ~ . .
t:'.:i1i.c. Engines (MU-Sam; V•Mech)
5-58
".~t : ._;.·;::::: ~ x cpl\' x (lwo - fwi) kl/min '
. En ine Testin and Performance .
~.... ~- .: .., ,.. ' .
0.2
_ ust gases =m c <
::,.;::-:::)•.carried away by exha
;". (J.ll . • . .
'" .
. . .. _ I
x pg t1 - fo)
.
0 1scuss the following methods for measu~errient of ·
indicated power of an engine: . .
.Heat losses unaccounted for like in radi · · (a) : By mechanical engine indicator [Section 521 ·
· . aaon etc. (b
difference)= (a)- (b) · y
(b) By electronic indicator (Section 5.4) ·
VCR engines were developed with air t h 0. 3 . . · · • S tvnAS of
. . o ave high What is a dynamameter? Name the vanou .,,,-
. specific output. The output can be increased by : dynamometers used with . their classification•

1. Iocreasin~ speed of engine but it has high friction (Section 5.5) .

· - · - - meter
and pumpmg losses, low volumetric eu: . 0. 4 Discuss the working of Prony type of dynamo
. 111c1ency
. and high inertia loads. with the help of a neat sketch.' [Section 5.5.2)

2. By turbocharging but it .increases the peak 0.5 Discus~ the principl~ of working of 8 hydraulic
pressures, has low isentropic efficiency at wide dynamometer. [Section 5.5.3J
oo: .. tl
range of pressure · ratio . and .... ows. I t ts
. 0.6 What are· the advantages
· · ·ng tielc:i
of using a swing•
unsuitable for automotive applications since at low dynamometer ? (Section 5.5AJ
speeds the output is low. .
Q.7 Discuss the principle of working of an eddy current
3. ·vcR engines -have solved the problem ~f peak dynamometer. Enumerate its advantages.
pressures by reducing the C.R. at high loads and [Section 5.5.5J
increasing C.R at low loads. Q.8 Discuss the working of a mechanical type of
Variable compression ratio can be achieved either by transmission dynamometer. [Section 5.5.6}
varying the clearance volume or both by changing the 0.9 Discuss the importance of measurement of frictional
·clearance volume and stroke length. power. What are the methods used to find F.P.?

Performance of VCR engine : [Section 5.6J

Q.10 What Is Willan's line method? To which type of ·
1. It has high output low weight to pressure ratio for
engine it is applicable? (s8ctlon 5.6.2}
same capacity engine as compared to fixed C.R.
engine. Q. 11 Write short notes on :
(i) Importance of heat balance sheet
2. It has low thermal loads.
(Section 5.16J
3. It has low thermal efficiency at high loads with
(ii) Various factors affecting volumetric efficiency.
increased s.f.c.
[Section 5.9J
4. Has less engine noise.
a. 12 Discuss the motoring method of measuring frictional
5. Has very good performance at idling and starting
power of an engine. Does this method gives
due to use of higher C.R. accurate results? (Section 5.6.4}
6. Has multifuel capability since it uses high C.R. at
Q. 13 Define l.P., B.P., F.P. and various efficiencies as
low and part loads.
applied to S.I. and C.I. engines.
(Sections 5.1.3, 5.7, 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11}
Ir:lexerc1s~~?~f
_ .:.- ~ ~ .......... >· ·~ .......... ~, ..
Q.14 Define brake specific fuel consumption and state its
[ Note : For answers please refer the section number importance. (Section 5.12)

indicated in bracket.} Q. 15 Discuss the volumetric method of fuel

measurement. What are its disadvantages?
Theory
[Section 5.9)
Q.1 State the essential tests which are required to be
perfonned on an l.C. engine for evaluation of its
a. 16 Discuss the working of orifice fuel flowmeter for
measurement of fuel consumption. [Section 5.13.2]
perfonnance. (Section 5.1.4J
 '" ~ .- ~
. : ·

~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

..

Q 17
• Desen'be the working of air flowmeter.
[Section 5.14.1]
5-59

Q.22 Discuss varioUs losses In l.C. engine.

[Section 5.16]
. -·
Engine Testing and Perfo~· ·

Q.18 Discuss the working of Alcock· viscous.air flowmeter. Q.23 · Explain the laboratory method for determination of
Enumerate its advantages over air · box type air mechanical efficiency · of a multicylinder petroi
flo\Ymeter. [Section 5.14.2] engine. State clear1y the precautions to be taken to
get accurate results. [Section 5.6.3]
Q.19 . .What do you understand· by heat balance sheet of
an engine? Why friction power. loss of an engine Is Q.24 Write a brief exp.lanatory ·note on heat balance
not reflected In such a heat balance sheet? sheet (Section 5.16)
CSectJon 5.1 SJ ·
Q.25 Discuss the methods by which the specific output,
Q.20 Define ·volumetric efficiency and explain its can be achieved and the problem associated With
Importance In l.C. engines. [Section 5.9) such systems. [Section 5.20)
Q.21 Explain the laboratory method to determine the air- o. 26 Discuss the methods of obtaining variable C.R. in
fuel ratio for an f.C. engine. VCR engines. [Section 5.20.1)
[Sections 5.13.1 and 5.14~1]
Q. 27 What are the advantages of VCR engines ?
[Section 5.20.2)
ClClQ

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Exhaust Emissions and Its Control

Syllabus

Constituents of exhaust eml . ·

NOx, HC co and part! ~sion at Its h~nnful effect on environment and human health, Formation of
particulat~ traps Exha tcGu ate emts~lons, Methods of controlling emissions; Catalytic convertors,
' us as Reclrculatlon, EURO and BHARAT norms.

Sources of Air Pollutants

The present need, therefore, is to understand and
attempt to minimise the emissions from I.C. engines.
6.1 Introduction to Engine Emissions
..This will involve the knowledge of design parameters
as well ns opernting parameters thnt affect the emission
In the vnst atmosphere and relatively meagre land share
content and means of achieving minimum possible
of the Universe, about half to one kg of pollutant
pollution by an automobile.
spilled over by an automobile in a dny is not worth a
mention. But, the same fact becomes nlnnning when 6.2 The Atmospheric Air
crores of vehicles of the world do the same addition
everyday which causes air pollution in the Conn of The atmospheric nir is made up of 78% Nitrogen (N2),
21 % Oxygen (02) by volume and remaining other
million tonnes of pollutants like carbon monoxide
(CO), hydrocarbons (HC) nnd oxides of nitrogen gases and particulntes like argon, carbon-dioxide, dust
(NO,). particles ~tc.

Studies carried out in February 1999 on persons Air is required for breathing and contents of pure air as
performing traffic control duties in Delhi indicnted thnt such nre healthy.
nbout 90% of them hnd unacceptable levels of lead However, certain toxic gases and substances which are
content in their blood. Persons with 6 to 7 years of emitted by various machinery, plnnts, equipment etc.
service, a very high percentage were found to have and mixed with atmospheric air are very harmful to
respiratory disorders and eye problems. human beings, animals and plants. These undesirable
Such dangerous effects of internal combustion (l.C.) gnses nnd substances in the air are called air pollutants.
engine emissions are the reason behind the Supreme Some of the pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO),
Court order of year April 99 to ban the use of vehicles Oxides of nitrogen (NO.). Sulphur dioxide (S02),
having more than 15 years of service. After April 2000, Hydrocarbons (HC), soot, aldehydes, suspended
no vehicle was to be registered in Delhi if it does not particulnte matters (SPM), compounds of sulphur nnd
conform to Euro II nom1s of emission. lend etc.
 q

. ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 6-2 Exhaust Emissions and Its Control
"
:6 ~3 · Sources of Air Pollutants hemoglobin, in the blood and reduces : 'its.· ox~geii '
carrying capacity to body tissues:
Air pollutants such as HC, CO, NO", the product of
~ombustion and soot are produced by burning of. items -+ 2. · Hydrocarbons (BC)
like coal, wood, fuel oil etc. ·These pollutants escape
and released to atmosphere. HC is raw/unburnt fuel escaping to atmosphere. Severa)
The major sources of air pollutants are : types of HC are contained in the fuel and most
(a) Factories predominant is octane (Cg H11J· '
(b) Thermoelectric power plants
Major sources of HC emissions are the engines of
{c) · Automobiles
automobiles, aircrafts, ships, locomotives · and oil
{d) Static oil, petrol and diesel engines
refineries.
(e) Incinerators. ·
- -· ·· HC emissions are minimum with' chemically correct
(f) Aircrafts; ships and train engines
mixtures and these are more pronounced at rich and
(g) Explosive materials
(h) Refineries. lean mixtures.
HC cause irritation in respiratory system.
Syllabus Topic : Constituents of exhaust emission· _. 3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO")
at its Harmful Effects on Environment and Human
There are several oxides of nitrogen like NO, N02,
Health
N20 • N2o3 etc• Hence for . converi.ience, oxides of N2
are expressed as NOx.
6.4 Major Air Pollutants and their .
Harmful Effects on Human Beings NOx are produced when N 2 and 0 2 combine at higher
and Plants temperature ranging fro.in 1100° C upwards.

Unlike CO and HC which are Conned due · to ·

Major Air Pollutants incomplete · combustion. . NOx is fon:i:t.ed during
complete combustion as highest temperature are
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO) reached during this period.
. .

2. Hydrocarbons (HC) Automobiles, factories, power generation plants and

petroleum refineries are the main sources of NOx- .
3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NO,J
Out of the known compounds of N2 and 0 2,' NO and
4.Soot · N02 affect the health most adversely. ·

5. Aldehydes NO,. irritates the eyes, nose and throat and it causes
coughing, headache and d~age lo lungs.
6. S02 , H:zS and Lead
. N02 is most poisonous with penetrating odour which
7. Suspended Parti~late Matters (SPM) can destroy lung's tissues.
_. 4. Soot
Fig. C6.l : ~~jor A1r Pollutants
Soot are solid particles of pure carbon. They get
-+ 1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
suspended in the air and are breathed in by humans and
CO is produced by incomplete combustion of fuel, animals. Their size is few microns. ·
generally caused by insufficient oxygen.
Maximum amount of soot is produced at full load by
CO c.a uses headache, nausea and breathlng problems. diesel engines. Soot is very danger~us to health. as it
Tiris gas bas strong affinity to combine with roduces Jun cancer.

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. d Its control
(. :.·.: · ~ 5. Aldebydes
:-Exhaust Emissions an

AJdehydes are formed in dieseJ . · -

·· - engmes mostly 8 t 1'dlin . Eichaust emissions
· ·. speed due to cold flames. g (Exhaust pipe.: co, HC, NOx)
··.
· AJdehydes cause unpleasant JI
. . sme due to pungent
odour from diesel fuel and cau . . . •
ses Imtation to eyes and
nose.
_. 6. SOz, HiS and Lead
Refuelng IOss evaporaave emlssk>OS
(Fuel tank : HC) (Crankcase ! HC)
Toxic gas S02 and bad smell of H
. gas 2S are formed on
. Fig. 6.5.1
burnmg of sulphur present in petrol
eum products.
Poisonous lead compounds al 6.5.1 ' Emission of Pollutants from S.I.
are so released to
atmosphere if TEL and TML are dd d . Engines
..
additive or dopes.
a e JD petrol as an ..+ (MU· Dec.16)
Universit Question
-+ 7. Suspended Particulate Matters (SPM)

Particulates are ash ' ....uuun

nn..s..- ( •
solids) and liquids like
sulphuric acid vapours • These ...........
n . - h•><•v'I
1Yp
rod uced on 1. Emission from exhaust
burning of diesel fuel.
When complete combustion· of gasoline takes place in
Size of SPM is generally Jess than 100 µm and they engine cylinders, the exhaust gases should ideatly
remain suspended in atmospheric air for Jong time. contain C02 and water vapours as per ihe following
reaction:
SPMs enter the body through respiratory system.
Although l:irge size SPMs arc arrested/stopped by nasal 2C8 H18 +2502 ~16C02 +18H20
hair and also lr.lpped by nasal mucus linings of nose But the above reaction does not happen practically and
cavity, bowe\'er, fine p:uticles of size less than JO µm certain by-products are also produced due to
rexh resp.ira!.ory system and p:uticles of size Jess than incomplete combustion for various reasons. These by-

I µm reach lungs and C3USC bronchitis and cardiac product of gasoline engines are given below :

diseases. (a) Carbon monoxide (CO) : It is produced by

incomplete combustion of gasoline, which is
Syllabus Topic : Exhaust Emissions from l.C. caused due to inadequacy of oxygen during the
Engines NOri HC, CO and Particulate Emissions combustion, or due to dissociation of C02 at high
combustion temperatures.
6.5 Alr Pollutants Produced by l.C.
(b) Hydrocarbons (HC): Unburnt HC emissions are
Engines
the result of incomplete combustion which are

.+ (MU - May 17) emitted through exhaust of the S.I. engines.

