CHAPTER 1: The Development of Computer Networks

Stand alone computers, first introduced in the late 1970s, gave users the ability to create
documents, spreadsheets, and other types of data and save them for future use. For the small
business user or home computer enthusiast, this was great. For larger companies, it became a
burden as the need to share information between offices grows. Stand alone computers were
inadequate for the following reasons:

• Their small hard drive capacities were insufficient

• To print, each computer requires a printer attached separately or locally.
• Sharing documents was cumbersome and time consuming. People grew tired of having to
save to a diskette and then take that diskette to the recipient. This procedure was called
SneakerNet.

The greater need to share information and resources then lead to an extensive research
spearheaded by the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) of the United
States and other organizations to create a network linking computers and organizational units
together. The end result was the creation of protocols (a predefined set of rules that indicates
how computers or devices communicate and exchange data on the network). The evolution of
these successes led to the development of a very dominant set of protocols (or protocol suite)
called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internetwork Protocol). This unique group of
specifications (protocol suit) governs and facilitates the linking of computers locally and
practically all over the world.

Workstation
Computer

Server
Printer

Hub/switch

Workstation
Computer
Workstation
Computer

Scanner

Sample Computer Network

1
Modern Computer Networks
Realizing the benefits and importance of data and resource sharing, many companies are now
connecting their networks from various departments and subsidiaries to each other, and
implementing management tools that can govern the entire collection. These departments or
organizational units might be geographically located on opposite sides of the world or in the
same building. Some companies and individuals link with other companies on different
continents creating a truly global network called the internet.

Linking Computers with People

Every time when you are using the telephone, you are using the world’s largest computer
network of the telephone system. A telephone is an end point, or a node, connected to a network
of computers that route or send your voice signals to any one of the 500 million telephones
(other nodes) in the world. In a computer network the node can be a terminal, a computer, or any
destination or source device such as a printer or an automatic teller machine.

2
CHAPTER 2: Networking Basics
What is networking?
Networking is the interconnection of two or more independent computers together so that they
can communicate, exchange information and share resources. Computers are powerful devices
or machines. When they are connected together in a network, they become even more powerful
because the functions and tools that each computer provides can be shared with other computers.
Networks exist for one major reason: to share data and resources. Resource sharing can take
many forms: for example programs, applications, information (or data), printer, central
processing unit (CPU), hard drive, folders and files, internet connection, website or a
combination of these.

Reasons for Networking

The reasons for networking can be summarized as follows:
» Networking enables communication and sharing of resources among computers or nodes.
» Users can access files and other resources simultaneously from any where in the network (that
is, location independence of hosts and workstations)
» There is greater security since it is much easier to protect centralized network resources than
when they are distributed.
» Processing of data and resources can be distributed or shared over the network thus balancing
the network load.
» For personal communications (like e-mail, chat, audio/video conferencing)
» For centralized storage and back up of shared data and files.

Advantages of Networking
Speed
Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a network, files are
shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one computer to
another. This method of transferring files in this manner is very time-consuming.

Cost
The network version of most software programs are available at considerable savings when
compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a
network allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the
file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.

Centralized Software Management

One of the greatest benefits of installing a network is the fact that all of the software can be loaded
on one computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing
updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the network.

3
Resource Sharing
Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone computers. Most
businesses cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM
players for each computer. However, if these similar peripherals or devices are added to a network,
they can be shared by many users.

Flexible Access
Networks allow one to access their files from computers throughout the network environment. For,
example a user (student) can save part of his or her work in a storage media such as floppy disk or
flash disk and then go to finish it at home or at work. Users can also work cooperatively through the
network.

Security
Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do not have to
worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for specific directories
to restrict access to authorized users.

Components of a Network
A computer network comprises the following components:
• A minimum of at least 2 computers
• Cables that connect the computers to each other devices or computers, although wireless
communication is becoming more common.
• A network interface device on each computer (this is called a network interface card or NIC)
• A Switch or Hub used to switch the data from one point to another.
• Network operating system software that runs on server and client computers.

Terminology
• Voice network – a network that transmits telephone signals
• Data network – a network that transmits computer data
• Data communications – the transfer of digital or analog data using digital or analog signals
• Telecommunications – the study of telephones and the systems that transmit telephone signals
• Network management – the design, installation, and support of a network, including its hardware and
software
• Workgroup - is a collection of individuals (for example, a sales department) who share the same
resources such as files, programs and databases over the LAN.
• Protocols - a predefined set of rules that indicates how computers or devices communicate and
exchange data on the network. E.g. TCP/IP
• Topology – is the layout or map of the network
• Packet – Block of data sent over a network or communication link
• Frame – A block of data that is transmitted as a single unit. A frame is also referred to as packet or
block.
• Segment – Is a portion or part of a larger network. A segment also refers to a unit smaller than a
packet.

4
CHAPTER 3: Types of Networks
Networks can be very simple, such as a small group of computers that share information, or they
can be very complex, spanning large geographical areas. There are two major types of networks:
Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN).

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is limited to a specific or small geographic area, usually within an
office, a building or group of buildings that are in close proximity (very close to each other).
The distinctive characteristic of LAN is that computers or nodes (end systems) are linked by
direct cables such as coaxial cable, fibre optic cable, or wireless links, rather than via
telecommunication lines. The first LANs were limited to a range (from a central point to the
most distant computer) of 185 meters (about 600 feet) and no more than 30 computers. Today’s
technology allows a larger LAN of a range of over 200 meters and more than 100 computers.
LAN networks are usually divided it into small, logical units called workgroups.

Sample Local Area Network

5
Wide Area Network
A WAN is any network that crosses metropolitan, regional, national or continental boundaries.
The Internet is the largest WAN on the planet. The Internet is a collection of networks that are
interconnected and, therefore, is technically an inter-network (or Internet for short). A WAN can
be centralized or distributed. A centralized WAN consists of a central server computer (at a
central point) to which other client computers, nodes or end systems connect. A distributed
WAN consists of many interconnected LANs in several different locations. The Internet is an
example of a distributed WAN.

Sample Wide Area Network

6
Comparison characteristics of LAN and WAN

WIDE AREA NETWORKS LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

• WANs cover greater distances • LANs cover limited distances
• WANs speeds are slower. This trend is • LANs speeds are usually faster
shifting as faster WAN technologies are
being developed.
• WANs can be connected on demand or • LANs have permanent connections
permanently connected between stations.
• WANs can use public or private network • LANs primarily use private network
transports. transports
• WANs can use either full- or half-duplex • LANs typically use half-duplex
communications. communications, although many local
area networks today use full-duplex
communications.

Metropolitan Area Network

It is a network spanning a geographical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as
a metropolitan city. A MAN is typically owned or operated by a single entity such as a
government body or large corporation.

Half-Duplex or Full-Duplex
All network communications can be categorized as half-duplex or full-duplex. With half-duplex,
communications happen in both directions, but in only one direction at a time. When two
computers communicate using half-duplex, one computer sends a signal and the other receives;
then at some point, they switch sending and receiving roles. Full-duplex, on the other hand,
allows communication in both directions at the same time. Either stations or persons can send
and receive signals at the same time. Full-duplex communications are similar to a telephone call,
in which both people can talk at the same time.

7
CHAPTER 4: Network Elements
Host, Workstation, and Server
Networks are made up of lots of different components, but the three most common network
components are the host, workstation, and server. There are three primary components of a
network: host, workstation and server.

Workstations
A workstation is any computer on a network that is used for a specific purpose such as graphics,
computer Aided Design (CAD), software development and scientific applications. Workstations
have fast (sometimes multiple) central processing units (CPUs), large amount of memory and
disk. In the network environment, the term workstation simply refers to any computer that is
connected to the network and used by an individual to do work. It is important to distinguish
between workstations and clients. A client is any machine or device that can request resources
from the network; a workstation is a computer that can request resources. Workstations can be
clients, but not all clients are workstations. For example, a printer is a client that can request
resources from the network but it is not a workstation.

Servers
A server provides or serves resources to the clients on the network. Servers are typically
powerful computers that run the software that controls and maintains the network. This software
is known as the network operating system. Servers are often dedicated (specialized for a single
purpose).

Here are some examples of servers that are dedicated to a single task:

Server Description
File Server Holds and distributes files
Print Server Controls and manages one or more printers for the network.
Proxy Server Performs a function on behalf of other computers. (Proxy
means” on behalf of.”)
Application Server Hosts a network application
Web Server Holds and delivers web pages, files and other web content using
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol.
Ftp Server Holds and delivers files using File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Mail Server Hosts and delivers e-mail. It’s the electronic equivalent of a
post office
Fax Server Sends and receives faxes (via a special fax board) for the entire
network without the need for paper.
Remote Access Server Listens for inbound requests to connect to the network from the
outside. Provides remote users (working at home or on the
road) with connections to the network.
Telephony server Functions as a “smart” answering machine for the network. It
can also perform call center and call-routing functions.

8
Servers have the following in common:
Hardware and/or software for data integrity ( such as backup hardware and software)
The capacity to support a large number of clients

Physical resources, such as hard-drive space and memory, must be greater in a server than in a
workstation because the server needs to provide services to any clients. Also, a server should be
located in a physically secure area.

Hosts

The term host refers every other networking device. It can also refer to a workstation and server
or a stand alone pc or system on the network. A host usually has one or more IP addresses.

host host

host
Client/host

host

Network Elements

9
CHAPTER 5: Network Architecture
There are two ways to set up a network:
1. Client/server.
2. Peer-to-peer

Peer-to-Peer Network
In peer-to-peer networks, the connected computers have no centralized authority. Peer-to-peer
networks are more commonly implemented where less then ten computers are involved and
where strict security is not necessary. All computers have the same status or equal, hence the
term 'peer', and they communicate with each other on an equal footing. Files, such as word
processing or spreadsheet documents, can be shared across the network and all the computers on
the network can share devices, such as printers or scanners, which are connected to any one
computer. If a user of one computer wants access to a resource on another computer, the
security check for access rights is the responsibility of the computer holding the resource. Each
computer in a peer-to-peer network can be both a client that requests resources and a server that
provides resources.

Peer-to-peer networks present some challenges. For example, backing up company data is very
difficult. Also, it can be difficult to remember where you stored a file. Also, because security is
not centralized, users and passwords must be maintained separately on each machine.

Peer to Peer
Network

Peer to Peer Networking

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

• Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server
• Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to be
reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

• Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.
• Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

10
Client/Server Networks
A client/server network uses a network operating system designed to manage the entire network
from a centralized point or server. Clients make request to the server, and the server responds
with information or access to a resources. Client/server networks are more suitable for larger
networks. A central computer, or ' server', acts as the storage location for files and applications
shared on the network. Usually the server is a higher than average performance computer. The
server also controls the network access of the other computers which are referred to as the ' client'
computers. Typically, users will use the client computers for their work and only the network
administrator (usually a designated staff member) will have access rights to the server.

Client/server networks have some definite advantages over peer-to-peer networks. For one
thing, the network is much more organized. It is easier to find files and resources because they
are stored on the server. Also, client/server networks generally have much tighter security. All
usernames and passwords are stored in the same database (on the server). Finally, client/server
networks have better performance and can scale almost indefinitely. A client/server networks
can have tens of thousands of computers or workstations. The server holds the database of user
accounts, passwords and access rights.

File Server

Other
equipment

Fig 3: Client - Server Networking

Advantages of a client/server network:

• Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
• Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
• Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
• Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
• Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

• Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
• Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
• Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network.

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Summary comparison characteristics of Peer-to-Peer and Client/Server Networks

Peer-to-Peer Networks vs Client/Server Networks

Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Networks

• Easy to set up • More difficult to set up
• Less expensive to install • More expensive to install
• A variety of operating systems can be
• Can be implemented on a wide range supported on the client computers, but the
of operating systems server needs to run an operating system that
supports networking
• More time consuming to maintain • Less time consuming to maintain the
the software being used (as computers software being used (as most of the
must be managed individually) maintenance is managed from the server)
• High levels of security are supported, all
• Very low levels of security supported
of which are controlled from the server.
or none at all. These can be very
Such measures prevent the deletion of
cumbersome to set up, depending on
essential system files or the changing of
the operating system being used
settings
• Ideal for networks with less than 10 • No limit to the number of computers that
computers can be supported by the network
• Requires a server running a server
• Does not require a server
operating system
• Demands that the network administrator
• Demands a moderate level of skill to has a high level of IT skills with a good
administer the network working knowledge of a server operating
system

12
CHAPTER 6: Topology
Topology is the pictorial representation of the layout of a network. The physical topology of a
network describes the layout of the cables and workstations and the locations of all network
components. Often, physical topologies are compared to logical topologies. Logical topology
defines how the information or data flows within the network. It is important to note, however,
that a network can have one type of physical topology and a completely different logical
topology as described earlier. The cables or connections in a physical topology are referred to as
network media (or physical media).