(c) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOz) : Oxides of nitrogen
0. Explain the Eng:ne Pa!Jufion and the NORMS. are produced when 0 2 and N 2 of atmospheric air
. ·..
·t:·"-RlII'•!IW combine inside combustion chamber at
temperatures beyond 1100° C. However, a large
Air pollutants from automobiles are produced by
part of the nitric oxides is dissociated in N 2 and
burning or evaporation of engine fuels.
0 2 at low temperatures during expansion and
exhaust strokes. As a result NOx emissions are
considerabl reduced in exhaust.

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ExtUtust Emissions and lta ~~ . .

·'

~I.e. Engines (MU-Seni. ~-Mech)

'

·2. Evaporation of Gasoline 6.5.2

Emission of Pollutants froin Dleaei 7
Engines
l)irect escape of gasoline (HC) to atmosphere takeS Emissions from diesel engines· are same as those froni
place by evaporation from the following .sJstems of SI . but concentration of various pollutants \' .
pe'!oJ engwes . Cltiea
engines: as djscussed below :
(a) Fuel tank : Gasoline (HC) escaPe.s to atmosphere
1. CarbOn Monoxide (CO)
while being filled into fuel tanks. It also escapes Carbon monoxide is produced by diesel engincg aiao
through vent plug of the fuel tank which is open . concentration is quite Jess as eomn.,._
but Jts - -__.cu_. to
to atmosphere ·for breathing. Release of raw gasoline engines.
gasoline also increases due to higher temperature . nerally less than 2% in diesel CO&ines
fi~P ~
in summer and during engine operation. ared to S% produced by gasoline engines.
comp .
- (b) Carburettor : Float chamber of the carburettor is Hydrocarbons (HC)
2.
vented to. atmosphere from where gasoline
HC emi~sion from diesel engines is also significant.
escapes. It also escapes from the carburettor,
Presence of carbon particles (soot) in the flue gases is
when the engine has run for some time at load
the cause of black smoke in diesel engine exhaust,
and stopped. Due to high engine temperature at
specially during racing periods.
this time, gasoline boils in carburettor and its
escape to atmosphere increases. This is called 3. · Oxides of Nitrogen (NOJ
~'hot soaking". Diesel engines produce very high NOx during

Fuel tank and carburettor emit fuel vapours amounting acceleration .period as highest temperature is reached
15% to 25% HC of total emissions. due to complete combustion. This suits NOx formation
as discussed earlier.
3. Crankcase blowby
4. Aldehydes and other emissions
Leakage of combustion g~es (both burnt and unburnt
.flue gases) to engine crankcase due to gap between AJdehydes are more pronounced in diesel engines.

cylinder and piston rings (due to wear) is ca11ed

AJdehydes in diesel fuel Jias pungent odour.
· 'blowby'. Uobwnt gasoline (HC) thus gets released to H
2
s and S02 gases are formed on burning of sulphur
atmosphere from crankcase through breather. It present in die.sel.
consists of 25 to 35% of HC of total emissions. SPMs like ash dust, H2 S04 etc. are also produced in

Piston blowby increases with speed, in particular when diesel engine exhaust

the wear of piston and cylinder bore increases. The 5. Smoke and particulate
effect of blowby is to reduce C.R. and power
Smoke represents the visible products of combustion
developed. It may also cause the following.
caused by poor combustion of fuel and air.
(i) High concentration of combustible air-fuel
The colour of smok~ may be white smoke or black
mixture could cause explosion in crankcase. smoke.
(ii) Partially burnt mixture of fuel and air and fully
Generally, white smoke is caused by liquid droplets of
burnt vapour fumes will condense and
lubricating and fuel oil and it appears in exhaust under
contaminate the engine's lubricating oil.
conditions of cold starting, idling and low loads.

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;· .· .-·fdJ.C· En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

~- . 6-S ..
. JI."bite smoke Js omened except t . .. Exhaust EmiSsions and Its eontrOI
· , . ·· · ·
. a COid sta
and no load or· low load l'llDDin rting Black smo~e in exhaust is c~used by . inc~mple~
g of engine, ft
fOCficates that the engine Piston rings _combustion of fuel. Amount of black smoke in,~xbaust
and needs replacement. .. , are worn out increases with incre"ase in load on the ·engine.

·6.6 Causes of Production ot Al P ·

~ r ollutants In Automobfles

14 :...__ Theoretical
700
I air - fuel ratio .. ,
I
12 I
600 I 3000
t I
.f
t
co
10 HC 500
(PPM)
' ,•
2500 NOx
(PPM)
(%) 8 400 2000

6 300 1500

4 200 1000

2 100 500
co
0 0

-
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Air - fuel ratio

Fig.6.6.1

In order to obtain complete combustion, 15.2 kg of air combustion chamber, CO will still be produced due to
the following reasons :
is required for 1 kg of fuel (octane). If less air is supplied to
(a) Initially CO is formed, which gets converted to
combustion chamber, incomplete combustion results
C02 on further oxidation. But since conversion
causing production of CO, NOx , HC and other pollutants. reaction from CO to C02 is slow, complete CO
However, even if correct AIF ratio is maintained, pollutants does not get converted to C02 and exhausted as
such.
will still_be produced as a result of incomplete combustion
(b) Uneven combustion occurs . 'due to uneven
due to other reasons discussed below. (Refer Fig. 6.6.1.) distribution o_f fuel in combustion chamber.

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO) (c) Aame does not reach in quenching zones to burn
the fuel like areas near cylinder wall, lower
Basic reason for production of CO is incomplete surface of engine head and engine: valve areas are ·
combustion. Even if adequate 0 2 is supplied· to cooler.

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·. Exhaust·Em1ss1ons and 118 ~ •

.. /~/\c. Engines (MU-Sem. v-Mech) 6-6
. Jarge concentration. High t.e~_ ~
2. · ' Hydr0carbona (HC) available JD • .. .. ~·~ i3
. combustion chamber, when· eon...
reached Jn -.....,fcte
. No . HC should be going to exhaust if complete tion of A.F. mixture takes Place. CSJ>cci,.,L
combus . ailabl • . • --uy
combustion of fueJ takes pJace but practically this does . Jeration when 02 JS av e Ul ahilftA__
durmg acce ---acc.
not happen and HC is emitted through exha~st due to . uo in exhaust is nitric oxide CNO) Whi
Maxunum ~... ~ · . ' ch
the fo1Jowing reasons : further combine with 02 to form N02· which u. vciy
(o) Incorrect Air-Fuel (A/F) Ratio : Amount of HC paisonous gas.
increases with AIF mixture getting richer. This is ~ Factors lea~ to production of N011
caused · by incomplete combustion due to . "'actors leads to production of NO ·
FoJJowmg " · .t •
inadequate oxygen. On the other hand, if A1F
ratio is made too Jean, HC in exhaust gases again (a) Air·F uel ratio : At around 16:1 AfF ._,,
"'":-
· maximum N011 is produced due to Dlaxitnurn
increases, from slow flame propagation due to
lack of fuel and Jnisfiring of engine occurs. temperature existing because of complete
combustion. NOx formation reduces with richer
(b) Low compreMlon : During deacceleration, very
AIF ratio due to inadequacy of oxygen.
little or no air is drawn to cylinders due to closure
(Refer Fig. 6.6.1).
of throttle valve, although fuel is drawn. Titls
results in rich mixture and Jow compression in (b) Combustion temperature : As combustion
cylinders. Hence complete combustion does not temperature reduces due to leaner AF mixture,
take place and HC is e~tted through exhaust. N0.1 formation also reduces.

(c) Quenching : Temperature . of flame inside (c) Ignition timing : With advan.cement of ignition
cylinders is low in areas where flame r~aches the timing, maximum temperature increases. With
last. Also, areas near cylinder waJJ and valves are richer A.F. mixture enhancing production of NO,.
. at lower temperature (as they give out heat tO
4. Driving Conditions
surroundings). These are ca1Jed quenching zones.
Therefore, fuel in this quenching zone is not able (a) Normal Running Speed : At medium speed, AfF
to bum before it is exhausted. mixture is leaner, adequate oxygen is avciilable and

(d) VaJve overlapping: For a very short time, both temperature in combustion chamber is sufficient to

inlet and exhaust valves are open simultaneously. produce NOx. However, concentration of HC and CO

During this period HC escape to exhaust. is very low. At high speed, A1F mixture is richer and

(e) Surface/Volume (s/v) ratio : A smaJJ engine of combustion temperature is maximum. This mcreases
low displacement volume will have higher production of HC, CO and NOx.

surface to volume ratio which is responsible for (b) Acceleration : During acceleration, throttle. valve is
formation of hydrocarbons (HC). fully open increasing oxygen intake to engine cylinders
. Experimental results have shown that low C.R, many times. Fuel sucked-in also increases causing
lower bore to stroke ratio and larger displacement
richer AIF mixture. Hence production of CO, HC and
lowers the s/v.ratio, hence, reduces HC emissions.
NOx increases.
3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
(c) Deceleration : During deceleration, throttle valve is
Njtrogen combines wjth oxygen at higher temperature closed but engine speed is high hence vacuum in
(Above 1100° C) in the engine cylinder when oxygen is
combustion chamber is quite high. This vacuum

St.:a•1111..' dw1ll 1Ca111Sc.!1 ir1Cr

 .: '.···
-Ines (MU.Sem. V-Mech ·- '

6-7
;,·· O::: ,e011ces the speed of flame propagation · :Exhaust Emissions and Its Control ·
.-'· "' ' .. and therefore be . '• . . . .· .' ", .
.;: :·:. _. pobLJ!lll HC ts exhausted. During thi . ·
\' ::.. . , s penod, Dli~tu fore they are released to atmosphere from the outlet
~ ,'. ·, ,. is a]so rich which increases od . re of the exhaust sysr.em. Thls can be achieved by fitting · -
. . pr Uction of CO.
.However, smce combustion temperature special devices to engine sys~ms;
reduces,
production ofN0 1 is Jowered.
6.8 Pollution Control Devices
'd) .ffeavy JoadfClimbing up the slo • .
,, . pe • Duong this
penod, throttle valve is complet 1 ~ (MU- Dec.16)
e y open and AIF
mixture is very rich. Therefore .
. concentration of CO
and HC mcreases and NO also .
x increases due to high
temperature.

. (e) . Warm up and"ldling : During th . Some of the pollution control devices which are fitted
ese operations, co
and HC· are produced but due to 1 with erigine systems are described be1ow.
ower combustion

- chamber, N01 is non-existent m· th xha

. e e ust.

Syllabus Topic ·: Methods of Controlllng

Emissions; Catalytic Con.vertors (ETC), EGR,
Pollution Control Devlen

1. Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) System

Exhaust (Particular) Traps 2. Catalytic Converter

6.7 Pollution Control Systems In 3. Exhaust Gases Recirculation (EGR) System

Automobiles 4. Fuel Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP) System

Two main approaches can minimize release of 5. Total Emission Control Package

pollutants to atmosphere from IC engines as follows : Fig. C6.2 : Pollution Control Devices

1. Change/Modification in Engine Design Crankcase Ventilatlon

Change in engine design to reduce/control th°"' y~e Crankcase Ventilation (PCV)

parameters which promote the production of pollutants. System
Some of the methods are :
Due to wear, gap between piston rings and cylinder is
(i) By increasing C.R. created and unburnt air-fuel mixture from combustion
(ii) By increase in A.F. ratio chamber leaks out to crankcase from this gap (called
blowby action).
(iii) By increasing speed
Major portion of these blowby gases in crankcase is
(iv) By reducing valve overlap
thus HC (unburnt fuel).
(v) By retarding ignition timing
These blowby gases are released to atmosphere through
(vi) By reducing surface volume ratio in order to a pipe from the crankcase called breather.
reduce the quench area. These blowby gases are recirculated to combustion
2. Treatment of Exhaust Gases chamber for burning by connecting crankcase
(breather) to intake manifold through a pipe and valve
Conversion of air pollutants to unharmful substances
combination. Refer Fig. 6.8.I.
M l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 6-8
Exhaust Emissions and Its~· -_
-
""OI - -
-
all dium are good ~~ts
. Platinum and p_:'
-
for
.-- . . of co and HC and Rhodium is uSCd -
convemon - for
~lion of NOx·

~
---------
~--­
co-
Fig. 6.8.1 : Schematic diagram of positive NO.-
HC-

crankcue (PCV) system

Catalytic Converter Fig. 6.8.2 : Representadon or catalytic converter

Catalytic Converter Catalytic converter as shown in Fig. 6.8.2 is a tUbuJar

device integrated into exhaust · system. Cata!Ytic
+ (MU-May 15, May 17)
converter is filled with thin walled mesh/matrix coated
with catalysts.
As the exhaust gases pass through _this mesh, and HC
CO gets converted to H 20 and C02• When the mesh is
coated with Rhodium, NO" is reduced to N 2 and o1•

Since all the three ·major pollutants i.e. CO, He and

Aim of catalytic converter is to chemically treat the- NO are to be converted into unharmful substances .
l[ • •

pollutan~ and convert them into hannless gases like two wire meshes - one coated with platinum and other
with Rhodium. are used in one converter only.
CO to C02, HC to H20 and splitting of NO to N2
and 0 2 • As three pollutants_ are converted by one catalytic
converter, this type is called 3-way catalytic convener
A catalyst is a material which promotes/enhances as shown in Fig. 6.8.3.
chemical change without entering into chemical Seafing
Hartness
reaction. The materials, which are used as catalysts are E>dlaust QBSel
gases
Platinum, Palladium, Rhodium, lrridium etc. co
HC-
----"I -HP
-co2
NO • ..;;;;...:;,...-.._ ~----- N21Wld02
Chemical reaction of conversion of CO to C02 and HC
to H 20, which normally takes place at temperatures of
Fig. 6.8.3 : Three-way catalytic converter
500° to 600° C, occurs at 300° to 350°C in the presence
Catalysts do not take part in chemical reaction, their
of catalyst. -
life is long but if gasoline contains lead, then the mesh
This suits as sending air (Oi) to exhaust may not gets coated with this poisonous lead and converter
convert CO and HC as the air will be at lower becomes useless. Therefore, automobiles fitted with

temperature and the temperature of exhaust also comes catalytic converter should always_use unleaded fuel.

down quickly while passing through the exhaust tube

- from exhaust manifold.

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MU-Sem. V-Mech)
6-9
·: eXhaust Emission& and 1~ ~~°'-:'. ·
Temperature in the combustion ~~r rises . to ·
maximum when co~pJcte combustion talceS. place
during acceleration of engine, while moving on heavy
load or climbing a slope. So the best way to reduce the
production of NO" is to bold/control the maxim~m
temperature (below 1100° C) inside the combustion
chamber.
Since exhaust gases contain mainly "20 vapours and
C02, these further do not react with 0 2 hence EGR
circulates exhaust gases (which are at lower
temperature) to combustion chamber through inlet
manifold in order to keep the peak temperature low·
Use : EGR system is used to reduce th rod . This reduces production of NO". (Refer Fig. 6.8.4).
e P uction of
NO".

NO" is produced by the combination of N and 0 of

11~ c in
2
the air at higher temperature beyond the
combustion chamber of the engine.
Exhau~
gases

Fig. 6.8.4: Schematic diagram ofEGR system

The amount of exhaust gases to be recirculated to combustion chamber is to be controlled otherwise engine power will
- '
come down drastically. This is done by an EGR vacuum regulator.

The regulator restricts the exhaust gases recirculation when the load on engine reduces and stops working at no load as
NO" is not produced at low temperatiire.

6.8.4- Fuel Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP) System

, Gasoline directly escapes to atmosphere from SI engines. It escapes from the mouth of fuel tank while filling and also .
from fuel tank .breather due to churning and variation in temperature.

Gasoline also escapes from float chamber of the carburettor, which is vented to atmosphere.

To arrest the escape of evaporating gasoline fro~ fuel tank and float chamber of carburettor, they iire connected by
· means of tubing to a chamber filled with charcoal where it is absorbed.

When engine runs, the collected gasolin_e is sucked/drawn back by carburettor and sent to combustion ch~ber for
burning as shown in Fig. 6.8.5.
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· ~i;c. En lnes(MU-Sem. V-Mech) 6-10

From air deaner

Collected fUel being audced
~:: ., ((:-!".............t~ .. . _.,.; ~· ~ ,.

Fuel fiDlng
Opening --i;;;:::::;;~

t
;;.
ft> Vent to
~;<.· .~· "' - · ~,jr!,1 atmosphere
Petrol tubing

Fig. 6.8.S : Sc:hematlc diagram fuel evaporative ~

--•--1on control (EVAP) system

685
• · Total Emission Control Package Secondary
Sir Ptn'9
The methods discussed above, clearly indicates the '? J'L--~
method of reducing Nox tends to increase HC and CO and
vice-verse. Thus, there is a need to develop a method which
c~ reduce all the emissions of NOx, HC and CO to the
desired level.

The Various automobile companies hav~ developed the

following methods by combining the emission control
'----sy~ss
methods described above. Such emission control methods
are called total emission control packages. These packages Fig. 6.8.6 : Thermal reactor package
are as follows :
The thermal reactor is made of high nickel steel so as
I. Then:lla1 reactor package to withstand high temperatures to which it is exposed
continuously. This system also includes crankcase
It consists of a chamber in the exhaust system which
valve to control blow by gases and special evaporation
provides sufficient residence time for oxidation of HC
control valves. This method reduces all the emissions
and CO to occur. In order to enhance the CO to C02,
but reduces the power output by 20% and increases the
the exhaust temperature is increased by retarding the
fuel consumption by 10%.
ignition timing. The schematic layout of such a system .
2 Catalytic converter package : The catalytic .
is shown in Fig. 6.8.6 as used by ford.
converters as discussed in section 6.8.2 are used
The thermal reactor consists of two enlarged exhaust alongwith EGR circulation method for comple~
manifolds which allows more residence time for package of controlling all the NOx, HC and C02
. burning "Clf HC and CO with the 0 2 of the secondary air emissions. ·Advantage of this system over thermal
pumped in. The additional air allows the flame reactor package is that the reduction of exhaust
constantly burning and assures complete combustion. emissions are carried out at normal exhaust
Out of this exhaust gases about 10% to 15% are temperatures of the engine by this method without
recirculated by the EGR metering valve -after cooling increasing the exhaust temperatures necessary for

the exhaust gases in the intt:rcooler to the combustion

~xidation of HC and CO in the thermal reactor method.
chamber of the engine. It reduces the formation of The schematic diagram of catalytic converter package
NOX. is shown in Fig. 6.8.7.

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 . ·..
. ··.. ·. ·'' ..
'~· - • • ~·; .'' • •, '' •. • \ I • • '
·· ·.'· .:' ..
. ;
....
. •..,.

a..11
.·:. ·~ ". . .
.... . . .., -· ' .... • •~ r

EGR .
· metering
,.,.,~
·:·.-· .
:···· \
..
; . .. ·. '

".'" J_1 •
·;1 • .... ·.
'\ •..•

HCand NOx
· co catalyst catalyst

Fig. 6.8.7 i Catalytic converter package-

About IO% of the exhaust gases of the engine .are ~ith the incr~ ht lo~d on the engine. Methods of control
recirculated · through EGR intercooler to control the of smoke are :
production of · NOx in the engine and further chemical
I. Derating and maintenance : There is hardly any
reduction is carried out by the N01 catalyst. The oxidation
ethod which can successfully control the soot except
of HC and CO is carried out into its converter. It results into m. . . . . • ~d
to run the engine at reduced loads ~I.e. ~eratang)
increase in temperature of the exhaust gases which is
maintain the engine at best possible condition in
eontrolled by supplying air by the secondary air pump.
particular its injection system.
Note that the catalytical converters require non-leaded
2. Smoke supp~ing additives : Some of the
petrol since tire lead reduces the catalytic action and its life.
compounds like banum compounds when added in fuel
In this method also there is a power loss and requires
reduce the temperature of combustion and avoids the
more fuel consumption.
soot fonnation. Even if soot is formed, this compound

6.9 Control of Emissions from Diesel breaks the soot into fine particles and reduce the smoke
Engines formation.
But, the barium compounds have tendency to increase
Main pollutants from diesel engines are NOx• HC, CO, deposit fo~tion on the engine and reduces filters life.
smoke and odour of aldehydes, particulate matters etc. · 1 th · · ti. of small amourit
3. Fumigation : It mvo ves e mJec on
The ~thods of reducing NO", HC and CO emissions of fuel into intake manifolds. This enhances the
in diesel engines are the same as discussed above for preflame reactions and reduces the chemical delay.
emission control in S.1 engines. Therefore, only the period. The reduced chemlcal delay period curbs the
methods of control of smoke and odour are discussed below. thermal cracking which is responsible for soot
formation.
6.9.1 Control of Smoke / . . .
4. Catalytic converters : The use of catalytic converters
. Black smoke represents the carbon particles suspended for reduction of smoke in diesel engines have not been
in exhaust and its formation is a process of conversion of found effective so far since these are found to interfere
hydrocarbon fuel into particles of soot. The poor combustion CO, HC and NOx emission. However, the research is
and incorrect A.F. ratio is the main cause of production of on for search catalyst to reduce smoke in engines.
smoke in diesel engines. The magnitude of smoke increases

Scanned wilh CamScalV1er

! I '

00-1.0:Engines (MU~S~m. V-Mech) 6-12

. , 1
Exhaust Emisst~~ a. ....- ~ ··.
"'IO~~ ta£ori~
.·
.
6.9.2 Control of Dlesel Odour The amount of absorption of panicular wavc1c 2'
proportional to the concentration of co. The tlgtb ia
The presence o~ aldehydes in exhaust are mainly monoxide absorption band is between 4.s tarbon.
responsible for pungent odour. These are irritating to eyes microns (µm) while for C02 absorptio · to S.o
n band .
and nose. So far no catalytic odour control system or odour between 4 to 4.5 microns. . l&

suppressants have been found which can control diesel The unabsorbed portion of this specific
wavcien
odotir successfully. reaches the sensor .and .accordingly value 1•s llldi
• &lb
on meter/scale. Catcct
Measurement of Pollutants In Exhaust Gases
A schematic arrangement of NDIR analyser ·
IS shoWn.
6.1 O Measurement ·of Pollutants In Fig. 6.10.1. lll

Exhaust Gases A wide band infrared radiation source co .

. ns1sts of
heated wire placed in a quartz tube in the 8011 ,.... b a
. - ..... lack,
Pollutants are measured in gm/km or gm/kWh.
These radiations enter the cell through quartz w· do
Principles used in measurement of these pollutants are lb Ws.
The exhaust gas to be analysed absorbs cert..:-
describe'd below: . ·"4Ull Wave

lengths of infrared radiation causing a spectrum. to be

6.10.1 Measurement of CO Concentration by recorded on the detector.
Non-dispersive Infra-red (NDIR) The ·perce.ntage of radiation absorbed is proportionat to
Analyzer the molecular concentration of the component of
interest in the sample of gas.
-: ~en infra-red (IR) light is passed through exhaust
By comparlng the spectrum a stan~d calibrated
sample containing CO, C02 , H20, NOx and other gases,
spectrum, the CO concentration can be calculated.
IR light of specific wavelengths is absorbed by each
gas.
Exhaust gas In

Infrared lamp ~ Window

.. Display monitor

·~

J.f~. Wave. ie.ngth (µm)

Exhaust gas out
Fig. 6.10.1 : NDIR analyser

6.10.2 Measurement of HC Concentration

When HC is heated in hydrogen flame, the high flame temperature generates ions.

Concentration of ions thus generated is proportional to the concentration of HC present in the sample.

· Concentration of ions produces current in an electric circuit which is calibrated to indicate correct value of HC on the .
meter/scale. Gas analyzer for measurement of CO and HC is shown in Fig. 6.10.2. .

&:1:1m1t'<.I w 1lf1 Ct1m&:11r111t1r

 ._/j~1:c. Engines (MU-Serri. V-Mech)
6-13 Exhaust Emissions and Its Control
. ;·. F . ..

~ . . ,.. ' Canylng grip

Sampling tube

Fig. 6.i0.2 : Gas analyser

6.10.3 Measurement of NOx Concentration

N01 at high temperature gets converted to NO. When 1ow .

NO is brought in contact with ozone (03), chemical
reaction takes place and light of particular wavelength
is emitted.

The amount of light emitted from reaction is

proportional to the concentration of NO.

Light thus emitted is amplified and measured to give

concentration of N01 present in exhaust

The equipment used is called N01 - chemical analyser.

Annular
phoio <:ail
6.10.4 Measurement of Smoke

Basically, there are two types of smoke meters which

are used for measurement of smoke density. These are :
Fig. 6.10.3 : Bosch meter _
1. Filter darkening type smoke meter : Prominent
manufacturers of smoke meters namely Bosch, The sample of diesel smoke of constant volume of
Hartridge, Von brand etc. are measuring devices to about 300 cc is. passed through a fixed filter paper with the
3
measure soot density (gm/m ). help of a sampling pump and pneuma~c device. The density
r:r Bosch smoke meter of smoke stains on the filter paper is evaluated by means of
photocell reflectometer on a scale of (0-10) units
The Bosch smoke meter is shown in Fig. 6.10.3.
representing white smoke to black smoke.