Physical vs. Logical Concepts

Physical Topology is the basic layout of the network cabling. It is the aspect of the network that
you can touch or that has physical substances. It comprises the hardware and the way cables are
run. Logical topology is the basic layout of the network signaling. Physical topologies are
imaginary and deal with things like how data flows in a network.

There are Four major topologies.

Bus
Star
Ring
Mesh/Web

Bus Topology
In a bus topology, each computer connects to a single continuous cable, often know as bus cable
that is terminated at both ends. A bus topology is the simplest way to create a physical network.
The cable is usually drawn in a straight line, but in reality, the piece of cable could be running
through walls, under desks or the floor and up to the ceiling.

When communicating on a network that uses a bus topology, all computers see that data on the
wire. This does not create chaos, though, because the only computer which data is addressed to
actually receives the data.

Bus topology

13
Characteristics of Bus topology
• Bus topology consists of a single linear cable called the bus cable or trunk.
• Data is sent to all computers on the trunk. Each computer examines every packet on the wire.
Only the computer which the packet is addressed to receives the messages.
• Bus is a passive topology.
• Performance degrades as more computers are added to the bus.
• Signal bounce is eliminated by a terminator at each end of the bus.
• Barrel connectors can be used to lengthen cable.
• Repeaters can be used to regenerate signals.
• It’s good for a temporary, small (fewer than 10 people) network
• Bus topology is difficult to isolate or resolve malfunctions (network failures) and if the
backbone goes down, the entire network goes down.

A bus topology has the following advantages:

Is simple to install
Is relatively inexpensive
Uses less cable than other topologies

The following characteristics describe the disadvantage side of a bus topology:

Is difficult to move and change
Has little fault tolerance (a single fault can bring down the entire network)
Is difficult to troubleshoot

Star Topology
In a star topology each computer is connected to a central point by a separate cable or wireless
connection. The central point is a device such as hub, switch, or access point. Star topology is
very popular.

Although this setup uses more cables than a bus, a star topology is much more fault tolerant
(does not break down easily) than a bus topology. This means that if a failure occurs along one
of the cables connecting to the hub, only that portion of the hub is affected, not the entire
network. It also means that you can add new computers just by running a single new cable from
the computer to the hub.

Characteristics of star topology

• Computers are connected by cables to a centralized hub or switch.
• Signal travels through the hub to all other computers.
• If the hub or switch goes down, entire network goes down.
• If a computer goes down, the network functions normally.
• Star topology is most scalable and reconfigurable of all topologies

14
A Star topology has the following advantages:

New stations can be added easily and quickly

A single cable failure won’t bring down the entire network.
It is relatively easy to troubleshoot

Disadvantages of a star topology:

Total installation cost can be higher because of the larger number of cable, but prices are
constantly more and more competitive
It has a single point of failure (the hub, or other central device).

Star topology

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, each computer connects to a central ring or circle of cable. Each computer
is connected directly to two other computers in the network. Data moves down one-way path
from one computer to another. The good news about laying out cable in a ring is that the cable
design is simple. The bad news is that, as with bus topology any break, such as adding or
removing a computer, disrupts the entire network. Also, because you have to “break” the ring in
order to add another station, it is difficult to reconfigure without bringing down the whole
network. For this reason, the physical ring topology is seldom used. Note that, in the physical
ring network the ring is not a perfect circle, it could be a loop of wires running along and through
walls, under the floor and up to the ceiling.

15
Characteristics of ring topology
• Computers are connected on a single central ring or circle of cable.
• Each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the network.
• Data moves down one-way path from one computer to another.
• Each computer acts as a repeater and keeps the signal strong hence no need for repeaters on a
ring topology
• Any break such as adding or removing a computer, disrupts the entire network
• relatively easy to install
• requires minimal hardware
• No termination required since it is a ring
• It is usually seen in a Token Ring or FDDI (fiber distributed data interface) network
• Token passing is used in Token Ring networks. The token is passed from one computer to the
next, only the computer with the token can transmit. The receiving computer strips the data
from the token and sends the token back to the sending computer with an acknowledgment.
After verification, the token is regenerated.

A ring topology has the following advantages:

The ring topology is relatively simple easy to troubleshoot.

A station will know when a cable fault has occurred because it will stop receiving data from
its upstream neighbor.

On the disadvantage side, a ring topology has the following characteristics:

Expensive, because multiple cables are needed for each workstation

Difficult to reconfigure because to as or remove a computer one has to bring down the entire
network.
Not fault tolerant. single cable fault can bring down the entire network

Ring topology

16
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each computer connects directly to every other computer on the network. A
path exists from each computer to every other computer in the network, resulting in the most
physical connections per node of any topology. Mesh topology is not a practical way do a
network.

Characteristics of mesh topology

• The mesh topology connects each computer on the network to all the others
• Meshes use a significantly larger amount of network cabling than do the other network
topologies, which makes it more expensive.
• The mesh topology is highly fault tolerant: every computer has multiple possible connection
paths to the other computers on the network, so a single cable break will not stop network
communications between any two computers.

The advantages of a mesh topology are:

It is more fail-safe, or fault tolerant, network, at least as far as cabling is concerned.
If the mesh topology were practical then it could have offered the fastest connection to every
other computer on the network since each computer is directly connected to every other
computer.

On the disadvantage side:

It is expensive to set up
It could become too complex or untidy

Mesh topology

17
Other Topologies
Star Bus Topology
• Several star topologies linked with a linear bus.
• No single computer can take the whole network down. If a single hub fails, only the computers
and hubs connected to that hub are affected.

Star Ring Topology

• Also known as star wired ring because the hub itself is wired as a ring. This means it' sa
physical star, but a logical ring.
• This topology is popular for Token Ring networks because it is easier to implement than a
physical ring, but it still provides the token passing capabilities of a physical ring inside the
hub.
• Just like in the ring topology, computers are given equal access to the network media through
• It involves the passing of the token.
• A single computer failure cannot stop the entire network, but if the hub fails, the ring that the
hub controls also fails.

Selecting the Right Topology

Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages. Larger network environment are usually
wired in a star because additions, removals, and changes to the network are performed more
efficiently with a physical star than with any of the other topologies.
Generally one should consider the following considerations when choosing a physical topology
for your network.

• Cost
• Ease of installation
• Ease of maintenance
• Cable fault tolerance

18
CHAPTER 7: Physical Media
Most network computers or devices are linked to the transmission media or central device such
as a hub by cables. These cables are called hardwired transmission media. We will look at three
types of cables:

• Twisted pair
• Coaxial
• Fiber optic

Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is the typical telephone and network cables and is the most common type of
communication channel for small systems. It consists of bundles or multiple pairs of individually
insulated copper wires that are twisted together to give them strength. There are two types of
twisted-pair cables: Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) and Unshielded Twisted-Pair. Shielded twisted-
pair (STP) cables have a metallic shield placed around the twisted pairs. Unshielded twisted-pair
(STP) cables do not have outer shielding and they are commonly used in twisted-pair Ethernet
(10Base-T, 100Base-TX, etc.), star-wired networks.

The cables are twisted because electromagnetic signals conducted on copper wires that are in
close proximity (or close to each other) causes electromagnetic interference called crosstalk.
Twisting two wires together as a pair minimizes such interference and also provides some
protection against interference from outside sources. This type is the most common today and
has the following

Advantages:
• It is relatively inexpensive and has low maintenance costs.
• It’s cheaper than other types of cabling
• It’s relatively easy to install
• Often available in existing phone system
• Well tested and easy to get

A major disadvantage of twisted-pair wiring is that:

• It is highly prone to electromagnetic and Radio Frequency interference.
• Unsuitable for very high-speed data transmission
• Not as durable as coax cable.

Cat 5e UTP Ethernet cable standard with connectors

19
UTP cable is rated in several categories for example Category 5 is a four twisted wire pairs
(eight wires) and rated for 20MHz and Category 5e is a four twisted wire pairs (eight wires) and
rated for 100MHz. The diagram below shows a Cat 5e UTP Ethernet cable standard with
connectors.

Connecting UTP

You need to use an RJ (Registered Jack) connector to connect UTP cables. Most telephones
connect with an RJ-11 connector. The connector used with UTP network cable is called RJ-45.
The RJ-11 has four wires, or two pairs, and the network connector RJ-45 has four pairs, or eight
wires. You use a crimper (tool) to attach an RJ connector to a cable.

Signaling methods
The amount of cable’s available bandwidth (overall capacity, such as 10Mps) that is used by
each signal depends on whether the signaling method is baseband or broadband. With baseband,
the entire bandwidth of the cable is used for each signal (using one channel). It is typically used
with digital signaling. With broadband, on the other hand, the available bandwidth is divided
into discrete bands. Multiple signals can then be transmitted within these different bands.

Ethernet Cable Description

Ethernet cable types are described using a code that follows this format: N<Signaling>-X.
Generally speaking, N is the signaling rate in megabits per second, and <Signaling> is the
signaling type, which is either base or broad (baseband or broadband). X is a unique identifier
used to indicate for example, the maximum distance that the signal can travel or the media
(cable) type. For example for a 10Base5: The two-digit number 10 indicates that the transmission
speed is 10Mb, ‘Base’ indicates that the signal is baseband and 5 indicate the maximum distance
that the signal can travel which is (approximately) 500 meters. The Ethernet cable commonly
used to network terminals and computers in small business of offices (such as VCI Computer
lab) is 10Base2. Another 10BaseX standard is 10Base-T. The T is short for twisted-pair. There
are several standards of Ethernet cable types in use but will not be covered at this course.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) contains a center conductor, made of copper, surrounded by a plastic
jacket, with a braided shield over the jacket. A strong plastic such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
or fluoroethylenepropylene (FEP) is used to cover the metal shield.

Coaxial Cable

20
Advantages:
• It doesn’t burn easily (more durable)
• Support faster data rates than TP
• It doesn’t release as many toxic fumes
• Braided shielding that provides fair resistance to electronic pollution like electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).

Disadvantages
• This type of cable is more expensive that TP.
• It is bulkier and more rigid than TP
• Can be affected by strong interference

Table below shows some of the specifications for the different types of coaxial cables.

RG-Rating Popular Name Ethernet Implementation Type of Cable

RG-58 U N/A None Solid copper

RG-58 A/U Thinnet 10Base2 Stranded copper
RG-8 Thicknet 10Base5 Solid copper
RG-62 ARCnet N/A Solid/Stranded
Note: RG implies Radio Grade

TYPES OF COAXIAL CABLES

There are several categories or types coaxial cable connectors. The major types required for this
course are described below:

Thin Ethernet coaxial cable connector

Thin Ethernet refers to as Thinnet or 10Base-2, is a thin coaxial cable about a ¼ in diameter.
Thinnet used BNC connectors to attach station or computers to the network.

21
F-Type coaxial cable connectors
The F-Type connector is a threaded, screw-on connector. The F-Type connector uses the centre
conductor of the coaxial cable as its centre connecting point. The other conductor is the metal
body of the connector itself, which connects to the shield of the cable.

Fibre-Optic Cables
Fiber Optic cables are highly reliable communication channel. Data can be transmitted in a
fiber-optic cable at very high speeds with few or no errors. Instead of using electricity to send
data, fiber optics uses light. Fiber optic cables are made of glass fibers that are thinner than a
human hair, which guide light beams for many kilometers. Unlike wire cables that use electricity
to transmit data, fiber optic cables are not subject to interference as they use light to transmit
data.

Fiber-optic cables come in two different styles: single-mode fiber (SMF) and multimode fiber
(MMF). The difference between single-mode fibers and multimode fibers is in the number of
light rays (and thus the number of signals) they can carry. Generally, multimode fibre is used for
shorter-distance application and single-mode fiber for longer distances.