- -- - - --- ·- ·--· -· -----··- - --

&.:a1111W with Ce111!&.:amM:!I
 ,_.

~ l.C, Enplnoa (MU·Sem. V·Moch) S.14

The tubes have light source at one cod and the Pboco
2. Light extinction type : TilCSC type of smoke meters
cell at me other end. These are mounted 00 the
cnn be used for continuous measurement of smoke
swinging ann. It is connected to a micro-~
whereas the filler . darkening type can be used for
. having the scaJe calibrated into (0-100).
measurement of smoke under steady 111a1c conditions
An air blower draws the clean air into the clean air
only.
tube. This air flows over the light source and the ~
The Hartridgc and UTAC nrc the smoke meters of light
cell. It helps to cool them and protects them against the
extinction type.
fonnation of soot on these.
Hartrldge smoke meter : It works on the light
When the smoke. level in the exhaust gas is needed to
extinction principle for smoke measurement It is shown on
be tested. its sample is passed into the smoke tube.
schematic diagram in Fig. 6.l0.4.
The amount of light passed through this smoke column
It consists of two tubes of equal length. One tube is
is used as indication.of level of smoke on the scale of micro-
used for measurement of smoke of sample of exhaust
ammeter in Hartridge units.
gas and another tube for reference in which the clean
air is passed.

- - -1r.
t
,..__ SmOke
,._.. tube
_....' __.. )

.,.,.,..~.,!-(,;~·....._Clean
air inlet

Fig. 6.10.4: Hartridge smoke meter

~~----------_......-=- All the vehicle manufacturers are ~uired to ensure

Sy11abus Topic : Euro and BHARAT NORMS
that their vehicles do not exceed the permissible limits
of pollutants in exhaust as laid down.
6.11 Emission Norms
6.11.1 EURO Norms
Emission norms are the maximum prescribed level of
CO, HC and NOx set by the Government, which a Euro norms are the permissible emission levels for both
vehicle is permitted to emit from its exhaust while petrol and diesel vehicles, which have been
running. implemented in European countries.

scanned with camScanoer

 ' -

L·' .W~-----••.;;a•a;;:;1;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;==:;;;;;;;~6~-1~s;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;~Exh~a~us~t~E~m~1ss~l~on~s~a~nd~lls~Con~~tro~1
... Sured nomlS were implemented from year 1992 and 1'.able 6.11.1: European Petroi Vehicles Em.I.moo Nonm
five such nom1s (Euro I to Euro V) planned for (EURO I)
.,. implementation in phased manner upto the year
2008
are given in Tables 6.11.1 and 6.11.2.

.6.11.2 Indian (Bharat) Norms

EURO! 1·7·92 2.72 0.97
Emission nonns for our country were worked out and EUROll 1-10-95 2.2 0.5
implemented with effect from the year 1992. However,
EUROlll 1·1·200> 1.3 0.2 0.15
as per Supreme Court Ruling, EURO I norms were
-
implemented in Delhi from 1 June 1999 as notified by EURO IV 1-1·2005 1.0 0.1 0.08
Government of India through Motor Vehicles Table 6.11.2 : European Diesel Engine Emission Norms
Regulations (MVR). (EUROll)

These norms were known as INDIA 2000 (Bharat • I)

nomts. These nonns were extended to all metros
subsequently.
EUROI 1·7·92 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36/0.61
EURO II were implemented from the year 2002 known
as Bharat II norms. Details are given in Tables 6.11.3 EUROll 1-10-95 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
to 6.11.7.
EUROlll 1-1·2000 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.1
AboYe nonns have to be followed by nil Indian
Automobile Manufacturers. Violation of these norms EURO IV 1-1·2005 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02
attracts penalty as per Motor Vehicles Rules No. 115
EUROV 2008 1.5 0.46 2.0 0.02
and 116.
Table 6.11.3 : Indian Gasoline Vehicle Emission Norms
6.11.3 Testing and Certification Authorities c Bharat stage (BS) J
of Pollution Norms for Automobiles

~ (MU-May 17)

Automobiles are required to be tested for mass

emission tests at manufacturing stage and certification
BS I 2000 2.72-6.9 0.97-1.7
has to be done for emission levels within prescribed
limits set by the Government of India by one of the BSll 2005 U-5 0.5-0.7

following agencies in India.

BSlll 2010 2.3-5.22 0.2-029 . 0.15-0.21
I. Indian Instill.lie of Petroleum (IIP), Dehradun.
BSIV 2010 1.0-2.27 0.1-0.16 0.08 (NCR +21
2. Automoli\'e Research Association of India cities)
(ARAI), Pune.
BSV 2010 NCR+ 13 cities
3. Vehicles Research and De\'clopment
BS VI 2017 0.11 Entire
Establishment (VRDE), Ahmednagar
counb'y
(Maharashtra).

-------- - -
 -~
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;' .
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,:·,x. ..
.. ,.... ,.......,
, ~ .:
I~' ttC · ·: IJC-+.
I;\
1
• ,
I~.· ,,....
, 1 •
..
~·~m) HO.• .. "'~ -
c.
.' (la)
.. ~) PM ... a·
~: l
., .. ,
; ~ .,
- ~ ~ ' /
'
01 ....·YI ll.O· tUJ. 12.0 - ns 1111t1 5<Yh 3~ ((J " '
ftJY..{
l~eo
{ll11l<l.I on JO,() lJS IV
~
l{rf. DS JV co 8()'A;. 5010 10 No S<Jto IO
M~•) HS V ch.an~
01 -1·90 4.S - 3.6 ns v w
US VI
No
chang,e
IO ~%
10
USl 0 1·4·00 2.0 - 2.0
US II 01-.i -os I.~ - 1.5
BS 111 01 --4-2010 1.0 - 1.0

Table 6..11.S : lndlan Thrtt Whttler Emlw on Nonru Tab~ 6.11.8 : Bbsrat St.qr (BS) VI Norw.
Ap~ In lDd.La
es 1'~edlve co . HC HC+ Jdllng
Nonns from (gm/km) (gm/km) NOir co I. Diesel Engines (CL Engines)
- (gm/km) (%)
Stage Date HC co HC+NO. NO, PM
01-3-90 - - - 4.5%
BS IV 2010 - 0..5 0.3 0.25 0..0".S
01-4-91 12.0-30.0 8.0-12.0 - 4.5%
01-4-96 6.75 - 5.4 4.5% BS VI 2020 - 0..5 0.17 0.08 0.0045
BSI 01-4-00 4.0 - 2.0 4.5%
EURO 201 4 - 0..5 0 . 17 0.08 0.005
BS II 01-4-05 2.25 - 2.0 - VI
BS ill 01-4-2010 1.25 - 1.25 - 2. Petrol Engines (S.I. Engines)
Table 6.11.6: Indian Diesel Engine Emission Norms
BS IV 2010 0 .1 0 .08 -
'. Eftectlve from co HC NOx . PM
0.06 O.OC»S
. . '
(gm/km) (gm/km) (gm/km) (gm/km)
BS VI 2020 0. 1

Note:
1992 14 3.5 18 -
1. GOI has notified that BS VI norms be
1996 11.2 2.4 14.4 - applicable w.e.f. 01 april 2020 by skipping BS
V nonns
2000 (BS I) 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36/0.61
2. Moving to BS VI nonTis will need
2002(BS m 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15 approximately Rs. 80000 crores to upgrade
the oil refining infrastructure.
2010 (BS ID) 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.1
3. It is huge task for Indian automotive industry
2010(BS IV) 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02 to be BS VI compliance in 3 years.
Automobile industry needs the system
NCR + 27 select integration with calibration and validation,
cities ·whearas other European countries have
2017 (All cities) taken 9 years.

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 ' .. .
· . ·. · · ·1ts eontrOI ·
Exhaust EmisslonS and. . .
.·: .
~ ,·

. . . . cCd b jncolllpletC
Carbon monoxide-(CO) is ,piodu y
... . . .· tinders generallY due to .
co.mbustion of fuel m engine cy . · · .·
(:. :_:) ;~ ~pending upon wh~ther the actual A.F. ratio is more oxygen inadequacy.
:.· ·.. less than stoichiometric A.F. ratio, mixture is called · · · · difeCtlY
or . . . H drocarbOm (BC) is·raw/unburni fuel either .
leaD or rich mixtures respectively. Y . . d --..a..urettors
,, . ' ' · fi fuel tank an \;WV
escaping to atmosphere om . . fuel
·Mtnlmum·air required.for complete combtistion of . ases having unburnt .
..- of automobiles or blowby g · · ·
1. . . . . ruel Is given by
· gh crankcase breather.
!. .· escaping to atmosphere tbrou . . · ..
1
~[~c+s(H- ~)+. s] ..
· · od ced in combustion
Oxides of nitrogen (NO.) are pr u · .
0 of air combine at
chamber of engines where N2 and 2 ·
.- The mass analysis can ·be converted into volumetric
high temperature beyond noooc. . Maxirilum
analysis by using Avogadro's law i.e. by dividing the . bambers when
temperature occurs in combustion c .
mass analysis of gases by their respective molecular · . . ture takes place. It Is
complete combustion fuel arr JD1X
masses in order to obtain their proportionate volumes.
and HC are produced due to
to be noted that CO . Is
Exhaust gas analysis is necesmry to control exhaust
incomplete combustion o
r fuel whereas NOx
emissions, determine A.F. ratio, ensure complete
produced during complete comb_u stion.
combustion of fuel, control maximum temperatures in
Pollutants produced by ~utomoblles/IC engines are
combustion chambers and their efficient operation.
CO, HC, NO", S02, aldehydes, soot, lead etc.
Exhaust gas analysis is done by Orsat's apparatus.
Sources of toxic pollutants In automobiles are diiect
The air-fuel ratio can be determined by using C - "2 escape of fuel from fuel tank during fuel filling,
balance method in case the volumetric analysis of dry through vent of fuel tank and vent .of carburettor float
products of combustion is known. It is also called as chamber, exhaust gases and blow .by gases escaping
mole method. through engine crank-case breather.

Atmospheric air, which we breathe-in, is polluted by Causes of air pollutants produced ·by automobiles

toxic substances emitted by various machinery and are incomplete combustion of air-fuel mixture,
incorrect air-fuel ratio (richer or leaner mixture), high
plants. These substances affect the health of human
combustion temperatWe, . venting of fuel tanks and
beings, animals and plants adversely.
carburettors, wear of piston rings and cylinders
Main Pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), (causing blowby gases), incorrect engine tuning
hydrocarbons (BC), Oxides of nitrogen (NO,.), sulphur (Ignition timing, air-fuel ratio), engine design, incorrect
dioxide, soot, aldehydes, suspended particulate matters driving techniques etc.
(SPM), compounds of sulphur and leads etc. Two main approaches to pollution control in
Sources of air pollutants : Major sources of air automobiles are modification in engine design and
pollutants are factories, thermoelectric power plants, treatment of eXhaust gases.

petrol and diesel engines/automobiles, incinerators, Some of the . pollution control systems being now
aircrafts, ships and train engines, explosive materials, used are Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV),
refineries etc. Catalytic Converter, Exhaust Gases Recirculation .
(EGR) system, Fuel Evaporative Emission Control
(EVAP) system.

ScarnM.J with CamS1..:am1a"

 •... .