Advantages:
• Data can be transmitted in a fiber-optic cable at very high speeds with few or no errors.
• Because fibre-optic cable transmits digital signals using light impulses rather than electricity,
it is immune to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).
• It can transmit signals or data over long distance of up to 40 kilometers.
• Very durable

Disadvantages:
• It is difficult to install (requires sophisticated tools and methods for installation)
• Extremely costly in product and service.
• Has very complex layout and design.

22
Fiber-Optic Connectors
The most common fiber-optic connectors are the straight tip (ST) and subscriber or square
connector (SC). The ST fiber-optic connector was one of the most widely used fiber-optic
connectors. It is relatively simple to use. It uses a BNC attachment mechanism similar to the
Thinnet connection mechanism, which makes connections and disconnections relatively easy.

The SC connector (sometimes known also as a square connector) is another type of fiber-optic
connector. SC connectors are latched (or locked) connectors. This latching mechanism holds
the connector in securely while in use and prevents it from just falling out. SC connectors work
with either single-mode or multimode optical fiber. SC connectors are increasingly in used but
they are not as popular as ST connectors for LAN connections.

23
Small Form Factor Fiber-Optic Connectors

One of the more popular styles of fiber-optic connectors is the small form factor (SFF) style of
connector. SFF connectors allow more fiber-optic terminations in the same amount of space
over the standard-size fiber-optic connectors described above. The two most popular are the
mechanical transfer registered jack (MT-RJ of MTRJ) and the Local connector (LC), designed
by Lucent.

Using a Telephone for Data Communications

The standard telephone system is commonly used for connecting computers over long distances:
terminals can be moved virtually anywhere in the country or even the world and still have access
to a mainframe. Telephone lines have several disadvantages as the medium for data transmission,
they are slower and have higher error rates than hardwired cables because they were designed to
handle signals suitable for voices, not for digital computer signals. To send digital computer data
over the phone, you need additional interface equipment such as modem.

Important Cabling Considerations

Installation Logistics
How easy is the cable to work with?

Shielding
Is the area "noisy"?
Do you need plenum grade cable => more expensive

Crosstalk
Where data security is important this is a problem
Power lines, motors relays and radio transmitters cause crosstalk

24
Transmission Speed (part of the bandwidth)
• Transmission rates are measured in Mbps
• 10 Mbps is common
• 100 Mbps is becoming common
• Fiber can go well over 100 Mbps but costs and requires experts to install.

Cost
Distance costs you money

Attenuation
Different cables can only transmit so far without causing too many errors

Other Communication/Transmission Media

Although hardwired cables and standard telephones are widely used in data communication
applications numerous other channels have the added advantage of satisfying complex
communication requirements such as error detection and networking. The following are
common alternatives to hardwired cables and standard telephone lines.

Leased Telephone Lines

It is a private line that is dedicated to a specific organization for its individual data
communication needs. A leased line may be able to handle digital data only, or it may be able to
handle both voice and data communication just like a standard telephone line.

Microwave Stations
It transmits data such as radio signals through the air rather than through wires. Microwave
stations are used primarily for transmitting data at a high speed over long distance

Satellite Stations
These are used for high volume data transmission as well as for television broadcasting and
telephone transmission. A satellite can also transmit signals to other satellites, which relay the
signals back to the sender of receivers.

25
CHAPTER 8: Wireless Networks
Wireless Local Area Networks
The term ' wireless network'refers to two or more computers communicating using standard
network rules or protocols, but without the use of cabling to connect the computers together.
Instead, the computers use wireless radio signals to send information from one computer to the
other. A wireless local area network (WLAN) consists of two key components: an access point
(also called a base station) and a wireless card. Information can be transmitted between these
two components as long as they are fairly close together (up to 100 metres indoors or 350 metres
outdoors).

Wireless Access point or Wireless Basestation

A WLAN can be installed as the sole network in a school, a public building, a library, a shopping
centre, a restaurant, airports and so on. However, it can also be used to extend an existing wired
network to areas where wiring would be too difficult or too expensive to implement, or to areas
located away from the main network or main building. Wireless networks can be configured to
provide the same network functionality as wired networks, ranging from simple peer-to-peer
configurations to large-scale networks accommodating hundreds of users.

Desktop PC Wireless LAN card Laptop PC Wireless LAN card

Advantages and disadvantages of a Wireless LAN

Wireless LANs have advantages and disadvantages when compared with wired LANs. A
wireless LAN will make it simple to add or move workstations, and to install access points to
provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable. Temporary or semi-permanent
buildings that are in range of an access point can be wirelessly connected to a LAN to give these
buildings connectivity. Where computer labs are used in schools, homes or offices the computers
(laptops) could be put on a mobile cart and wheeled from room to room, providing they are in
range of access points. Wired network points would be needed for each of the access points.

26
A WLAN has some specific advantages:
• It is easier to add or move workstations
• It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable
• Installation can be fast and easy and can eliminate the need to pull cable through walls and
ceilings
• Access to the network can be from anywhere in the school within range of an access point
• Portable or semi-permanent buildings can be connected using a wireless LAN
• Where laptops are used, the ‘computer suite’ can be moved from classroom to classroom on
mobile carts
• While the initial investment required for wireless LAN hardware can be similar to the cost of
wired LAN hardware, installation expenses can be significantly lower
• Where a school is located on more than one site (such as on two sides of a road), it is possible
with directional antennae, to avoid digging trenches under roads to connect the sites
• In historic buildings where traditional cabling would compromise the façade, a wireless LAN
can avoid drilling holes in walls
• Long-term cost benefits can be found in dynamic environments requiring frequent moves and
changes
• They allows the possibility of individual pupil allocation of wireless devices that move around
the school with the pupil.

Wireless LANs also have some disadvantages:

• As the number of computers using the network increases, the data transfer rate to each
computer will decrease accordingly
• As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless cards and/or access points
• Lower wireless bandwidth means some applications such as video streaming will be more
effective on a wired LAN
• Security is more difficult to guarantee, and requires configuration
• Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access point, with the distance
determined by the standard used and buildings and other obstacles between the access point
and the user
• A wired LAN is most likely to be required to provide a backbone to the wireless LAN; a
wireless LAN should be a supplement to a wired LAN and not a complete solution
• Long-term cost benefits are harder to achieve in static environments that require few moves
and changes
• It is easier to make a wired network ‘future proof’ for high data transfer.

Wireless Network Components

There are certain parallels between the equipment used to build a WLAN and that used in a
traditional wired LAN. Both networks require network interface cards or network adapter cards.
A wireless LAN PC card, which contains an in-built antenna, is used to connect notebook
computers to a wireless network. Usually, this is inserted into the relevant slot in the side of the
notebook, but some may be internal to the notebook. Desktop computers can also connect to a
wireless network if a wireless network card is inserted into one of its internal PCI slots.

27
In a wireless network, an ' access point'has a similar function to the hub in wired networks. It
broadcasts and receives signals to and from the surrounding computers via their adapter card. It
is also the point where a wireless network can be connected into an existing wired network.
The most obvious difference between wireless and wired networks, however, is that the latter
uses some form of cable to connect computers together. A wireless network does not need cable
to form a physical connection between computers.

Wireless Network Configurations

Wireless networks can be configured in a peer-to-peer arrangement or as a local area network.

Peer-to-Peer Configuration

This is the most basic wireless network configuration. It relies on the wireless network adapters
installed in the computers that are communicating with each other. A computer within range of
the transmitting computer can connect to it. However, if a number of computers are networked in
this way, they must remain within range of each other. Even though this configuration has no
real administration overhead, it should only be a consideration for very small installations.

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CHAPTER 9: Network Hardware (Connectivity Devices)
Network hardware or connectivity devices are used to connect network entities or nodes
together. The following are common network hardware or connectivity devices:

• The network interface card (NIC)

• The hub
• The switch
• The bridge
• The router
• The gateway
• Other devices

NIC
The network interface card (NIC) connects or interfaces the computer to the network. It puts
data into packets and transmits the packet onto the network. It also provides the physical,
electrical, and electronic connections to the network media. A NIC is either an expansion card or
built in to the motherboard of the computer. In most cases, a NIC connects to the computer
through expansion slots, which are special slots located on a computer’s motherboard that allow
peripherals to be plugged directly into it. NIC cards generally all have one of two light emitting
diodes (LEDs) that help in diagnosing problems with their functionality. I there are two separate
LEDs, one of them may be the Link LED, which illuminates when proper connectivity to an
active network is detected. The other LED is the Activity LED. The Activity LED will tend to
flicker, indicating the transmission or receipt of data or frames to and from the network. A NIC
may be wired or wireless. A hub resides on both the Physical and Data-Link layer of the OSI
model.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

The roles of the network Adapter card it to:

• Prepare data from the computer for the network cable
• Send the data to another computer
• Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system

NIC' s contain hardware and firmware (software routines in ROM) programming that implements
the
• Logical Link Control and
• Media Access Control
(functions of the Data Link layer of the OSI)

29
Preparing Data
• Data moves along paths in the computer called a BUS - can be 8, 16, 32 bits wide.
• On network cable, data must travel in a single bit stream in what's called a serial transmission.
• The transceiver is the component responsible for translating parallel (8, 16, 32-bit wide) into a
1 bit wide serial path.
• A unique network address or MAC address is coded into chips in the card
• card uses DMA (Direct Memory Access) where the computer assigns memory space to the
NIC
• if the the card can'
t move data fast enough, the card' s buffer RAM holds it temporarily during
transmission or reception of data

Sending and Controlling Data

The NICs of the two computers exchanging data agree on the following:
• Maximum size of the groups of data being sent
• The amount of data to be sent before confirmation
• The time intervals between send data chunks
• The amount of time to wait before confirmation is sent
• How much data each card can hold before it overflows
• The speed of the data transmission

Wireless Adapter Cards

• Used to create an all-wireless LAN
• Add wireless stations to a cabled LAN
• uses a wireless concentrator, which acts as a transceiver to send and receive signals

Hub
A hub is the device that connects all the computers or segments of the network together. Every
device in the network connects directly to the hub through a single cable. Any transmission
received on one port will be sent out to all the other ports in the hub. So, if one station sends it,
all the others detect it; but based on addressing in the frame, only the intended recipient listens
and receives it. Hubs are incapable of recognizing frame boundaries and data structures. A
broadcast sent out by any device on the hub will propagate to all devices connected to the hub.
Any two or more devices connected to the hub have the capacity of causing a collision with each
other. Collision is resolved by the CSMA/CD mechanism of the transmitter or sender. A hub
resides on Physical layer of the OSI model.

hub

30
Switch
A switch, like a hub, connects multiple segments of a network together. But unlike a hub that
sends out to anything it receives on one port to all the others, a switch recognizes frame
boundaries and pays attention to the destination MAC address of the incoming frame as well as
the port on which it was received. If the destination is known to be on a different port that the
port over which the frame was received, the switch will forward the frame out over only the port
on which the destination exists. Otherwise, the frame is discarded. If the location of the
destination is unknown, then the switch acts much like a hub in that it floods the frame out to
every port. A switch helps prevent data collision and reduce network congestion thereby
increases performance of the network. A switch resides on the layer 2 of the OSI model.

Switches

Repeater
A repeater extends the network segment by regenerating packets or signals from one segment to
the next. Repeaters regenerate baseband digital signals. It does not translate or filter the data
packets. Both segments being connected must use the same access method, for example
CSMA/CD Ethernet LAN segment can' t be joined to a Token Ring LAN segment. Another way
of saying this is the Logical Link Protocols must be the same in order to send a signal. On the
other hand, repeaters can move packets from one physical medium to another (having same
access method): for example a repeater can take an Ethernet packet from a Thinnet coax media
(segment) and pass it on to a fiber-optic media segment. Repeaters transmit every bit of data (no
filtering), so they can pass a packet or broadcast storm (traffic) along from one segment to the
next and back. Repeaters are used where network traffic is minimal or moderate. Repeaters
work at the Physical layer of OSI

Repeater

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Bridge
A bridge is a network device that connects two network segments together. The primary
function of a bridge is to keep traffic separate on both sides of the bridge. Traffic is allowed to
pass through the bridge only if the transmission is intended for a station on the opposite side.
The main reasons for putting a bridge in a network are to connect two segments together and to
divide a busy network into two segments. Bridges have all the abilities of a repeater.
Additionally, bridges can take an overloaded network and split it into two networks, therefore
they can divide the network to isolate traffic or problems and reduce the traffic on both
segments. They expand the distance of a segment. They can link unlike physical media such as
twisted-pair (10Base T) and coaxial Ethernet (10Base2). Bridges can also link unlike media
access control methods, on different segments such as Ethernet and Token Ring and forward
packets between them. They don' t distinguish one protocol from the next and simply pass
protocols along the network. Bridges work at the media access control (MAC) sublayer of the
Data Link Layer of the OSI model.

Bridge

How bridges deal with traffic

They listen to all traffic. Each time the bridge is presented with a packet (or frame), the source
address is stored. The bridge builds up a table which identifies the segment to which the device is
located on. This internal table is then used to determine which segment the incoming frames
should be forwarded to. The size of this table is important, especially if the network has a large
number of workstations or servers. They check the source and destination address of each packet
and the build a routing table based on the source addresses so that they know which computers
are on which segment. Bridges are intelligent enough to do some routing function.

Comparison of Bridges and Repeaters

• Bridges regenerate data at the packet level
• Bridges accommodate more nodes than repeaters
• Bridges provide better network performance than repeaters because they segment the network

32
The advantages of bridges are:
• Increase the number of attached workstations and network segments
• Since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different segments which use
different MAC protocols
• Since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher level protocols by
subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased and the network
becomes easier to maintain
• Used for non routable protocols like NetBEUI which must be bridged
• Bridges help localize network traffic by only forwarding data onto other segments as required
(unlike repeaters)

The disadvantages of bridges are:

• The buffering of frames introduces network delays
• Bridges may overload during periods of high traffic
• Bridges which combine different MAC protocols require the frames to be modified before
transmission onto the new segment. This causes delays
• In complex networks, data is not sent over redundant paths, and the shortest path is not always
taken
• Bridges pass on broadcasts, giving rise to broadcast storms on the network

Routers
Routers determine the best path for sending data. They can make intelligent decisions about how
best to get network data to its destination based on data it receives. They don’t pass on broadcast
traffic but filter it to the local segment. Routers can switch and route packets across network
segments Routers builds a routing table which contains all known network addresses, how to
connect to other networks, possible paths between those routers, costs of sending data over those
paths. Routers work at the Network layer of OSI

Router

Characteristics of routers
• Routers don' t look at the destination computer address, they only look at the NETWORK
address and they only pass on the data if the network address is known and there is less
traffic.
• Routers REQUIRE specific addresses: they only understand network numbers which allow
them to talk to other routers and local adapter card addresses
• They only pass Packets to the network segment they are destined for.

33
• Routers don' t talk to remote computers, only to other routers
• They can segment large networks into smaller ones
• They act as a safety barrier (firewall) between segments
• They prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts and bad data aren' t forwarded
• Are slower than most bridges
• Routers can join dissimilar access methods: a router can route a packet from a TCP/IP Ethernet
network to a TCP/IP Token Ring network

Choosing Paths
Routers can choose the best path for the data to follow. Routers can accommodate multiple
active paths between LAN segments. To determine the best path, it takes these things into
account:
• If one path is down, the data can be forwarded over on alternative route
• Routers can listen and determine which parts of the network are busiest.
• It decides the path the data packet will follow by determining the number of hops between
internetwork segments

Two types of routers

Static - manually setup and configure the routing table and to specify each route
Dynamic – automatically detect routers on the network.

Distinguishing between Bridges and Routers

Both bridges and routers:

• forward packets between networks
• send data across WAN links

A Bridge
• Recognizes the address of EACH computer on it' s segment and forwards packets on the basis
of the destination address
• A bridge either recognizes the address or it doesn' t, and forwards the packet accordingly
• It forwards all broadcast messages to all ports, except to the port from which the broadcast
message came. Every computer on every segment receives this broadcast
• Bridges recognize ONE PATH between networks

A Router
• Works at the NETWORK layer and thus takes more information into account when
determining what to forward and where to forward it to.
• Routers recognize the addresses of other routers and determine which packets to forward to
which routers
• Routers can search between multiple paths and determine the best path at the moment

34
The 4 KEY pieces of information that distinguish bridges and routers

Bridges Routers
• recognize the MAC sublayer addresses • Routers recognize network addresses not
(i.e. the addresses of the network cards individual computer addresses
on its own segment)
• forwards everything it doesn' t recognize • routers filter addresses.
and • It forwards particular protocols to
• forwards all addresses it knows, but only particular addresses (other routers)
out the appropriate port • if the router doesn't recognize a
destination address, the packet is usually
discarded
• works with all protocols • only works with routable protocols
• Non-Routable = NetBEUI, DLC, LAT

Network Components and devices at work

35
Gateways
A gateway allows communications between dissimilar systems or environments, in order words;
it translates protocols and data between different network systems or environments. A gateway is
usually a computer running gateway software connected two different segments. For example an
Intel-based PC on one segment can both communicate and share resources with a Macintosh
computer or an SNA mainframe. Gateways are the most complex of network devices because
they perform translations at multiple layers of the OSI model. Use gateways when different
environments need to communicate. One common use for gateways is to translate between
personal computers and mainframes. Gateways work at the Application to Transport layer.

Characteristics of Gateways
• They make communication possible between different architectures and environments.
• They perform protocol AND data conversion / translation.
• They take the data from one environment, strip it, and re-package it in the protocol stack from
the destination system
• They repackage and convert data going from one environment to another so that each
environment can understand the other environment' s data
• gateway links two systems don't use the same
o Protocols e.g. from IPX/SPX to TCP/IP
o Data formatting from structure e.g. From ASCII to EBCDIC
o Languages e.g. from English to French
o Architecture e.g. from Microsoft to Mac

• Gateways are task specific in that they are dedicated to a specific type of conversion: e.g.
"Windows NT Server -> SNA Server Gateway"
• Usually one computer is designated as the gateway computer. This adds a lot of traffic to that
segment

Disadvantages of Gateways
• They slow things down because of the work they do
• They are expensive
• They difficult to configure

Other Devices
In addition to these network connectivity devices, there are several devices that, while may not
be directly connected to a network, participate in moving network data:
• Modems
• ISDN terminal adapters
• Wireless access points
• CSU/DSU’s
• Transceivers (media converters)
• Firewalls

36
Modems
A modem is a device that modulates digital data onto an analog carrier for transmission over an
analog medium and then demodulates from the analog carrier to a digital signal again at the
receiving end. The term modem is actually an acronym that stands for Modulator/DEModulator.
Data in a computer is formatted as digital signals or on-off electronic pulses. Because telephone
lines were designed to transmit the human voice, they format data as analogue signals or
electronic waves. For communication between computers to take place over a telephone line, the
digital signal must be converted to an analogue signal before it can be transmitted. After its
journey over the telephone lines, the analogue signal must then be reconverted back to a digital
signal so that the receiving computer can use it. The process of converting digital signals to
analogue signals is called modulation: while the process of reconverting the analogue signals
back to a digital signal is called demodulation. The device that accomplishes both of these
processes is a modern, short for Modulator-Demodulator.

There are three different types of modems:

• Traditional (POTS)
• DSL
• Cable

Traditional (POTS)
Most modems you find in computers today fall into the category of traditional modems. These
modems convert the signals from your computer into signals that travel over the plain old
telephone service (POTS) lines. The majority of modems that exist today are POTS modems,
mainly because PC manufacturers normally include one with a computer.

DSL
Digital subscriber line (DSL) is quickly replacing traditional modems because it offers higher
data rates for reasonable cost. In addition, you can make regular phone calls while online. DSL
uses higher frequencies (above 3200Hz) that regular voice phone calls use, which provides
greater bandwidth (up to several megabits per second) than regular POTS modems provide while
still allowing the standard voice frequency range to travel at its normal frequency to remain
compatible with traditional POTS phones and devices. DSL “modems” are the devices that
allow the network signals to pass over phone lines at these higher frequencies.

Most often, when you sign up for DSL service, the company you sign up with will send you a
DSL modem for free or for a very low cost. This modem is usually an external modem
(although internal DSL modems are available), and it usually has both a phone lone and an
Ethernet connection. You must connect the phone line to a wall jack and the Ethernet
connection to your computer (you must have an Ethernet NIC in your computer in order to
connect to the DSL modem). Alternatively, a router, hub, or switch may be connected to the
Ethernet port of the DSL modem, increasing the options available for the Ethernet network.

37
Cable
Another high-speed Internet access technology that is seeing widespread use is cable modem
access. Cable modems connect an individual PC or network to the Internet using your cable
television cable. The cable TV companies use their existing cable infrastructure to deliver data
service on unused frequency bands.

The cable modem itself is a fairly simple device. It has standard coax connector on the back as
well as an Ethernet port. You can connect one PC to cable modem (the PC will need to have an
Ethernet NIC installed), or you can connect the modem to multiple PCs on the network (using a
hub or switch). A router may also be used to enhance the Ethernet network’s capability.

ISDN Terminal Adapters

Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) is another form of high-speed Internet access. It
delivers digital services (over 64Kbps channels over conditioned telephone copper pairs. The
device you must hook up to your computer to access ISDN service is properly known as an
ISDN Terminal Adapter. It is not a modem in the truest sense of the word because a modem
changes from digital to analog transmission formats. An ISDN terminal adapter doesn’t change
from digital to analog. It just changes between digital transmission formats.

Wireless Access Points (WAPs)

A wireless access point (WAP) allows mobile users to connect to a wired network wirelessly via
radio frequency technologies. WAP also allows wired networks to connect to each other via
wireless technologies. Essentially, they are the wireless equivalent of a hub or a switch in that
they can connect multiple wireless (and often wired) devices tgethere to form a network.

One of the most popular use for wireless access points is to provide Internet access in public
areas, like libraries, coffee shops, hotels, and airports. WAPs are easy to set up; most often, you
just need to plug them in to a wired network and power them up to get them to work.

Transceivers (Media Converters)

Another small device that is commonly seen on a network is the external transceiver (also known
as a media converter). Transceivers allow a NIC or other network device to connect to a
different type of media that it was designed for.

Firewalls
A firewall protects LAN resources from attackers or hackers on the Internet. Similarly, it can
prevent computers on the network from accessing various services on the Internet. It can be used
to filter packets based on rules that the network administrator sets. These rules state what kinds
of information can flow into and out of a network’s connection to the Internet.

Firewalls can be either stand-alone computer running the firewall software or can be set up in
software on a server or router. Either way, the firewall will have at least two network
connections: one to the Internet (known as the ‘public’ side), and one to the network (known as
the ‘private’ side).

38
CHAPTER 10: STANDARD BODIES
The challenges involved in internetwork management tasks are made easier by adapting
networking standards. The organizations that create networking standards provide forum for
discussion and turn informal discussion into formal specifications. They also publicize
standardized specifications.

Some of the best known standards organizations are the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and the Electronic Industries Association (EIA).

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The ISO is an international organization that is responsible for a wide range of standards,
including those relevant to networking. The ISO developed a set of standards known as the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

The ANSI is a member of the ISO. It coordinates the voluntary standards groups within the
United States. The ANSI developed the Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and other
communications standards.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

The ITU is the international organization that develops communications standards.

Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

The EIA sets the specifications for electrical transmission standards, including those used in
networking. The EIA developed the widely used EIA/TIA-232 standard.

39
CHAPTER 11: INTRODUCTION TO THE OSI MODEL
When networks first came into existence, computers could communicate only with computers
from the same manufacturer or vendor. For example, a network component or device (such as
NIC) designed by IBM (International Business Machines Inc.) could only work with another
device or computer made by IBM. The OSI Models was developed by International
Organization for Standards to promote interoperability by creating a guideline for network data
transmission between computers and components that have different hardware manufacturers
and dissimilar operating systems (software) and protocols. Interoperability is the capability of
two or more hardware devices or two or more softwares to work harmoniously together. The
OSI model consists of layers. These layers provide a way of dividing any computer network into
independent modules from the lowest layer (physical) to the highest layer (application). Each
layer performs a specific function and then passes on the result to another layer

THE OSI MODEL

The OSI model defines the functions needed by a network for it to work. It describes how data
and network information are communicated from an application on one computer through the
network media (cables) to an application on another computer. It sets guidelines and
specifications that assist in the transfer of data between dissimilar hosts or network environments
- meaning, for example, that they enable us to transfer data between a UNIX system (or
environment) to a Microsoft or a MAC system. The OSI model consists of seven layers, divided
into two main groups. The top three layers comprise the upper layer also known the software
aspect. They define how the applications and programs within the end stations (computers) will
communicate with each other and with users. The bottom four layers known as the hardware
aspect define how data is transmitted from one terminal (host or computer) to another:

Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data link Layer
Physical Layer

Note:
You can use mnemonics to help you remember the order of the OSI model layers: APSTNDP
(from top to bottom). The most popular mnemonic for this arrangement is All People Seem To
Need Data Processing. A reverse mnemonic (from Physical to Application, bottom to top)
People Do Need To Send Packets Away. (Good advice, don’t you think?)