II ~1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

.··Pollutanu In exhamt or automobiles are measured
by various devices working on certain principles.
6-18

O. 7 ·
Exhaust Emissions and Its Control

What are the .sources of fuel (HC) .escapi~ . to

. here In 8 petrol vehicle 7 Discuss a system
atmosp
. d'1agra·m to arrest the direct
wlth its · release of raw ·

Emf.moo norms prescribed by Government of India gasoline (HC) to atmosphere. .

through publication of Motor Vehicles Regulations are [Section• 6.5.1 and &;8.2)
implemented by aJI automobile manufacturers. · What do you understand by ,emission norms ? Give
Q.8
EURO I norms (which were for European countries) outteno
h nns applicable In European. countries.
·
were adopted by our country in 2000, known as Bharat [Sections 6.11 a.n d 6.11.1]

I norins and EURO Il norms implemented from 2002 0.9 What are Bharat I and Bharat II nonns 7 Who Is the
authority to Issue these norms and through which
are known as Bharat Il norins.
document. [Section 6.11.2)
.Certification agencies for automobile manufacturers in
0.10 Name the certification authorities in India for
India are Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehraduo, manufacturers of automobiles whether their vehicles
ARAI, Puoe and VRDE, Ahm~doagar. are meeting emission norms. [Section 6.11.3]

0.11 Discuss production of pollutants under · following

conditions :
(a) Idling of engine. [Section 6.6(4Xe)]
[Note : For answers refer the section numbers (b) Running of vehicle _at normal speed.
indicated in bracket. J (Section 6.6(4Xa)]
(c) Vehicle climbing up the slope.
Theory [Section 6.6(4Xd)]
Q.1 Discuss various air pollutants and their effects on (d) During deceleration of vehicle.
human body. (Section 6AJ [Section 6.6(4Xc)]
a. 2 What are the major sources of air pollutants ? What 0.12 Name some pollution control measures in
all pollutants are emitted by IC engines I
automobiles and discuss the working principles of
Automobiles ? (Sections 6.3 and 6.5]
positive crank case (PCV) system With a block
Q. 3 What are the main causes of production of air
diagram. [Sections 6.7 and 6.8.1)
pollutants from vehicles ? Discuss. (Section 6.6]

Q. 4 Name emission control measures in vehicles. With Q. 13 Describe various types of exhaust emissions from
the help of neat diagram, describe working of a an automobile. Which of these emissions are
catalytic converter. [Sections 6.7 and 6.8.2] harmful ? [Section 6.5)

Q. 5 What is EGA system ? Why is it needed ? Discuss Q. 14 Write a short note on air pollution due to engine
its working with the help of a diagram. exhaust and its control.
(Section 6.8.3] [Sections 6.5, 6.7 and 6.8]

Q.6 With the help of diagram, discuss working of a Q. 15 Explain exhaust gas circulation device for control of
3-way catalytic converter. [Section 6.8.2] NOx emissions. [Section 6.8.3]

aaa

Scanoed w ith CamSconner

,-.

Alternate Fuels and Electronic

Engine Controls

Syllabus

Alternative Fuels : Alcohol - Hydrogen - Natural Gas and Liquefied petroleum Gas-Biodiesel-Biogas-
producer Gas-Properties-Suitability-Engine Modifications-Merits and Demerits as fuels.
Basics of Electronic Engine Controls : Electronic Control module (ECM), Inputs required and output
signals from ECM, Sensors Throttle Position, Inlet Air Temperature, Coolant Temperature, Crankshaft
Position, Camshaft Position, Mass Air flow and Exhaust Gas Oxygen sensors, there construction and
Importance In ECM. Electronics Spark Control, Air Management system, Idle speed control.

Researchers all over the world, for the reasons

mentioned above, have to focus their attention in
Various Alternative Fuels for l.C. Engines conservation of pctroJcum products and look for
development of various alternative fuels including
7.1 Alternate Fuels for l.C. Engines
renewable resources and blending of renewable and non-

~ (MU· May 13, Dec.13, May 16) renewable resources.

Various alternative fuels considered for automobiles
are liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas
(CNG), bio-gas, producer gas, alcohols (methanol and
Energy crisis has been a matter of concern to all over ethanol), vegetable oils and their blends, hydrogen gas etc.
the world and it is better understood by more and more Following factors are considered to use alternative
energy users. fuels in J.C. engines :
Almost 90% of energy needs of the world are provided 1. An alternative fuel which can be used as a substitute for
by fossil fuels which are depleting at an alarming rate. conventional fuels without or with minimum changes

Apart from the depleting resources, of ·petroleum

in the existing engines.

products, another important aspect of their use is in the 2. Comparative cost.

alarming rise of pollutants like CO, HC, NO_. , soot, smoke 3. Exhaust emissions within prescribed limits.
etc. by automobiles and industries which have tremendous
4. Its availability on large scale continuously as a
effect on human life and vegetation.
substitute to petroleum products and its production
facilities.

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 m- l.C. En ines (MU·Sem. V-Me~h) 7-2
Altemate Fuels & EleCtronlc Engine Control8 :
s. High caJo~c value per unit mass. !l°der_p~ssure
· and evaporates into gas before being
. . .. · , .. ·
6. · Safe to handle. supplied .~o the engine.
. est use of LPG is for domestic and
·7.1.1 Various Alternative Fuels for l.C. At present the bigg .
Engines , industrial applications. ,
. th 1•8 an increasing trend to use LPG as
However, ere ,
List of various alternative fuels for S.I. and C.I. engines
are as follows : fuel for S.I. and C.I. engines.
LNG comes from dry natural reservoirs having mainly
1. For S.I. engines
C~ Wl
'th S.mall percentages of ethane and propane.
(a) Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and . Its boiling· temperature is (- 161.SoC). Thus a major
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) · Ii.·quef:action of gas and its
difficulty is encountered 1D
(b) CNG . • ce uires refrigeration. For this ,
. transportation s10 r
' eq

(c) Alcohols (methanol and ethanol) reason LNG is not used for vehicles though it is the
'(d) Hydrogen . most eco-friendly it liquefaction and refrigeration.
(e) Biogas er Advantages of LPG as fuel

2. For C.I. engines · mixing with air and

(i) It presents least diffi1cuIty 1D

_,
. (a) CNG distributing homo~eneously to various cylinders in a

(b) Methanol - Diesel fuel blends - multicylinder engine.

(c) Vegetable oils : Karanji oil, sun flower oil etc. (ii) ·. It is cheaper than gasoline.
(d) Biogas (iii) It is highly knock resistant (Octane rating 120) and it

Details of use of above fuels are being discussed below. can be used at high compression ratios.

(iv) It does not pre-ignite easily.

Syllabus Topic : LPG and LNG as S.I. Engine Fuel
(v) It leaves little combustion deposits compared to .other
7.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and fuels.
Natural Gas (LNG) as S.I. Engine (vi) Crankcase dilution is small, hence, it increases the .
. Fuel
engine life.

Various hydrocarbons like methane, ethane, propane, er Disadvantages of LPG

butane with small percentages of other hydrocarbons (i) It has high .latent heat of vapourisation, therefore, it
are obtained during refining process of petroleum. red~ces the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
Out of these gases, methane and ethane cannot be (ii) It's adv~tages can.be better realised in engines using
easily liquefied under pressure being too volatile. high compression ratios.

Hence the liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) mainly . (iii) It needs to be handled under pressure of about 18 bar.
consists of propane (35 -93%), propylene (62 - 2·8 %) (iv) Blending of LPG with fuels is poor.
a,nd butane (2.1 - 2.9%) which is supplied in containers
(v) Leakages of LPG cannot be detected easily .since its
characteristics odour is faint.

scarined with CemScanner

 ~~t{~~~\ ;~"

~:)~ .
r;..~. . -. g;i J.C. En nes MU·Sem. V·Mech)
}~> : "'' .. . . . 7.3 eontrOls.
Altemate Fuels & EJeCtronic
L:':::: .(vi)" Propane in LPG is not vjscous enough• henee u• cannot
·
-~ > .. : . . regulator, the pn:swre of the gas is~ ro.slightly
f: 7.,. maintain the lubrication of lnjecllon abOve ~phcric prc-~sure aQ<f lbe-_ flow · rate is
1· · -._ pump of C.J,
/:{" engines, thereby, needing auxiUary system. mcawrcd by the gas fJOwn>cttr.
Expcrfmcntt were conducted on 4 cyHnder, .4 stroke•
. Since tho use of LPG for uutomoUve cnginci
necessitates the use of large contain water cooled aulOmotivc s.r. engine of J.D89 litre
' .
capacity having 68 mm bore x 15 mm stroke. Engine
. ners ar medium pressures nod other fuctors mentioned uses a comprcs*ion ratio of 7.8 and its ·rated power was
above, it rcslricts the use of LPO for ""'" · 1 29A .kW at 5000 rpm.
"" am c a.~ses of
vehicles only, for example, in trucb, tractors and for The wjdc open 1hro«Je (WOT) performa.na I.CSU we~
irrigation and drilling projects.
conducled both {or petrol and CNG modes. ·
Presently' the use of LPO a." main fuel in dual fuel The results obtained ~ shown in Fig. 7..:3.1 for the
diesel engines is being explored. variation of brake power (B.P) with speed. Fig. 7.3.1
CNG as Automotive Fuel shows the variation in brake specific energy
consumption (BSEC) with speed and the ng. 7.3.3
7.3 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as shows the co emissions by volume Vs speed.
Automotive Fuel

CNG is considered as an important fuel with potential

to substitute the conventional liquid petroleum fuel to a
significant extent in foreseeable future.

CNG has methane as the main combustible constit~ent

(80% to 98%) with some fractions of ethane, butane
and propane.
5
Owing to light gaseous fuel, its energy density is Jow,
therefore, it _needs to be compressed to about (160- 200) 0
2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5
bar pressure to facilitate storage in vehicles. 3
Speed x 10 (rpm)
CNG is a much clean burning fuel having methane as
Fig. 7.3.1 : Speed Vs B.P.
its main constituent which is highly knock resistance.
It has narrower flammability limits (5-15% by volume). Petrol mode
Therefore, it is safer fuel to work upon. 25 CNGmode
A A CNG mode with advanced
Since, CNG has high self ignition temperature, it ~
~
sparlc tiriig
20
requires high ignition energy.
~
It is observed that working with CNG gives 0 15
w
substantially low exhaust emissions, Jow exhaust "'
co
10
smoke and substantial reduction in noise levels. Since
the exhaust emissions have vital importance to us, the 5
CNG has become an important vehicular fuel.

1. .CNG Operation on Automotive S.I. Engine 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

3
In case of S.I. engines, CNG is fed to the engine Speed x 10 (rpm)

through a gas regulator via a gas flowmeter. In the Fig. 7.3.2: Speed Vs BSEc '
 · .: ,~

.' . - ~.·, · c ·e · · Altem~te Fu.els & Electronic

.
Engine r-;.._L.. ·: . ·
~fll'Ob
~
• · ngtnes (MU-Sem.V-Mech)
· 7-4
The gaseous ruel CNG is added to the air and
. indUCted_·
•r-::;::;=-P;~~_:.__;_~~ into the cylinder tbroUgb natural aspiration
I Petrol mode ' dn..:-
-uig· its
.
U H CNGmode
3 suction stroke at atmospheric pressure. ·.

The air gase0us fUel mixture is compressed .in ~

cylinder like any ~esel engine. ·
1
Few degrees before TDC during compression stroke

2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

diesel is injected in metered quantities through ~
3 conventional fuel injection system.
Speed x 10 (rpm)
The finely atomised liquid fuel autoignites and
Fig. 7.3.3: WOT exhaust emissions
propagates wave fronts which burns the.natural gas.
Following ob$Crvations can be made : In actual practice, each diesel droplet acts as a focus of
(i) B.P is less when working with
. CNG compared
- to petrol ignition from where a flame front propagates which
at all speeds. . It may be due to reduced volumetric burns the surrounding natural ·gas. This ensures
efficiency sinee CNG is
. lighter
. fuel compared to petrol. complete burning of the mixture and results into better
It is
· also due to _the fact CNG· bas reduced mixture
efficiency.
calorific value. The proportion of diesel bas to be kept at a certain
(ii) Power loss wi·th CN
.. G is
. higher
. with higher speeds. minimum level to avojd fall in efficiency and knocking
however' in terms 0 f percentage power loss it is fairly at high loads respectively.
constant. ·
The results of the experiments conducted on 4 cylinder,
(iii) BSEC under CNG operation is higher than petrol 4 stroke, _water cooled automotive C.I. engine having
operation . throughout the range of rated speed. s:oss litre capacity with dimensions of 92 mm
However, in case spark timing is advanced with CNG bore x 120 mm stroke, compression ratio 17 and rated
ope~tion by 80 - 10° compared to specified ignition power 73 kW at 2800 rpm are shown in Fig. 7.3.4 to
timing of the engine, BSEC were found to be reduced
Fig. 7.3.7.
at all speeds.

(iv) Substantially lower exhaust emission and exhaust

70
temperatures were obtained during CNG operation

compared to petrol operation. ~ 60

li
~
It can be concluded that existing S.I. engines can be g,
50
~
f!
successfully nm on CNG with advanced ignition timing al
40 Diesel mode

with lower elllWion JeveJS. Dual fuel

30
2. CNG.Operation on Automotive C.I. Engine
20'--~~~~~~~~~..l--
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
Generally, due to the requirement of high compression 3
Speed x 10 (rpm)
. ~atio due to high self ignition temperature, CNG is best
Fig. 7.3.4 : Speed Vs B.P.
employed in dual fuel engines where a liquid fuel i.e.

diesel is used to start the ignitio.Q.

 . ·. ..·. .
~

'·
- _. , . '

·. 7.5
I·: ~-~.: · Aitemate Fuels & Electronic Engine Q,ritrols ··
14
(ii) .Brake specific energy consumption OJSEC).'with. d~al
··;~· .~: .. -
Diesel mode
'
'
., f
.... 12
.. II Dual fuel fuel operation is lower than diesel operation since the
~
......
dual fuel engine is able to utili5e most of the energy of
,· 0 10 thecharge. . .
w
Cl)
m 8 · (iii) Smoother operation resulting in lesser losses.