40
The layered approach
A reference model like the OSI model is a conceptual blue print of how communication should
take place. It addresses all the processes required for effective communication and divides these
processes into logical grouping called layers. When a communication system is designed in this
manner, it is known as layered architecture (or model). OSI model is a standard layered
architecture that provides a framework for creating and implementing networking standards,
devices and inter-networking schemes

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI model is hierarchical (made up of different levels from lower to higher levels), and the
same benefits and advantages can apply to any layered model. The primary purpose all such
models, especially the OSI model, is to allow different manufacturers network devices to
interoperate (work harmoniously together).

Advantages of using the OSI layered model include the following:

• It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler components, thus
aiding component development, design and troubleshooting.
• It allows multiple vendor development through standardization of network components
• It encourages industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer of the
model.
• It allows various types of network hardware and software to communicate
• It prevents changes in layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper development.

The following network devices operate at all seven layers of the OSI model:
• Network management stations (NMSs)
• Web and application servers
• Gateways (not default gateways)
• Network hosts

THE OSI MODEL LAYERS

The Application Layer: The Application layer, the top layer of the OSI model, does not refer to
applications or programs such as word processors, but rather to a set of tools or services that an
application can use to accomplish a task such as word processor application requesting a file
transfer. The application layer interfaces the actual application programs with the application
layer protocols. This means that Microsoft word, for example, does not reside at the Application
layer but instead interfaces with the Application layer protocols or services such FTP (File
transfer protocol). This layer is responsible for defining how interactions occur between network
services (applications) and the network. Services that function at the Application layer include,
file, print and messaging services. Additionally the application layer describes how applications
(or programs) interact with the network operating system, including database management,
electronic mail and terminal emulation programs. It may also support error recovery.

41
Presentation layer
The Presentation layer is responsible for the formatting, conversion and formatting of data being
passed up to Application layer. In this layer, data is converted, for example, from ASCII
standard to Unicode or EBCDIC standard. (ASCII and EBCDIC are two different standards of
representing characters. It is the presentation layer that is responsible for recognizing file types
in an incoming data stream and performing any massaging to the data to make a file presentable
to the Application layer protocol. Tasks like data compression, decompression, encryption, and
decryption are associated with the Presentation layer

Session Layer
The Session layer defines how two computers establish, synchronize, maintain, and end a
session. It is responsible for setting up, managing and then terminating sessions between
Presentation layer components (or entities). This layer also provides communication control
between devices or nodes. The session layer keeps different applications’ data separate.
Practical functions such as security authentication, connection ID establishment, data transfer,
acknowledgements, and connection release take place here.

Transport Layer
The Transport layer is responsible for checking that the data was delivered error-free. It also
segments and reassembles data from upper-layer applications into a data stream. This means, it
divides or segments a message or packet that is too long into smaller packets or segments and it
could also take a series of short packets (or segments) and combine them into one longer packet.
These smaller or combined packets must later be correctly reassembled. This is accomplished
through packet sequencing (usually by appending a number to each of the packets or segment).
This layer also handles logical address/name resolution. Additionally, the transport layer can
send an acknowledgement that it got the data packet. (ACK is short for acknowledgement). The
transport layer is responsible for the majority of error and flow control in network
communications. It also provides end-to-end data transport services and can establish a logical
connection between the sending host and destination host on an internetwork. The transport
layer is also responsible for providing mechanisms for multiplexing (put together onto the same
data stream) upper-layer applications and establishing session. The Transport layer can be
connectionless of connection-oriented.

Connectionless: Is a communication model in which the source and destination addresses are
included inside each packet so that a direct connection between sender and receiver (or an
established session between nodes) is not required. In a connectionless service, data packets may
not reach their destination in the same order in which they were sent. UDP is a connectionless
protocol (service)

Connection-oriented: Is communication model that goes through three well-defined stages as

follows: establishing the connection, transferring the data and releasing the connection. It is
similar to voice telephone call. In a connection-oriented service, data packets always reach their
destination in the same order in which they were sent. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol (or
service).

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The Network Layer
The Network Layer manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network,
and determines the best way to route (or move) data. This means that the Network Layer must
transport data (or traffic) between devices that are on different network segments. The Network
layer is responsible for logical addressing and translating logical addresses into physical
addresses. One major function of the Network layer is prioritizing data. Not all data is of equal
importance hence the most essential data is dealt with first. This prioritization is known as
quality of service (QoS). The network layer also controls congestion, routes data from source to
destination. Routers are the main devices that work at the network layer.

Two types of packets are used at the Network layer: data and route updates:
Data packets: Used to transport user dada through and internetwork.
Route Update packets: Used to update neighboring routers about the network connected to all
routers within the internetwork.

The Data Link Layer

The Data Link layer provides the physical transmission of the data and handles error notification,
network topology, and flow control. It ensures that messages are delivered to the proper device
(or computer) on a network using device (or computer) hardware addresses. The data link layer
takes raw data (messages) from the physical layer and formats the it into pieces of logical
structures called frames, and adds a header containing the source and destination computer (or
host) address and information about where the data is meant to go, which device on the local link
sent the data, and the overall validity of the bytes sent. In the opposite direction of flow, the
Data Link layer pass frames down to the Physical layer for bit-level encoding and transmission
onto the networking medium. The Data Link layer also controls functions of logical network
topologies and physical addressing as well as data transmission synchronization and connection.
The data link layer does actual unique identification of each computer or host (addresses) that are
on the local network. Data link layer has two parts:

Media Access Control (MAC): Defines how packets are places on the transmission media. If
there is traffic, then “first come/first serve” rule is applied. The MAC also manages line
discipline, error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow control.

Logical Link Control: Responsible for identifying network layer protocols and then
encapsulating them. An LLC header tells the Data Link Layer what to do with a packet once a
frame is received. The LLC can also provide flow control and sequencing of control bits.
Device: Switch, Bridge

The Physical Layer

The physical layer sends bits and receives bits (in the values of 1 or 0). It is responsible for
controlling the functional interface, such as transmission technique, encoding scheme, cable
specifications, pin layer out, and connector type. The physical layer communicates directly with
the various types of actual transmission media (cables). It specifies the electrical, mechanical,
procedural and functional requirements for activating, maintaining, and deactivating a physical
link or connection between end systems or nodes. A hub is an example of a physical layer
device.

43
Summary: OSI Model.
• International Standards Organization (ISO) specifications for network architecture called the
Open Systems Interconnect or OSI model.
• Seven layered model, higher layers have more complex tasks.
• Each layer provides services for the next higher layer.
• Each layer communicates logically with its associated layer on the other computer.
• Packets are sent from one layer to another in the order of the layers, from top to bottom on the
sending computer and then in reverse order on the receiving computer.

Application • Interfaces applications with networks

DNS; FTP; TFTP; Gateway
BOOTP;
User Interface services: serves as a window for
SNMP;RLOGIN;
applications to access network SMTP; MIME; NFS;
services FINGER; TELNET;
• allows access to network services that NCP; APPC; AFP;
support applications; SMB
• directly represents the services that
directly support user applications
• handles general network access, flow
control and error recovery
• Example apps are file transfer, e-mail,
NetBIOS-based applications
Presentation • determines the format used to exchange Gateway
Translation data among the networked computers Redirector
• Translates data from a format from the
application layer into an intermediate
format and vice-versa
• all different formats from all sources are
made into a common uniform format that
the rest of the OSI model can understand
• responsible for protocol conversion,
character conversion, data translation,
data encryption and decryption, character
conversion, graphics expansion and data
compression
• sets standards for different systems to
provide seamless communication from
multiple protocol stacks
• not always implemented in a network
protocol

44
 Session • allows two applications running on NetBIOS Gateway
"syncs and sessions" different computers to establish, maintain Names Pipes
and end a connection called a session
across the network Mail Slots
• responsible for name recognition and RPC
security (identification) so only the
designated parties can participate in the
session
• provides synchronization services by
planning check points in the data stream
=> if session fails, only data after the
most recent checkpoint need be
transmitted
• Implements dialog control between
communicating processes
• manages who can transmit data at a
certain time and for how long
• Examples are interactive login and file
transfer connections, the session would
connect and re-connect if there was an
interruption; recognize names in sessions
and register names in history
TCP, ARP, RARP; Gateway
Transport • Responsible for packet creation
packets; flow • provides an additional connection level SPX Advanced Cable
control & error- below the session layer NWLink Tester
handling
• ensure that packets are delivered error- NetBIOS / NetBEUI Brouter
free, in sequence with no loss or
duplication. ATP
• divides streams of data into chunks or
packets; the transport layer of the
receiving computer reassembles the
message from packets
• Unpacks, reassembles and sends receipts
of messages at the receiving end.
• "train" is a good analogy => the data is
divided into identical units
• provides error-checking to guarantee
error-free data delivery, with on losses or
duplications
• provides acknowledgment of successful
transmissions; requests retransmission if
some packets don’t arrive error-free
• Provides flow control, error handling, and
solves transmission problems.

45
 IP; ARP; RARP, Brouter
Network • responsible for providing:
ICMP; RIP; OSFP; Router
addressing; routing o addressing messages and translating
logical addresses and names into physical IGMP; Frame Relay Device
addresses(e.g. computer name to MAC IPX
address) ATM Switch
NWLink Advanced Cable
NetBEUI Tester
o determining routes from the source to the
destination computer OSI
o managing network problems and traffic DDP
such as packet switching, data congestion DECnet
and routing and controlling the congestion
of data.
• if router can’t send data frame as large as
the source computer sends, the network
layer compensates by breaking the data
into smaller units. At the receiving end,
the network layer reassembles the data
• think of this layer stamping the addresses
on each train car
Logical Link Bridge
Data Link • turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at
the receiving end turns bits into packets. Control Switch
data frames to bits
• handles data frames between the Network • error correction and ISDN Router
flow control
and Physical layers
• manages link control Intelligent Hub
• the receiving end packages raw data bits and defines SAPs
from the Physical layer into data frames NIC
for delivery to the Network layer 802.1 OSI Model
Advanced Cable
802.2 Logical Link Tester
• responsible for providing error-free Control
transmission of frames to other computer
via the Physical Layer Media Access
• this layer defines the methods used to
Control
transmit and receive data on the network. • communicates with the
It consists of the wiring, the devices use to adapter card
connect the NIC to the wiring, the • controls the type of
signaling involved to transmit / receive media being used:
data and the ability to detect signaling 802.3 CSMA/CD
errors on the network media (Ethernet)
802.4 Token Bus
(ARCnet)
802.5 Token Ring
802.12 Demand Priority
IEEE 802 Repeater
Physical • transmits unstructured raw bit stream over
a physical cable (or media) IEEE 802.2 Multiplexer
hardware; raw bit
stream • defines cables, adapter cards, and physical ISO 2110 Hubs

46
 aspects ISDN • Passive
• relates electrical, optical, mechanical and • Active
functional interfaces to the cables
TDR
• defines NIC attachments to hardware, and
how cable is attached to the NIC Oscilloscope
• defines techniques to transfer bit stream to Amplifier
cable
• Defines data encoding and bit
synchronization.

47
CHAPTER 12: Media-Access Methods
A media access method or scheme is a set of rules that directs the data (signals) sent over the
network transmission media (cables). The methods provide an operating process that all
computers (and hosts) must adhere to so that data is transferred completely and accurately. As
you know from traffic rules that regulate vehicle traffic, controlling the direction of traffic flow
is not enough to keep the streets safe.

For example, at a busy intersection traffic light and stops signs keep vehicles from being in the
same place at the same time. Being in the same place at the same time causes vehicles to collide.