(iv) CNG substitution can be made upt~ 80%.

6
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 28 CNG substitution is Jess at low speeds · due to
------..::..· 3.2
.
Speed x 10 (rpm)
3 lesser concentration of CNG in file preventing the
flames starting from ignition source to propagate .
FJg. 7.3.S: Speed Vs BSEC
through Jean mixtures.
sor------- At higher speeds the CNG substitution is higher
· ~ 70 ·since the combustion temperature is higher and
c
0
'5 pilot quantity of fuel is also more leading to better
~ 60 combustion.
.g
(/)
(!)
50
But, at very high · speeds, CNG substitution falls
.z
(.)
due to higher ignition delay of CNG.
40;-:---:--:-~~~~~~_J
1·2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 (v) Thermal efficiency with CNG operation is . higher
3 compared to diesel except at low loads. Advanced
Speed x 10 (rpm)
injection timings
.
improves
-
the -efficiency
.
of dual
.
fuel
.
Fig. 7.3.6 : Speed Vs percentage of CNG engine.

40 . - - - - - - - - - - - (vi) CO emissions of dual fuel engine is more at low loads

At2000rpm
and decreases with the increased load.

~
30
(vii) Substantial reduction in NOXand smoke emissions are .
~ 20 obtained with dual fuel operation.
i::
. m

~ 10
Dual fuel
Syllabus Topic : Alcohols as l.C. Engine Fuel
Diesel mode

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 7.4 Alcohols
Power(kW)
Alcohols, particularly, methanol or methyl alcohol
Fig. 7.3.7: Power Vs Efficiency
(CH30H) and ethanol (Cz H5 OH), are likely to be the
Following observations and conc1usions can be made : most alternative automobile fuel in foreseeable future.

(i) Dual fuel engine operation gives more brake power Methanol can be produced from fossil fuels like lignite
compared to diesel operation except in the low speed or coal, or from municipal solid wastes under extreme
range because of the high calorific value of CNG. pressures and temperature.

In a~dition, the gaseous fuel CNG makes more While the ethanol can be produced froi;n sugar or grain.

homogeneous mixture and results into efficient The important properties of gasoline, methanol and
combustion. Natural gas bums easily as it is devoid of ethanol are given in Table 7.4.1.

any long chain molecules. Methanol appears to be better substitute'for gasoline.

. ·----------- ~ - -·---

Scanned w ith Cnm$conner

 .... . .. · .. ·' ·,•
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. . ' ' . Attem~ie Fuels & etecirOOk: en ine ~·: . , ..

. l.C. En nes (MU-Som. V·Mech) 7-8
Table 7.4.1 : Properties of gasoline, methanol . · . · .:....;...t\ire in the tank. ''
2. It makes an explosive ~ . . ... . .
and ethanol
. ood ~olvent for gum and other maienais.
3. AJcohol 1s a 8 · .

It attae.ks the ru
bber and plastic parts. It
· '
causes
of the engine and fuel system · ·
corrosion and Wear
materials.
1. Mol&War welgrt 112 32 "fie value of methanol is almost half of
·4. Since the calon ·
2. Specific gravity at 15.5°0 . 't reduces the vehicle range for a given
0.7to0.75 0.796 0.794 the gaso)inc, 1

3.
capacity of the fUeJ tank.
Boiling point 30°0 65°0 78°0
Methanol engines have to work . with higher
4. Latent heat of
s.
295 to 415 1105 855 · -•:os compared to gasoline engines. It
compression ''"' ·
vapourlsation,lc.Jn(g
makes the engine bulkier.
5. Lower calorific value lc.Jn(g 43965 19680 26800 er Advantages of methanol engines

6. Stoichiometric air fuel 14.17 6.4 9.0 However, the advantages of operating the engine with

ratio pure methanol over gasoline are :

1. Methanol engines have about 15 to 20% higher output

7. Self Ignition temperaltl'e 300° - 450°0 478°0 420°0
compared to gasoline engines due to better combustion
8. Octane nlMTlber (motor) 82 94 94 and the use of high compression ratio as shown in

9. Cetane number 8.14 3 Fig. 7.4.1.

8

2. Methanol engines are more efficient

10. Vapour pressure at 58°C 0.8 0.32 0.21
3. It gives lower N011 exhaust emissions due to lower
..
7.4.1 Methanol Engines flame temperatures.

rr Disadvantages/difficulties of methanol engines 4. It gives lower hydrocarbon exhaust emissions.

50
Following major difficulties have to be overcome

before 100% methanol can replace the gasoline in 40

commercial vehicles.

1. Since the methanol has high boiling point and high

latent heat of vapourisation coupled with low vapour

10
pressur~. it lowers the temperature of the mixture in

combustion chamber. 0
0 1000 3000 5000
Engine speed, r.p.m.
lt causes cold starting below l 5°C difficult and during
Fig. 7.4.1 : Comparison of methanol
wann up period.
and gasoline engines ·

Seam ed with CamScanner

 ~ "
. - : •. · ., , ·- - - -:.
' : ...

l~}<'.: '~1.c. Ines MU-Sem. V·MeCti

!.;.{,~.' :;. i.•.2:Methanol.· Gasoline Fuel Blends
7.7
Alternate Fuels & Electronic fn9ine ContrOfs
,,. •• I
•• · 1
' . 50.
...-·· •'
'!.;. ~
':

~
15% Mettianor blend
. Pure methanol is usually not used fo engines except in .
:,. ...
racing cars due to its capability of prod~cing higher .
outputs.

.)·
The problems encountered working with pure methanol
as enumerated above in sect.ion 7.4.1 can be resolved
by using the blends of methanol and gasoline, however,
oL--L~-L-~~__.~;;;:5000
the use of such mixtures may compromise on S<?me key 0 1000 3000
advantages of methanol. Speed, r.p.m.

The results of the experiments conducted on a single Fig. 7.4.2 : Etrect of engine speed on B.P.
15
~
cylinder engine at wide open throttle (WOT) and at
variable speed with 15% methanol blend~ in gasoline ~ 14
are as follows : ~a.
1. The improvement in brake power is marginal as ..
E
:::>

g
13

·shown in Fig. 7.4.2. Improvement in brake power e 12

may be due to. better combustion fuel caused by "

c
GI
0
11
15% Melflanol blend

higher flame speed with methanol-gasoline blends l

en 10
0 1000 3000 5000
and due to increased volumetric efficiency.
Speed, r.p.m.

Fig. 7.4.3 : Effect of engine speed on SEC

I
/ -- __..-,
5 . - - - - - . , . . - - - - - . . . . , 500
.......
\
400
HC emissions
/ GaJoline - - - CO emissions
I
300

200

100

L__L---l--3000-!-:-:--'--~5~0000
0 1000
- -Speed
- -- --
Fig. 7.4.4 : Elfed of engine •peed on CO and hydrocarbon (HC) emhsloos , .

2. . also . decrease in specific energy

There ts 3. As shown in Fig. 7.4.4, there is a reductJ.on both m
CO and hydrocarbon emissions. It may be due to
consumption as shown in Fig. 7.4.3 which may be
higher air-fuel ratios obtuned with methaool-
due to better combustion and reduction in heat
gasoline blends as compared to gasoline.
losses to the cooli ng medium due. to reduced
4. The temperature of air-fuel mixture with
.temperatures attained during combustion.
methanol-gasoline blend is lower by 3°C to 4°C

SCanr'led w it h C amScanner
 M .
l.C. En Inoa MU-Sem. V-Mech Alternate Fuels & EJectronfc lne ContrOas .
7-8
.since the latent heat of vapourisatJon of methanol 1be results of the various experiments coodUctcd by
is much higher than gasoline. Jt Improves the researchers arc as follows :
volumetric efficiency of the engine. 1. Specific energy consumption increases with the
5. No engine modifications arc needed 10 work with increased revels of methanol fumigation.
15% methanol blend.~ with gu.o;olinc except it 2. Specific energy consumption substantially increases at
requires the retarded ignllion timing by l 0 Jow loads .
. compurcd lo gnsoJine engine.
3. NO& emi.'isions are reduced to almost 50%.
6. II is nccessruy lo use some resistant materials to
4. co emissions are also reduced.
prevent the attack of . methanol on rubber and
plastic m~terials.
Syllabus Topic : Hydrogen as Automotive Fuel
7.4.3 Methanol-Diesel Fuel Blends
7.5 Hydrogen as Fuel for S.I. Engines
Though methanol can be successfully used in spark
ignition engines without ·much modifications in the + (MU- Dec.10)

engines, it is extremely difficult to use pure methanol in Universil Question

diesel engines because of its very low cetane number, __·.
,a:~:. What. are. the advantages and dlsa .
:.~:,,.':-: ':.USing h · ro'gen iri s1 engine.
its tendency to attack on rubber and plastic materials
and due to low lubricating qualities causing trouble in Researchers for long time had been trying to use
operation of injection pumps and nozzles. hydrogen as an automotive fuel ~ince hydrogen is
Therefore, methanol in diesel engines can only be used available in abundance in water and it reduces the
as a supplementary fuel. environmental pollution caused by the use of
Many fumigation techniques have been tried for conventional fuels i,e. CO, C02 and hydrocarbon
admitting the methanol into cylinder as a emissions.
supplementary fuel in diesel engines.
.AISo, hydrogen provides a large amount of energy on
In most of the fumigation techniques, the system
combustion compared to petrol, it mixes very easily
utilises a low pressure injector placed at the heated
intake manifolds for continuous supply of methanol.
with arr and it can bum 4% lean mixtures to 75% rich
However, due to replacement of suction air by the mixtures on volume basis.

methanol vapour, the volumetric efficiency of the But, the production of hydrogen by electrolysis of
engine reduces and causes engine power Joss. water is quite expensive, however, hydrogen is
Some engines use the dual injection system for available as by-product from chemical industries like
injecting methanol and diesel. In this method, the caustic soda and the cost of production is quite
charge of diesel fuel is used to ·initiate the combustion
comparable with petrol.
process, and later the methanol is injected. ·
The problem faced while working with hydrogen as
However, the onset of misfrre limits the use of
fuel is due to its high explosive nature on combustion
methanol upto a limit of 15% approximately.
and development of high flame speeds.
In another method to avoid the reduction in volumetric
efficiency, the low pressure methanol injector is located Therefore, an engine working with hydrogen as fuel

near the intake valve which supplies the methanol needs to be provided with multiple flame quenchers

during the intake valve opening period only.

 •.·.. . : .· ·.·: :· .... "
..... . 'I,•·

.-·:

~~ . .

\:'.: ' ~' . ·..

and tlaine traps to avoid an .
Alternate Fuels & Electronic en lne Controls
. .. . y possible explosions in the
it J •.'
:.=:~~·~ mtake manifolds. · However, due to the problems of fast dwindling -. .

...... : resources of petroleum fuels, environmental pollution

;} ._;,: ': SJ. engines need io be od'fi ·
. m I ied for supplying the
: ... nuxture of hydrogen and air.
caused by diesel and today's strict emission regulation

I ·. Jaws, the vegetable oils with modifications are again

;
. '. Hydrogen is usually inducted . t ·
'" 0 1ntake manifolds
being tried by researchers as altematiye fuel for C.I •
after the carburettor and th . .
. e air is supplied from the air engines.
tank through an orifice plate.
,· Calorific value of vegetable oils is similar to diesel oil
The results ob"·=
i.<uned by van·ous researchers are and their properties are better than methanol and ·
appended below :
ethanol, therefore, the diesel engines can be operated
1. ·
There is reduction 10 upon with vegetable oils without or with certain
power upto an extent of 20%
when the engine is run on hydrogen compared to petrol. modifications.

It may be due to extremely low density of gaseous er PropertJes of Vegetable Olis Compared
hydrogen displacing the air.
to Diesel 011
2. Thennal efficiency reduces by 3% to 4 %.
I. Viscosity is much higher than diesel. It causes the
3. Specific energy consumption (SEC) is lower with problem of fueJ handling, pumping, atomisation and
hydrogen operation compared to gasollne, though in fuel jet penetration.
both the cases S.E.C. is decreased with the increased
2. Calorific value is slightly lower than diesel.
load.
3. Cetane number is slightly less than diesel.
4. In case hydrogen is used for dual fuel diesel engine
4. Density is slightly higher than diesel.
operation, for suppression of knock, the engine is
required to be designed with lower compression ratio. 5. Volatility is much lower than diesel.

5. Improvement in power upto 10% can be obtained by 6. Flash points are much higher than diesel oil, hence, the
retarding the ignition timing by 3° before TDC vegetable oils are quite safe to store.
c?mpared to specified gasoline ignition timings. 7. Carbon residue is much higher than diesel.