Similarly, being on a network transmission media at the same time causes electronic signals to
collide. Therefore, a media access scheme or method (a set of rules for network traffic control)
needs to be in place to control when network devices are allowed to transmit data signals.

If network devices operate without a media access scheme, devices transmit whenever they are
ready. Sometimes they transmit at the same time. Signals combine and become damaged to the
point that the signal data is lost. This is called collision, and it destroys effective network
communications. You cannot operate a network unless you can eliminate the effects of collision.
There are three primary methods that LANs employ to access the physical network medium:

• Contention
• Token passing
• Polling

Contention-Based Schemes
Ethernet systems use a contention-bases access method known as CSMA/CD, short for Carrier
Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection. Though this seems a lot of words, the meaning is
quite simple. Carrier Sense means that each device checks the LAN before it starts transmitting
to see if some other device is using the media. If another signal (containing a "carrier") was
present, then the device attempting to send would wait until the LAN is clear. Then it transmits
its data. The collision detection part means that each workstation listens to make sure that only
one signal is present on the LAN. In the event there are two then obviously the data from one
device has collided with that of another. Once a workstation detects a collision, it sends out a
series of 1 bits alerting the rest of the network. At that point everyone stops transmitting and each
workstation waits a random amount of time before attempting to transmit again. The delay time
is regulated by a random number generator on-board each Ethernet card.

48
The major advantage of contention systems is that devices may transmit whenever they like just
as long as the LAN is free. Consequently the overhead of devices waiting on the opportunity is
generally low. Since any device can participate at almost any time, no attempt is made to
prioritize LAN access in any way.
However, as traffic increases in a contention system, collisions can become excessive, severely
impacting the overall performance of the network. The capacity of the LAN may be far
underutilized in this event. The other major disadvantage is that contention systems do not
follow an easily predictable pattern of performance degradation as traffic increases.

In summary, contention-based schemes handle average network traffic conditions very well but
lose performance when network traffic gets heavier and so more collisions occur.

Token Passing
This technology is used for token ring systems. A token is a special message that temporarily
gives access control to the device holding the token. Passing the token around distributes access
control among the network’s devices.

In token passing schemes, a small signal called a token regularly visits each device. The token
gives permission for the device to transmit if it needs to. If a transfer of data is needed, the
device receives a set amount of time to broadcast its data. When it is done, the machine then
retransmits the token to another machine giving that recipient permission to transmit, and so the
system continues. This mechanism ensures opportunity for all devices to gain access to the LAN.
Because of its predictable behavior, token scheme LANs offer the advantage of priorities, where
a certain group of devices may have enhanced access to the LAN if warranted.

Token-passing schemes do not allow contention. One token exists on the media as devices take
turns using the media. Under average network traffic condition, token-passing is slower than
contention-bases access schemes, but is performs better under heavy traffic conditions.

49
Polling Schemes
Polling is a means by which a central controlling device may regulate the opportunity for
machines to transfer data on the LAN. In effect, several devices attached to a controller unit are
individually given permission to access the LAN. This technology is often employed in LANs
associated with mainframes and minicomputers. The device that controls the access of other
units is called a "controller" or a "primary" device. The units themselves are referred to as
"secondaries". This controller device queries the secondary devices in a predetermined order to
determine whether they have information to transmit. If a unit has something to transmit, the
controller gives the device the permission to transmit. The secondary then has exclusive use of
the network to transfer data for a set period of time. When that time expires or if the device is
through transmitting, the controller routes a request for transmit to the next secondary device in
line.

Terminal A

Controller
Terminal B Device

Terminal C

This access scheme is similar to a classroom in which the teacher goes from students to student
in a predetermined order. The teacher asks each student to speak for a present amount of time
and then moves on to the next student. The teacher is the primary and the students are the
secondaries in this example.

50
CHAPTER 13: Data Transmission
There are numerous tasks involved when data from an application on one computer is
transmitted through a network and into an application on another computer. Data from one
application is transmitted through a network and into another application. Data and control
information can be transmitted through networks in a variety of forms, including frames, packets,
datagrams, segments and messages. Each form is associated with a particular OSI model layer.

Review of OSI Layers

The OSI model is typically divided into the upper layer and lower layer categories. The upper
layers are the application, presentation, session, and transport layers. They are closest to the user
and deal with software and application issues. The lower layers involved with transmitting data
are transport, network, data link and physical.

The transport layer (Layer 4), multiplexes the data from multiple applications into the same
traffic stream, provides end-to-end transport between two hosts and optionally provides a variety
of reliable transport mechanisms. An example of a Layer 4 implementation is Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP).

The network layer (Layer 3), provides routing and related functions that enable multiple data
links to be combined into an internetwork. It also defines node addressing. An example of a
Layer 3 implementation is Internet Protocol (IP).

The data link layer (Layer 2), organizes the data for transporting across the physical network.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has subdivided the data link layer
into two sublayers, which are Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC),
discussed in chapter 11.

The physical layer ( Layer 1), defines the physical links and specifications that enable stations
on the network to communicate with each other. It also allows hosts to communicate across a
shared physical media. Layer 1 defines characteristics such as voltage levels and physical data
rates.

In order for messages to transmit between two devices over an internetwork, they must move
through the OSI model layers on the sending and receiving computers. Each layer adds
instructions or control information to the original message.

Date between HEADER and TRAILER

The header and trailer contain control information intended for the same network layer entity in
the destination system. For example, if the header and trailer control information originate in the
network layer on a source node, it will end in the network layer on the destination node. On the
receiving device, each layer reads the instructions or control information added by the
corresponding, or peer, layer on the sending device. After the information is read and processed,
the header and trailer fields are stripped off, and the resulting data is passed to the layer above.
This process is called decapsulation. The decapsulation process is repeated up through the layers
until it reaches the application layer. After the top, or application, OSI layer decapsulates, it
passes the information to the recipient program to complete the communication process.

51
When the source of information and its destination are located within the data link layer, or
Layer 2, the unit of transmission is called a frame. Frames are the data link layer header and
trailer encapsulated with any OSI upper layer data requiring transmission. A frame includes in
its data portion the information unit passed to it by Layer 3, which is the network layer. The
format of the header and trailer depends on the type of network, for example Ethernet, to which
the device is connected.

When the source and destination of information are within the network layer, the unit of
information is called a packet. Packets are the network layer header and trailer encapsulated
with any upper layer data requiring transmission.

A connectionless network service is an OSI network layer service that does not require a circuit
to be established before data is transmitted. A packet used in a connectionless network service is
referred to as a datagram.

A segment is a protocol data unit within the transport layer. It is constructed in the same way as
packets and frames. A message is an information unit that can be used in the transport layer as
well as the upper layers but typically is used in the application layer. A cell is an information
unit of a fixed size whose source and destination are data link layer components. Cells are
common in switched environments such as ATM. A cell is composed of a header and payload. A
payload is the portion of a frame that contains the upper layer information.

The header contains control information intended for the destination data link layer and is
typically five bytes long. The payload contains upper-layer data that is encapsulated in the cell
header and is typically 48 bytes long. The length of the header and payload fields are exactly the
same for each cell.

Signal Transmission

Baseband Transmission -- Digital

• Baseband transmission uses digital signaling over a single frequency.

• Entire communication channel is used to transmit a single signal.
• Flow is bi-directional. Some can transmit and receive at the same time.
• Baseband systems use repeaters to strengthen attenuated signals.

Broadband Transmission -- Analog

• Broadband uses analog signaling over a range of frequencies.

• Signals are continuous and non-discrete.
• Flow is uni-directional and so two frequency channels or two separate cables must be
used.
o if enough bandwidth is available, multiple analog transmission systems such as
cable TV AND network transmissions can be on the same cable at the same time.
o if this is the case, ALL devices must be tuned to use only certain frequencies
• Uses amplifiers for signal regeneration.

52
CHAPTER 14: Network Operating Systems (NOS)
Network Operating System (NOS) is an operating system that includes special functions for
connecting computers and devices into a local-area network (LAN) or an Inter-networking. A
network operating system (NOS) controls a network and its message (e.g. packet) traffic and
queues, controls access by multiple users to network resources such as files, and provides for
certain administrative functions, including security. Network operating systems (NOS) typically
are used to run computers that act as servers. They provide the capabilities required for network
operation. Network operating systems are also designed for client computers and provide
functions so the distinction between network operating systems and stand alone client operating
systems is not always obvious. Some examples of popular NOSs for DOS and Windows systems
include Novell NetWare, Windows NT and 2000, Sun Solaris and IBM OS/2. The Cisco IOS
(Internet Operating System) is also a network operating system with a focus on the
internetworking capabilities of network devices.

Artisoft'
s LANtastic, Banyan VINES, Novell' s NetWare, and Microsoft's LAN Manager are
examples of network operating systems. In addition, some multi-purpose operating systems, such
as Windows NT and Digital' s OpenVMS come with capabilities that enable them to be described
as a network operating system.

Features
Some of the features of Network Operating System are:
• Provide basic operating system features such as support for processors, protocols, automatic
hardware detection and support multi-processing of applications
• Security features such as authentication, authorization, logon restrictions and access control
• Provide name and directory services
• Provide file, print, web services, back-up and replication services
• Support Internetworking such as routing and WAN ports
• User management and support for logon and logoff, remote access; system management,
administration and auditing tools with graphic interfaces
• Clustering capabilities; fault tolerant and high availability systems

Functions of NOS
A network operating system provides:
• Features to enable file, print, application, database and resource sharing
• The ability to manage network name directory
• Account or user administration services for users
• Security management services
• Drivers for installed components
• Network services such as printing and so on
• Facility for backing up data and other housekeeping aspects of a network

Note:
A NOS is not the same as the networking tools provided by some existing OSs, for instance
Windows XP. An NOS is an OS that has been specifically written to keep networks running at
optimal performance.

53
CHAPTER 15: Network Protocols & Services
Protocols are predefined set of rules and standards that indicates how computers or devices
communicate and exchange data on the network. Protocols help computers and network devices
understand each other and hold ‘conversations’.

There are four basic protocol groups for communication over a network medium:

• The Process/Application Layer Protocols

• The Host-to-Host Layer Protocols
• The Internet Layer Protocols

The Process/Application Layer Protocols

Telnet
Telnet is the chameleon of protocols—its specialty is terminal emulation. It allows a user on a
remote client machine, called the Telnet client, to access the resources of another machine, the
Telnet server. Telnet achieves this by pulling a fast one on the Telnet server and making the
client machine appear as though it were a terminal directly attached to the local network. This
projection is actually a software image, a virtual terminal that can interact with the chosen
remote host. These emulated terminals are of the text-mode type and can execute refined
procedures like displaying menus that give users the opportunity to choose options from them
and access the applications on the duped server. Users begin a Telnet session by running the
Telnet client software and then logging on to the Telnet server.

The name Telnet comes from “telephone network,” which is how most Telnet sessions used to
occur.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the protocol that actually lets us transfer files; it can
facilitate this between any two machines using it. But FTP isn’t just a protocol; it’s also a
program. Operating as a protocol, FTP is used by applications. As a program, it’s employed by
users to perform file tasks by hand. FTP also allows for access to both directories and files and
can accomplish certain types of directory operations, like relocating into different ones. FTP
teams up with Telnet to transparently log you in to the FTP server and then provides for the
transfer of files. Accessing a host through FTP is only the first step, though. Users must then be
subjected to an authentication login that’s probably secured with passwords and usernames
implemented by system administrators to restrict access. But you can get around this somewhat
by adopting the username “anonymous”—though what you’ll gain access to will be limited.
Even when employed by users manually as a program, FTP’s functions are limited to listing and
manipulating directories, typing file contents, and copying files between hosts. It can’t execute
remote files as programs.

54
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is the stripped-down, stock version of FTP, but it’s
the protocol of choice if you know exactly what you want and where to find it. It doesn’t give
you the abundance of functions that FTP does, though. TFTP has no directory-browsing abilities;
it can do nothing but send and receive files. This compact little protocol also skimps in the data
department, sending much smaller blocks of data than FTP, and there’s no authentication as with
FTP, so it’s insecure. Few sites support it because of the inherent security risks.