Vegetable ofls as Automotive Fuel 8. It gives rise to exhaust smoke.

er Methods of Modification of Properties

7.6 Vegetable Olis as Diesel Engine
Fuels of Vegetable Olis

~ (MU· May 11, May 12) The difficulties experienced in using the vegetable oils

Universit Question in diesel engines, as enumerated above, can be overcome to

a certain degree by the following methods :
Ma 11, Ma 12
1. Vegetable oil heating
Since the vegetable oils have high viscosity, poor
2. Esterification
volatility and high cost, these fuels were not considered
3. Thermal cracking of oil.
as suitable fuels for diesel engines in the past.

SCann@d With camscanner

 ~
. . · .-; :

~ - . . .

·1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mec~) Alternate Fuels & Electronic En Ina' Con~i~: i. ·:·
7-10
· Various vegetabl .0 ils li.lc . · -£ A Ka"ranjl OU (K.0.) Bt SS• C
.. e e karanji oil, sun flower oil,
nee bran oil n . · s e 35% blend of K.<;>. at 55• c
' eem 011 etc. have bee·n tried for use in diesel i '

·engines.

Discussion on use of· certain vegetable oils in C.I.

-~ 30 11 11

- - - Diesel at 38" C
- - - - - EsterofK.O. atso•c
20% blend of K.O. at 55• c .' ''·

'!

24 . ·..··
engines is given below :
~
0
UJ 18
Cl)

7.6.1 Karanjl 011 Operation a>

12
Various pro · .. . . ·
· perties of karan.J1 oil, its blends and methyl
6
ester of· karan~·1· 0 il are given in Table 7.6.1.

Table 7~6.1 : Properties of k.anutji oil 00 6 8

2
Brake power (kW)

Fig. 7.6.1 : B.P. Vs B.S.E.C.

Injection timing =27" B.T.D.C.
L Diesel 12.5 44000 57 0.821
2. Karaoji 120 37100 205 0.91
oil

3. Methyl 50 36910 165 0.885

ester of
karanji
10
oil

4. 20% 29.4 42700 2 4 6 8

81 0.836
karanji
Brake power (kW)
oil
Fig. 7.6.2 : B.P. Vs Brake thermal efficiency
blend
with Following are the results obtained:
diesel 1. The results of ester of karanji oii are comparable with
diesel oil.
5. 35% 36 41500 JOO 0.848
karanji 2. The brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) and
oil thermal efficiency with pure karanji oil and its blends
blend with diesel oil were found to be higher and lower

with respectively as shown in Figs. 7.6.1 and 7.6.2.

diesel 3. With injection timing at 30° B.T.D.C. the performance

with karanji oil and its blends improves. (Graphs . not
The results of the experiments conducted on single
shown)
cylinder, water cooled diesel engine of rated power 7.5 kW
4. Karanji oil give performance comparable to diesel oil
at 1500 rpm are shown in Fig. 7.6.1 and Fig. 7.6.2 with
without any combustion knock.
injection ti.ming at 27°C B.T.D.C.

S<.:;i1 11it.-dw 1 L1 1 ~rnSc;innt.'f

 ·,' ..
..~ ' t.

,,.
;
• . ..

·.' ' -· -- ~tc.e ~- ··:

Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech . 7-11 ' . Alternate Fuels & EJecirQnlc Engine Controis _
s. There is a.problem of carbon deposits on injector tip, The presence of COi in biogas reduces itS octane rati.l18·

. pistOn head and piston ring grooves with vegetable oils. The octane rating ofbiogas is 110 with C02 ln_case the. C02'
is removedfrom the biogas (CH4) its octane rating incr~ases ·
6. Injection _pressures required are higher while working to about 130 as again.rt the octaM rating ofpetrol of87.
with karanji oil compared to diesel oil.
The properties ofbiogas are as follows :
7. co emissions were low~r with ester of karanji oil (i) It has excellent antilcnock properties compared tO petrol
·compared to diesel. since it octane rating is higher than petrol.

It can be concluded that ester of karanji oil and its (ii) Its ·auto-ignition ·temperature (7300 C) is higher than
blend upto 35% with diesel can be effectively employed in petrol (470° C) which makes it a safer fuel. Therefore~
it can use higher compression ratio. ·
the existing C.I. engines. For better . performance the
injection timings need to be retarded by 3° compared to (iii) It readily mixes with ~ even at low tempe~s.

diesel engine. Thus, it does not need to provide rich mixtures at the
time of startllig or at no loads (idling).
7.6.2 Sunflower 011 Operation (iv) Only disadvantage using biogas is that it has low
heating value compared to petrol. However. " use . of
The results of operation with sunflower oil_on C.I.
higher C.R. can compensate the Joss of power output
engines compared to diesel operation are as follows :
er Application of Biogas In Petrol Engines
(i) Sunflower oil needs to be heated before injecting upto
Biogas can be used in S.L engines after initial starting
S0°C for better perfonnance and the injection timings
the engine on petrol. It needs about 550 litres of gas per
needs to be retarded by I 0 to 2° compared to diesel oil.
kWh to run a S.I. engine. The engine can either run purely
(ii) BSEC increases by 10% and the thermal efficiency on biogas. Also, it can run as duel fuel engine either on
redu~s by about l to 2%. biogas or petrol. It has the advantage that the ~ngine can run
on petrol if the availability of biogas is not there.
(iii) Problem of filter clogging exists.
Minor modifications in the S.I. engine are needed like
(iv) Carbon deposits increases.
provision for supply of biogas, throttling of intake air and
advancing the ignition timing.
Syllabus Topic : Biogas as Automotive Fuel
r:r Use of Bfogas In Diesel Engln.es
7.7 Applications of Blogas In Engines
Biogas can be better used in C.I. engines in a duel fuel
As indicated above, the biogas is produced by engine to improve its performance. It is more coove~ent to
digestion, hydrolysis and hydro-gasification. use biogas since it has high self ignition temperature of

.The composition ofbiogas is as follows: about 7~0° C. Moreover, the engine can be switched from

duel fuel operation to diesel operation almost

instantaneously in case of emergency.
CH, 50% to60% In duel-fuel C.I. engine, the biogas is added to the air
inducted into the engine. The mixture is compressed in the
C02 30% to40%
cylinder. Before. top dead centre (TDC). a small amount of

H2andN2 5%to 10% diesel fuel called pilot fqel is injected through the
. .
conventional diesel fuel injection system.
Very small amount

--- --- - - --
Scanned w ith CarnScanner
 " ': ·.

~ . · '

l.C. Engines·(MU-Sem; V·Mech) 7-12

_This pilot fuel acts as·the source of auto-ignition. The

-·:· .. ..i
gas-air mixture in the vicinity of injected fuel spray ignites . ,;·jJ

at number of places establishing the number of flame fronts. : ·,-,c·.'J

Now the combustion of fuel takes place by propagation of 7.8 Introduction to Electronic Contra! _·: -~":·.,\,
flame fronts as in S.I. engines. The ·combustion process is _ ___JD~e~v!!!lc~e::,:s:_..----~---~ - ..:~
~pid and smooth. The pilot-fuel injected required is about
7 Vehicles use the electronic control dcvi.-AA . . . , )
to 8 percent of total heat of engine at full load. However, Modern ._Ill · ..
to run
the engine at sufficient speed, the diesel fuel required .
order to 1.DlP
rove the fuel economy, reduce emissions
·
. ' , :_..
lllld . ·.
to be injected is 15% to 20%. · . 'th tlmum performance and efficiency. ·
provide w1 op .
The ignition injection timing for a normal diesel engine ard computer system called eledJ....~,
Tue on-bo --VQlc
is 16°-20° ~TDC. The injection timing needs to be advanced
engine cont ro1 system is used to control the Parts of .1._ '
slightly for its smooth and ~fficient Junciioning. It is
'llC

· . . . and emission systems and also to control .1._

necessary since retarding the engine causes the combustion fuel, igruuon 'llC

to start only after TDC which in tum causes the reduction in drive train, valve train etc.
I

power and efficiency. Too much advancing the injection

Syllabus Topic : ECM
timing causes knocking-of engine.

Therefore, the modification of duel-fuel engine using lectronic control Unit (ECU) and_
biogas (80%) and diesel fuel upto 20% as pilot fuel are: 7.8.1 E I (EC
Electronic control Modu e M)
{i) Advancing the injection timing of diesel fuel by . '

1° to 2°. An electronic control unit (ECU) is an. embed<fCd .

· utomobiles to control one or more syste111s
system used in a . ·
(ii) Provision of mixing chamber before air cleaner for ome of the systems used are :
The examp1es o f S
through mixing of biogas and air before it is inducted
(i) Electronic Control Module (ECM)
into the cylinder during its suction stroke.
(ii) Transmission Control Module (fCM)
c:r · Advantages of using blogas In C.I. engines
(iii) Power Control Module (PCM)
(i) . A uniform gas-air mixture is available in multi-
(iv) Central Timing Module (CTM) etc.
cylinder engines.

(ii) CO emissions are greatly reduced. 7•8.2 Electronic control Module (ECM)
(iii) NOx emissions are almost 60% ~f diesel engines.
ECM is basically an on-board computer in a vehicle
(iv) Formation of soot is almost eliminated.
which basically monitors a network of sensors around the
(v) Pungent odour in exhaust is greatly reduced. vehicle to control the injection of fuel and air and supply
(vi) Clean combustion reduces the wear of engine parts spark at the correct timing a~ all operating conditions of the
and the lubricatl?g oil consumption. vehicle. It ensures that the vehicle runs smoothly within the
(vii) Only small amount of costly diesel fuel is needed to normal operating range. It also ensures that the vehicle runs
run the engine. on minimum 1ue
1: l consumpti.on and minimum exhaust

(viii) The h~at of exhaust can be utilized for digesting the emissions.
sludge in case of sewage disposal plants. The system is designed as per the required

(ix) It has great flexibility of operation. specifications of the engine.

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~ l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V-Mech) 7·13 Alternate Fuels & Electronic Engine Conb'ols

Syllabus Topic affects the performance of the engine. MAP adjusts the
Input and Output signals from ECM fuel injectors throwing time.as per mass of air flow.

(v) Oxygen sensors : It measures the quality of emissions.

7.9 Basic Functions of ECM
(vi) Idle Control sensors and EGR valve sensors : It
An ECM mainly consists of the following.
helps in control o_f ignition and emissions. It regulates
(Refer Fig; 7.9.1)
the timing of spark plug.
(i) Input device sensors like throttle valve sensor, coolant
.(vii) Inlet air temperature (IAT) sensor : It is used ·as an
. temperature sensor, crankshaft and crankshaft sensor
input signal to ECM for assessing the mass of incoming
etc.
air since density of air is inversely proportioruil to
(ii) Computer (There is a microprocessor that receives and
temperature.
interprets the input of sensors. It consists of a standard
It helps I assists the ECM on determining the correct
circuit board as hardware that is encoded with software
requirement of the fuel by the engine.
i.e. a program to run the vehicle)

(iii) Output device sensors which causes the changes in the 7.9.2 Input and Output Signals
engine to its operation.
Switches and input sensors (indicated above) send the
input signals to ECM. It provides the information about the
operating conditions of the engine. .

With the help of input sensors and ~nergy input. the

ECM processes this information and issues output signals
commands to appropriate output devices like operation of
ignition and fuel devices.
Fig. 7.9.1 : Schematic Arrangement of ECM The output signals_from ECM ~auses an electronic or
electrical device to operate e.g. motors, lamps, LED's,
Syllabus·Topic relays etc.
Mass Air flow end Exhaust Gas Oxygen sensors
7.9.3 Analog and Qlgltal Signals
7.9.1 Input Sensors
ECM receives the analog input signals and after
Various input sensors are : processing these signals, it generates both analog and digital
sign~s as output
(l) Throttle position sensor : It tells the engine bow much
An analog signal represents a continuously variable
fuel and air to mix.
voltage e.g. a throttle position sensor incorporates a
(b') Coolant temperature sensor : It tells whether the continuous variable resistor to generate an analog signal by
engine is running too bot. It is indicated by a light on changing the internal resistance of the sensor with the
instrument pannel and alerts the driver. position of the throttle. The value of the signal may be from
zero voltage upto battery voltage. An analog signal is shown
(ill) Crankshaft and camshaft sensor : It provides the
in Fig. 7.9.2 (i).
position of these and identifies the engine cycle.