Network File System (NFS)

Network File System (NFS) is a jewel of a protocol specializing in file sharing. It allows two
different types of file systems to interoperate. It works like this: Suppose the NFS server
software is running on an NT server, and the NFS client software is running on a Unix host. NFS
allows for a portion of the RAM on the NT server to transparently store Unix files, which can, in
turn, be used by Unix users. Even though the NT file system and Unix file system are unlike—
they have different case sensitivity, filename lengths,
security, and so on—both Unix users and NT users can access that same file with their normal
file systems, in their normal way.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), answering our ubiquitous call to e-mail, uses a spooled,
or queued, method of mail delivery. Once a message has been sent to a destination, the message
is spooled to a device—usually a disk. The server software at the destination posts a vigil,
regularly checking this queue for messages. When it detects them, it proceeds to deliver them to
their destination. SMTP is used to send mail; POP3 is used to receive mail.

Domain Name Service (DNS)

Domain Name Service (DNS) resolves host names, specifically Internet names, like
www.routersim.com. You don’t have to use DNS; you can just type in the IP address of any
device you want to communicate with. An IP address identifies hosts on a network and the
Internet as well. However, DNS was designed to make our lives easier. Also, what would
happen if you wanted to move your Web page to a different service provider? The IP address
would change and no one would know what the new one was. DNS allows you to use a domain
name to specify an IP address. You can change the IP address as often as you want and no one
will know the difference. DNS is used to resolve Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDNs), for
example, www.lammle.com or todd.lammle.com. An FQDN is a hierarchy that can logically
locate a system based on its domain identifier. If you want to resolve the name “todd,” you
either must type in the FQDN of todd.lammle.com or have a device like a PC or router add the
suffix for you. For example, on a Cisco router, you can use the command ip domain-name
lammle.com to append each request with the lammle.com domain. If you don’t do that, you’ll
have to type in the FQDN to get the DNS to resolve the name.

55
Bootstrap Protocol (BootP)
BootP stands for Bootstrap Protocol. When a diskless workstation is powered on, it broadcasts a
BootP request on the network. A BootP server hears the request and looks up the client’s MAC
address in its BootP file. If it finds an appropriate entry, it responds by telling the machine its IP
address and the file—usually via the TFTP protocol—it should boot from. BootP is used by a
diskless machine to learn the following:
• Its own IP address
• The IP address and host name of a server machine
• The boot filename of a file that is to be loaded into memory and executed at boot-up
BootP is an old program that isn’t used anymore, right? Wrong: BootP is still around, but now
we just call it the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, which you will learn about in the next
section.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) gives IP addresses to hosts. It allows easier
administration and works well in small–to–even-very large network environments. All types of
hardware can be used as a DHCP server, including a Cisco router. DHCP differs from BootP in
that BootP gives an IP address to a host, but the host’s hardware address must be entered
manually in a BootP table. You can think of DHCP as a dynamic BootP. However, remember
that BootP is also used to send an operating system that a host can boot from. DHCP cannot
perform this function. There is a lot of information a DHCP server can provide to a host when
the host is registering for an IP address with the DHCP server. Notice all the information that can
be provided by the DHCP server:
• IP address
• Subnet mask
• Domain name
• Default gateway (routers)
• DNS
• WINS information
A DHCP server can provide even more information, but the items in the bulleted list are the most
common.

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The Host-to-Host Layer Protocols
The Host-to-Host layer’s main purpose is to shield the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of the network. This layer says to the upper layer, “Just give me your data stream,
with any instructions, and I’ll begin the process of getting your information ready to send.” The
following sections describe the two protocols at this layer:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) takes large blocks of information from an application
and breaks them into segments. It numbers and sequences each segment so that the destination’s
TCP protocol can put the segments back into the order the application intended. After these
segments are sent, TCP (on the transmitting host) waits for an acknowledgment of the receiving
end’s TCP virtual circuit session, retransmitting those that aren’t acknowledged. Before a
transmitting host starts to send segments down the model, the sender’s TCP protocol contacts the
destination’s TCP protocol to establish a connection. What is created is known as a virtual
circuit. This type of communication is called connection-oriented. During this initial handshake,
the two TCP layers also agree on the amount of information that’s going to be sent before the
recipient’s TCP sends back an acknowledgment. With everything agreed upon in advance, the
path is paved for reliable communication to take place. TCP is a full-duplex, connection-
oriented, reliable, accurate protocol, and establishing all these terms and conditions, in addition
to error checking, is no small task. TCP is very complicated and, not surprisingly, costly in terms
of network overhead. Since today’s networks are much more reliable than those of yore, this
added reliability is often unnecessary.

User Datagram Protocol

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that offers a limited amount of
service when messages are exchanged between computers in a network that uses the Internet
Protocol (IP). UDP is an alternative to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and, together
with IP, is sometimes referred to as UDP/IP. Like the Transmission Control Protocol, UDP uses
the Internet Protocol to actually get a data unit (called a datagram) from one computer to another.
Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not provide the service of dividing a message into packets
(datagrams) and reassembling it at the other end. Specifically, UDP doesn' t provide sequencing
of the packets that the data arrives in. This means that the application program that uses UDP
must be able to make sure that the entire message has arrived and is in the right order. Network
applications that want to save processing time because they have very small data units to
exchange (and therefore very little message reassembling to do) may prefer UDP to TCP. The
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) uses UDP instead of TCP.

UDP provides two services not provided by the IP layer. It provides port numbers to help
distinguish different user requests and, optionally, a checksum capability to verify that the data
arrived intact.

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The Internet Layer Protocols
There are two main reasons for the Internet layer’s existence: routing, and providing a single
network interface to the upper layers. None of the upper- or lower-layer protocols have any
functions relating to routing. The complex and important task of routing is the job of the Internet
layer. The Internet layer’s second job is to provide a single network interface to the upper-layer
protocols. Without this layer, application programmers would need to write “hooks” into every
one of their applications for each different
Network Access protocol. This would not only be a pain in the neck, but it would lead to
different versions of each application—one for Ethernet, another one for Token Ring, and so on.
To prevent this, IP provides one single network interface for the upper-layer protocols. That
accomplished, it’s then the job of IP and the various Network Access protocols to get along and
work together. All network roads don’t lead to Rome—they lead to IP. And all the other
protocols at this layer, as well as all those at the upper layers, use it. Never forget that. All paths
through the model go through IP. The following sections describe the protocols at the Internet
layer. These are the protocols that work at the Internet layer:
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

Internet Protocol (IP)

The Internet Protocol (IP) essentially is the Internet layer. The other protocols found here merely
exist to support it. IP contains the big picture and could be said to “see all,” in that it is aware of
all the interconnected networks. It can do this because all the machines on the network have
software, or logical, address called an IP address, which we’ll cover more thoroughly later in this
chapter. IP looks at each packet’s address. Then, using a routing table, it decides where a packet
is to be sent next, choosing the best path. The Network Access–layer protocols at the bottom of
the model don’t possess IP’s enlightened scope of the entire network; they deal only with
physical links (local networks). Identifying devices on networks requires answering these two
questions: Which network is it on? And what is its ID on that network? The first answer is the
software, or logical, address (the correct street). The second answer is the hardware address (the
correct mailbox). All hosts on a network have a logical ID called an IP address. This is the
software, or logical, address and contains valuable encoded information greatly simplifying the
complex task of routing. (Please note that IP is discussed in RFC 791.) IP receives segments
from the Host-to-Host layer and fragments them into datagrams (packets). IP then reassembles
datagrams back into segments on
the receiving side. Each datagram is assigned the IP address of the sender and of the recipient.
Each router (layer-3 device) that receives a datagram makes routing decisions based upon the
packet’s destination IP address. Figure 3.6 shows an IP header. This will give you an idea of
what the IP protocol has to go hrough every time user data is sent from the upper layers and
wants to be sent to a remote network.

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. Here’s how it works: When IP has a datagram to send, it must inform a Network Access
protocol, such as Ethernet or Token Ring, of the destination’s hardware address on the local
network. (It has already been informed by upper-layer protocols of the destination’s IP address.)
If IP doesn’t find the destination host’s hardware address in the ARP cache, it uses ARP to find
this information. As IP’s detective, ARP interrogates the local network by sending out a
broadcast asking the machine with the specified IP address to reply with its hardware address. In
other words, ARP translates the software (IP) address into a hardware address—for example, the
destination machine’s Ethernet board address—and from it, deduces its whereabouts. This
hardware address is technically referred to as the media access control (MAC) address or
physical address. Figure 3.8 shows how an ARP might look to a local network.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

When an IP machine happens to be a diskless machine, it has no way of initially knowing its IP
address, but it does know its MAC address. The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines by sending out a packet that
includes its MAC address and a request for the IP address assigned to that MAC address. A
designated machine, called a RARP server, responds with the answer, and the identity crisis is
over. RARP uses the information it does know about the machine’s MAC address to learn its IP
address and complete the machine’s ID portrait.

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CHAPTER 16: LAN Technologies
Ethernet Networks
Ethernet is the most widely-installed local area network (LAN) technology. Ethernet is a
popular network technology that uses logical bus topology and can be laid out in either a
physical bus or physical star topology. An Ethernet LAN typically uses coaxial cable or special
grades of twisted pair wires. Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs. The most commonly
installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASE-T and provide transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps.
Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second and is
typically used for LAN backbone systems, supporting workstations with 10BASE-T cards.
Gigabit Ethernet provides an even higher level of backbone support at 1000 megabits per second
(1 gigabit or 1 billion bits per second). 10-Gigabit Ethernet provides up to 10 billion bits per
second

Ethernet uses a contention-bases access scheme. Ethernet moves messages around the network
in packets of information that include the source station address, the destination station address,
the type of data that must be moved, and the data itself. To send a packet, a device on the
network must first listen to see if any other device is using the cable. When the cable appears to
be clear of traffic, the device sends it packets. If two devices are trying to transmit over the cable
at the same time, the packets might physically collide with each other on the wire. The result can
be damaged and unreliable packets. Ethernet expects some if these collisions and handles them
by employing CSMA/CD media access scheme.

When a collision occurs, a signal is sent to ensure that the collision has been detected around the
network. The devices competing for the cable’s bandwidth retransmit, but they delay their
retransmission by a random amount of time to ensure that collisions are eliminated. When
devices become aware of a packet on the wire, they check to make sure the packet is not a
fragment of a packet that has been damaged by a collision. If it is a whole packet, the devices
check the addresses. A packet addressed to a device is checked for integrity by the device before
it is processed.

Token Ring Network

Token ring networks combine physical star and logical ring topologies with token-passing media
access scheme in order to prevent the collision of data between two computers that want to send
messages at the same time. This is a popular network configuration. When a station wants to
transmit on the ring, it waits for a free token to pass. When it does, this source station takes the
free token and adds data to it.

The station then sends the token out on the ring. As the now busy token is passed to each active
station around the ring, each station checks to see which station the token is intended for. If a
station is not the recipient of the token, it re-sends the token along the ring. If a station is the
recipient, it copies the data that the source station added to the token.

Then it adds data to the token to indicate that it has recognized the address and copied the data.
It then sends the altered token out to the ring.

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The token continues around the rind until it reaches the source station. When the source sees that
the data has been received and copied, it generates a new free token, which it passes to the next
active station on the rind. Only One token is allowed to be on a ring at a time.

In summary, here is how it works (technically):

1. Empty information frames are continuously circulated on the ring.

2. When a computer has a message to send, it inserts a token in an empty frame (this may
consist of simply changing a 0 to a 1 in the token bit part of the frame) and inserts a
message and a destination identifier in the frame.
3. The frame is then examined by each successive workstation. If the workstation sees that
it is the destination for the message, it copies the message from the frame and changes the
token back to 0.
4. When the frame gets back to the originator, it sees that the token has been changed to 0
and that the message has been copied and received. It removes the message from the
frame.
5. The frame continues to circulate as an "empty" frame, ready to be taken by a workstation
when it has a message to send.

The token scheme can also be used with bus topology LANs.

FDDI
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a set of ANSI and ISO standards for data transmission
on fiber optic lines in a local area network (LAN) that can extend in range up to 200 km (124
miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the Token Ring protocol. In addition to being large
geographically, an FDDI local area network can support thousands of users. FDDI is frequently
used on the backbone for a wide area network (WAN).

An FDDI network contains two token rings, one for possible backup in case the primary ring
fails. The primary ring offers up to 100 Mbps capacity. If the secondary ring is not needed for
backup, it can also carry data, extending capacity to 200 Mbps. The single ring can extend the
maximum distance; a dual ring can extend 100 km (62 miles).