(iv) Mass air flow sensor and manifold absolute

. pressure (MAP) sensors : These monitor the way air

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 .... ·

Alternate fuels & Electronic Engine COn~~ . <;::-~

~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech; 7-14
. tive electronic -unit, a digital signal ~

vwmb;C;d e1
In an automo .
·mer zero volts or
·
+s
volts.
.
f device which generates a digital sigiia}' i ·_
Example o a . s -.:., :. ·;
. . )
, . .: . _.
· ·· .. ·

th
a switch. When e
switch is open 1t represents the position . ,' .
. . . . · · .·, .'.
>
(i) Analog signal (ii) Digibll signal volts and when 1t 1s closed It represents . · ·· • ,
~~m•m~ ·
Highfon/+5 volts. · .
Ff&. 7.'J.2 : Analog and Digital Signals ·
. digital signal stays is ~alled the n ..1ft.
The durauon a ~
A signal that represent just two voltage levels is called
width.
digital signal. In these type of signals, the voltage dose not
· be { times the digital·signal states changes
~ary con~uously. It is shown in Fig. 7.9.2(ii) The num r 0
· high to low is called the signal frequency.
persecond from _
Digital signals bas two states only defined as :
e of time of ON Vs OFF is called the
The percentag
High I Low or On/Off or 1/0 .
duty cycle.

Syllabus Topic : ECM Sensors, Camshaft Position

7.10 Location of lnput'Sensors and their Effect on Output

-
. - \

1· Throttle position Located on throttle body or on It tells the engine how much fuel to mix with
Sensor (TPS) accelerator pedal air to make power. On pressing the accelerator
by driver, ECM increases the injector pUtse
width.

2· Engine coolant Located either near the bottom of the When the temperature of coolant temperature
temperature radiator or at the top of radiator hose reaches between (75 - 90)° C, the ECM directs
(ECT) sensor leading to engine block the radiator fan to tum on and the cooling of
liquid will start. If temperature exceeds the
limit as per specifications, a warning light is
displayed on dash board for driver to stop the
engine

3. Inlet air Located on air filter or the pipe going· It helps the ECM to assess mass volume of
temperature (IAT) from air filter box to throttle body incoming air charge. It assists in detennining
sensor the correct fuel requirement to suit the
conditions according to IAT

4 Barometric Located on intake manifolds. Some It helps the ECM to assess the mass of
pressure I vehicles like Toyota has IAT and incoming air and assists in determining the
manifold absolute MAP sensors built as one unit located fuel requirement.
pressure (MAP) on air filter box
sensor

5. Mass air flow Located either on air cleaner box or It contains the heated sensing element who'se
(MAF) sensor along the pipe from air cleaner to temperature is kept constant and it assists to
throttle body determine the air - fuel ratio requirement.
 ... ., ..---;--. - -.-- . .... .. - ·. ·
. .. .
. ,,
.

,
.
.-.:.~

. the current position

6 Camshaft position Camshaft sensor is located at one end Camshaft sensor provides . ulate
sensor and of the camshaft while the crankshaft of camshaft which helps the ECM to calc th
d ly fuel ·to e
crankshaft sensor is located . at the bottom of · which valve is open an supp . .
position sensor engine close to crankshaft cylinder through injector.

Crankshaft sensor provides the exact

location of crankshaft and speed of the
engine. It helps the ECM to find the
position of piston in each cylinder and
locate exactly which fuel.
Therefore, the above two sensor
positions helps the ECM to assess the
exact timing and locate injector needs
to be activated to supply fuel and spark
for optimum· performance by · the
engine.

7 Oxygen (OJ Located near in the exhaust 0 2 present in exhaust makes the ECM• to
h
Sensor assess whether engine is consuming ng t
amount of. fuel and ensures minimum
emissions.

7.10.1 Ideal Control and EGA Valve Sensor

These sensors helps the emission and ignition control Section I : Alternate Fuels
and regulates the spark plug.
Energy crisis has led to the search of alternative fuels ·
7.10.2 Electronic Spark Control (ESC) for J.C. engines. These include L.P.G, CNG, biogas,
producer gas, ethanol, methanol and vegetable oils.
Exact time of supplying the spark is important
Factors which affect in the selection of alternative
according to the speed and other operating conditions since
fuels are : It should require minimum modifications in
it affects the power output efficiency and emissions. Wrong the engine, comparative cost, low exhaust emissions,
timing may cause detonation and knocking. availability on large scale, high calorific value and
safety. to handle.
An el~nic spark control sensor detects the presence
of detonation and its intensity- by the vibration Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as alternative fuel bas
the following advantages :
characteristics of the engine.
1. It makes homogeneous mixture wi_tb air.
The ESC controller processes the sensor signal ·into a
2. It is cheap
command signal to the distributor to adjust the spark timing
3. Knock resistant
continuously. It helps to main emissions, economy and
4. Does not preignite easily
performance.
5. It has n~gligible cofl:lbustion deposits and
The distributor contains an electronic ignition module crankcase dilution.
and the magnetic pick up assembly. This assembly bas a
It's disadvantage is that it has high latent heat of
permanent magnet a pole piece with internal tech and a pick vapourisation, low volumetric efficiency, need high
up cool.

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·. , . ..

-me l.C. E Ines (MU-Sem. V-Meeh) 7-16

Alternate Fuels & Electronic Engine~ .. ·.
(laJlle traps to - avoid explosicins in .
C.R., to be stored at high pressure and it cannot quenchers _and U f H reduces power outptit 20% ··
maintain lubrication of injection pump. intake manifolds. se o z • .
al efficiency by 3 to 4% and BSEC is .
Comp~ natural gas (CNG) has its main reduces tbenn to operation on engme · w1'th gasoline. ·
· constituent ns CH" (80% - 98%) which is highly knock Jowercompared
Us are being tried on diesel engines with
resistant. It has low energy density. It has to be stored Vegetab~ 0 an alternative fuel.. Vegetable oils
at high pressures ( J60 - 200) bar, On combustion, it modifications as . · light!
ed diesel have higher v1scos1ty, s y lower
produces low exhaust emissions. compar to mber higher density. lower volatility
c y and cetane nu •
Working with CNG in S.I. engines, it produces low · . fl h point. On combustion produces higher
and higher as
B.P., BSEC ·is high and needs advancing of spark
carbon res1'd"'"
..... and exhaust smoke.
timing (8° to 10°) and produces low exhaust emissions
compared to working with petrol.
·m Jties experienced working with vegetable oils
Di icu me by oil beating upto 55.°C or by
can be overco
Because of high S.l.T of CNG, it is employed as dual
esterification.
fuel for C.I. engines. It gives better power output, low
blends upto 35% can be used while the
BSES, higher thennal efficiency and lower exhaust Karanjl o11 ,ii oil gives comparable resul ts to d'iescl
emissions. CNG substitution can be made upto 80% at ester of karan'J rmal ffi ·
. · higher BSEC, lower the e 1c1ency,
medium and high loads. 011. It gives . .
higher carbon deposits • lower CO ermss1ons.
From the series of Alcohols, methanol is likely to be
. an be operated with sunflower oil by
candidate for automotive engines. Difficulties C.I. engmes c ed. . . t i m i•n ' b 0
. . t sooc and retard tgrution . gs y 1
experienced in operation of engines with pure alcohols heatl.Ilg it up o o
are: o
to 2 . 1t lDC
· ceases BSEC by
•
10
•
• reduces
•
thermal
. b 10 to 2° and 1t gives higher carbon
(i) Cold starting· problem due to high enthalpy of e ffic1ency Y
vapourisation and high boiling point deposits.
Biogas as S.I. Fuel has excellen~ anti knock prope~es,
(ii) Makes explosive mixture
. ·u·on temperature is 730 C (thus can use high
auto 1gru
(iii) Formation of gum and attack on plastic and rubber C.R.) but has low beating value compared to petrol. It
materials can be used after starting with petrol.
(iv) Reduced vehicle range Biogas in diesel engines can be used in a duel fuel
(v) Requires higher C.J~.. engine since it has high S.I.T.
Advantages are :
Section II : Basics of Electronic
,·
.(i) Higher output Engine Control
(ii) Higher efficiency
(iii) Low NO~ and hydrocarbon emissions. The on-board compu~er system called electronic
control system is used to control the fuel-air~ ignition
Usually bl~nds of methanol with petrol can be used
in S.I. engines upto 15% blends. It decreases BSEC, and emission systems.
gives better B.P., reduced emissions, improves Electronic control Unit (ECU) is an embedded system
volumetric efficiency and requires no engine used in automobiles to control one or more systems like
modifications. ECM, TCM, PCM etc.
Pure methanol is not suitable for C.I. engines An electronic control module (ECM) is an on-board
because of its low cetane number and lower lubricating computer having a network of sensors around . the
qualities for injection pumps. It is used as vehicle to control the injection of fuel and air, supply_
supplimentary fuel either in duai injection system or by spark at correct timing at all operating conditions for
injecting the methanol by low pressure injector located smooth running of the engine.
·n ear intake vatve'. Methanol upto 15% can be used in The main components of ECM are input sensors,
C.I. engines. It increases BSEC and reduces exhaust battery, a computer and actuaters I devices to provide
emissions. output.
. .:. Hydrogen is suitable for use in S.I. engines but it ECM receives the analog signals from sensors and
makes explosive mixture on combustion and produces after processing generates the digital signals. .An
high flame speeds. Therefore. engine needs flame analog signal represents a continuous variable voltage

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.·. \
·:. ~ .
~:

~ 1.C. E.n i~es (MU-Sem. V-MeCh) 7-17 Alternate Fuels & EleCtronlc Engine Controls

while .a digital signal represents just the two voltage 0.5 Write a short note on use of CNG as fuel for S.I.
engines. [Section 7.3(1)) . .
levels defined as high/low or on/off or 1/0 1
a. 6 can we employ pure CNG for C.I. engines
11u'Ott1e position (TPS) sensor is located on accelator
[Section 7.3(2)) • 'of
pedal and help ECM to process the injector pulse width o. 7 Discuss the use of CNG for dual fuel operatiOn
for supply of fuel. ' C.I. engines. [Section 7.3(2)]
Engine coolant temperature (ECI') sensor is located a. e What Is the present state of alcohols for use as an
at the bottom or top of radiator. ECM directs the alternative fuel for l.C. engines 1 [Section 7 •41
radiator -fan to start once it is within the specified a. 9 What are the difficulties experienced to use pure
temperature range as per specifications of the engine. methanol in l.C. engines ? How these problems can
be overcome ? What are the advantages to use
Inlet air temperature (IAT) sensor is located on air
pure methanol in l.C. engines ?
filter box and helps the ECM to assess the mass volume
-· -[Sections 7 .4.1 and 7 .4.2)
of incoming air.
a. 1o What are methanol blends 1 Upto what extent the
Manifold absolute presmre (MAP) sensor is located methanol blends can be used in S.I. engines 1
on intake manifolds and it helps the ECM to assess the Discuss the experimental results of the use of
mass of incoming air and assist in determining the fuel methanol blends in S.I. engines. [Section 7.4.2)
requiremenL a. 11 Can we employ methanol CNG as fuel for C.I.
Mass air Oow (MAF) semor is located on air cleaner engines ? If not, what are the ways by which
methanol can be used In C.I. engines? ·
box which is heated sensing element It helps ECU to
find air fuel requirement. (Section 7.4.3)
Q.12 What are the effects of using methanol as
Calmhaft semor is located at one position of camshaft supplimentary fuel In C.I. engines ?
while the crankshaft sensor is located at the bottom of [Section 7 .5)
engine close to crankshaft. Their positions help the Q, 13 Compare the properties of vegetable oils with diesel
ECM to assess the exact timing and locate the which oil. [Section 7.6)
fuel injector needs to be operated to supply fuel and a. 14 How the properties of vegetable oils can be modified
spark.. for use in l.C. engines ? [Section 7.6]
0 2 Sensor is located near the exhaust manifolds. It 0. 15 State the composition of biogas -and compare Its
helps the ECM to assist whether the engine is properties with petrol. How it can be used as fuel In
consuming right amount of fuel for minimum S.I. Engines? [Section 7.7]

1 f/ffo
emissions. 0. 16 Discuss the use of biogas as fuel for diesel engines

Exercise .1
and ils advantages [Section 7.7]

Section II : Basics of Electronic

\ _
--, ~
l lY'- .
Engine Control
Section I : Alternate Fuels

0.17 What are ECU and ECM 1 Differentiate between

0.1 Enfist and explain different alternate fuels for S.I.
and C.I. engines. the two. [Section 7.8.1, 7.8.2]
[Sections7.1 and7.1.1] O. 18 What are main components of ECM 1 State the
0.2 Discuss the factors which are essential In selection functions of inputs sensors. [Section 7.9, 7.9.1]
of fuels as an alternative to conventional fuels.
[Section 7.1] 0 . 19 State the types of signals used by ECM and
0.3 Discuss the merits of using LPG as alternative fuel represents them schematically. [Section 7 .9.2]
for S.I. engines ? [Section 7.2]
What is CNG ? What are its advantages ? O. 18 Write a detailed note on location of Input sensors
0.4
[Section 7 .3] and their effect on output after the ECM processes
the input? [Section 7.10))

aaa

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