ARCNET
ARCNET is a widely-installed local area network (LAN) technology that uses a token-bus
scheme for managing line sharing among the workstations and other devices connected on the
LAN. The LAN server continuously circulates empty message frames on a bus (a line in which
every message goes through every device on the line and a device uses only those with its
address). When a device wants to send a message, it inserts a "token" (this can be as simple as
setting a token bit to 1) in an empty frame in which it also inserts the message. When the
destination device or LAN server reads the message, it resets the token to 0 so that the frame can
be reused by any other device. The scheme is very efficient when traffic increases since all
devices are afforded the same opportunity to use the shared network.

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ARCNET can use coaxial cable or fiber optic lines. ARCNET is one of four major LAN
technologies, which also include Ethernet, Token Ring and FDDI.

Virtual LANs (VLANs)

When something is virtual it appears to be real, but it is not. A virtual LAN, or VLAN, appears
to be one large network. It is actually a collection of multiple networks. While these networks
are physically connected, logically they are separate. The protocol of each can be different. A
switch can control and regulate traffic of a number of networks (creating a virtual LAN), but it
cannot connect a user on one VLAN with a user on another. A router is required for that kind of
connection.

A switched virtual LAN is a broadcast domain connecting a group of LANs at wire speed.
Ethernet switches have evolved from creating VLANs based on port assignment. They can now
create VLANs based on MAC addressing and network addressing. This enables VLANs to be
divided into closed logical user groups, called subnets, determined by administrative controls.
An Ethernet VLAN can be established through software, allowing a network administrator to
group a number of switch ports into a high bandwidth, low-latency switched workgroup. For
network management identification purposes, each virtual LAN gets a unique network number.
VLANs function on a bridge architecture, switching and transmitting data by media access
control (MAC) source and destination addresses. Traffic between virtual LANs is filtered,
secured and managed by a router at the software level, separate from the virtual LAN switching
logic.

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CHAPTER 17: WAN Technologies
WANs often use transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies, to link remote locations, even across continents. WANs may utilize a variety of
technologies to provide your enterprise with an internetworking solution for a variety of
communication needs.

Wan Devices
WAN devices can include WAN switches, access servers, modems, Channel Service Units and
Data Service Units (CSU/DSUs), ISDN terminal adapters, routers, ATM switches and
multiplexers.

Communications between computers rely heavily on the public telephone system. Newer
telephone line technologies have improved the standard of communications between networks
considerably. The following is a brief description of some of the technologies that are available:

PSTN
The PSTN or Public Switched Telephone Network refers to the original public telephone
network. From a communications perspective it was slow and unreliable. Some of the exchanges
on a PSTN may still make use of mechanical switches to route telephone calls. These add
additional noise to the line. When lines are noisy, signals have to be resent repeatedly between
the source and the destination. The PSTN makes use of analogue technology. Analogue
technology uses continuously variable signals. An example of an analogue signal is ordinary
speech. Newer digital technologies make use of pulses of fixed magnitude and duration. In order
to improve connections, it is possible to have an analogue leased line. This is a dedicated
permanent telephone connection between two computers using the PSTN. In order to connect a
computer to a telephone network, you need a modem. This is an abbreviation for modulator-
demodulator. The function of the modem is to convert the digital signals from the computer into
an analogue form suitable for transmission on the PSTN

ISDN
ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network is a technological development that is able to
make use of the existing PSTN cabling to transmit digital signals. Technically ISDN is an
international standard for the transmission of data, voice and video or normal voice or digital
telephone lines. ISDN supports rates of up to 64Kbps. An ISDN connection consists of two lines
which can be used independently or together to give a combined rate of 128Kbps.
If you wish to connect a computer to an ISDN line you need a special ISDN modem. This is a
different type of modem to the one used with an analogue line. Its purpose, however, is the same,
to convert the digital signals of the computer into a form suitable for transmission on an ISDN
line. It is possible to get a dedicated connection between two computers using ISDN. This is
called a diginet connection. The older telephone systems make use of electrical currents
transmitted through copper cabling. As electric signals are subject to interference, they are not
the ideal method of transmitting data. Newer telephone systems make use of fibre optic cable. In
fibre optic technology, light is transmitted along the cable. As light signals are not subject to the

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same interference problems as electrical signals, fibre optic is a far more efficient and reliable
system.

ADSL
ADSL or Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines allow the transmission of high speed digital data over
ordinary telephone lines using a modulation technology called DMT or Discrete MultiTone. ADSL
delivers high bandwidth over existing twisted-pair copper telephone lines, also called
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop. ADSL supports speeds in the range of 1.5 to 9Mbps in the
downstream direction (from the network to the subscriber) and supports upstream (from the
network to the subscriber) speeds in the range of 16 Kbps to 640 Kbps; hence, the term
asymmetric.

ATM
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) digital service is a method for transmitting voice, video, and data
over high speed WANS. ATM offers a high-bandwidth, efficient means for transferring multimedia
content, data, and voice over phone lines. ATM uses continuous bursts of fixed-length packets
called cells to transmit data. The basic cell consists of 53 bytes, 5 of which are used for control
functions and 48 for data. A cell is analogous to a packet or frame, except that an ATM cell is
always fixed in length, whereas a frame’s length can vary.

ATM is designed to switch these small cells through an ATM network very quickly. It does this
by setting up a virtual connection between the source and destination nodes; the cells may go
through multiple switching points before ultimately arriving at their final destination. The cells
may also arrive out of order, so the receiving system may have to reassemble and correctly order
the cells. ATM is a connection-oriented service, and two kinds of connections are possible:
• Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs), in which connections are created manually
• Switched virtual circuits (SVCs), in which connections are made automatically

Data rates are scalable and start as low as 1.5Mps, with speeds of 25Mbps,51Mbps, 100Mbps,
155Mbps, and higher. The common speeds of ATM networks today are 51.84Mbps and
155.52Mbps. Both of these speeds can be used over either copper or fibre-optic cabling. An
ATM with a speed of 622.08Msps is also becoming common but is currently used exclusively
over fibre-optic cable. ATM supports very high speeds because it is designed to be implemented
by hardware rather than software; faster processing speeds are therefore possible.

Microwave
It is a method of radio transmission that uses high-frequency waves (in the range of 1 to 30
gigahertz) for line-of-sight broadband communications. It requires a repeater station every 20
miles or so because of the curvature of the earth. Microwaves are used for satellite
communications, for communications between two buildings in a metropolitan area, and across
large open areas such as lakes and rivers where laying a cable may be impractical.

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Data Transfer Rates
Data is tranmitted in bits of 1s or 0s. The speed of a data transfer is measured by the number of
bits that can be transferred each second or bps (bits per second). This is also sometimes called
the baud rate or bandwidth.

High speed lines have their speed measured in kbps or Mbps.

1 kbps = 1 024 bps (roughly 1 000 bps)
1 Mbps = 1 024 kbps = 1 048 576 bps (roughly 1 000 000 bps)

To put these figures in perspective, the maximum theoretically attainable speed with an analogue
line is 56kbps. This figure is very seldom attained and the reality is usually substantially lower.
ISDN lines operate at 64 kbps and higher.

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CHAPTER 18: The Internet
What is Internet?
The Internet consists of many interconnected networks. Networks are connected to one another
by special-purpose computers or servers called routers. packet-switched

How it works?
Every computer which is connected to the Internet has a unique identifier called IP Address.
When data is to be delivered across the Internet, it is first converted into small units called
packets. A packet consists of two parts: a header and a payload. The header contains the IP
address of the packet's destination. When a packet is sent into the Internet, it passes through a
local network to the first router (sometimes called a gateway). This router examines the packet' s
destination address and decides which router, of all those it is directly connected to, it should
forward the packet onto for its next transmission (or hop). The process is repeated at the next
router, and so on, until the packet reaches its destination device or computer. Internet Protocol
(IP) defines how the processes works, the format of packets, how routers behave, and so on.

Advantages of the Internet

The internet is a source of information accessible to people across the world, but the way it can
be put to use on different platforms (systems) is different. The internet serves as a:
• Network: Organizations can use the internet to link their offices and employees, turning the
Internet into a virtual private network (VPN)
• Medium: The internet serves ads a communication channel for anybody dealing with product
marketing to corporate communications.
• Market: The internet is a vast virtual ‘market’ place where you can advertise and also order
products from the ‘market’.
• Transaction platform: The internet allows you to complete your business transactions in the
market place, i.e. you complete your financial transactions online while linked directly to your
suppliers, customers or financial institutions (Banks etc.)

Uses of the Internet

• Integrate the operations of multinational corporations.
• Provide access to and share information and databases.
• Transfer and share files between computers.
• Facilitate business transactions.
• Share resources.
• Promote scientific co-operation between research institutions.
• Provides a communication channel for the military.

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Functionality of the Internet
The internet has over a million computers attached to it, from which arises the need of a proper
addressing system for communication. This system of addressing is called the Internet Protocol
(IP) Addressing system. Each computer on the network is called a workstation or host, and has a
name called host name and a number called IP Address. The IP addressing system uses:

• Letter Addressing and

• Number Addressing

Letter Addressing System

An example of a letter addressing is vcin.edu.bw which is the address of Vocational and
Creativity Institute. The last three letters of the address are important because they provide
information about the kind of organization to which the address belongs. Some of the
abbreviations used are listed below.

ABBREVIATION REPRESENTS
edu Educational institutions
mil Military sites
gov Government departments
net Networking organization
com Commercial organization
int International organization
org Professional societies
ac Academic institution

The letter addressing system also uses country codes comprising two letters. Examples of
country codes are in for India, ca for Canada, bw for Botswana, au for Australia etc. This letter
addressing system is called Domain Naming System (DNS).

Number Addressing System

A numeric address has four parts and is referred to as a dieted quad. For example, 192.168.10.1.
This is also known as an IP address. Each number in a dotted quad, called an octe,t cannot
exceed 225. The lettered IP address is mapped to the numeric address (octet) before a machine is
accessed. It is recommended that you know the IP address of the host computer you use often.

The internet being a packet switching network, data is transmitted by converting it into small
packets. The software or protocol that is responsible for making the internet function efficiently
is TCP/IP, which stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.

The World Wide Web (WWW)

World Wide Web is all the resources and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It consists of a series of servers that are interconnected through
hypertext. Hypertext is a method of presenting information in which certain text is highlighted
that, when selected, displays more information on the particular topic. These highlighted items
are called hyperlinks and allow users to navigate from one document to another that may be

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located on different servers. The user can use the browser software like internet explorer,
Mozilla Firefox or Netscape navigator to navigate the web. A browser is software which helps
the user navigate the World Wide Web. The web is a graphic medium with most web pages
having some amount of images. The term home page commonly refers to the index page of any
organization or information source. From home page, the user can have links that take the user
to further levels of information within the same or different topic or links to other homes pages.

Advantages of the World Wide Web (WWW)

The advantages of WWW can be listed as follows:
• A link in a web document can be used to open other documents
• Web pages can contain pictures, buttons and even links to sound files, in addition to text, thus
allowing multimedia applications.
• Sophisticated web documents allow the user to interact with the application through dialog
boxes and forms.

Common Terminologies
Some commonly used terminologies related to WWW are:

• Browser: is client software that allows the user to display and interact with a hypertext
document.
• Web server: It is a program that responds to requests from web browsers to retrieve resources.

! It is also used to refer to the computer that runs the server program
• Home page: is the first hypertext document displayed when the user follows a link to the web
server.
• Hypertext Markup Language (HTML): is the encoding scheme used to create a Web document.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is the protocol used on the Web to transfer hypertext
documents. It internet
• Uniform Resource Locator (URL): is a web addressing scheme that spells out the exact
location of an internet resource. When the user clicks on a link, the browser reads the link to
the document. The information about the link is provided to the browser by the URL. Any
link from one document to another is always implemented by using a URL. A URL contains
information about the location of the document. A URL may point to another HTML
document or an image. A typical URL would be as follows:

scheme://host.domain/path/dataname Eg. http://www.vci.bw/home/course

Table below contains an explanation of the components of a URL

COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
http scheme: type of data to which the URL points
www The World Wide Web
vci.bw host.domain: refers to the server on which the data is stored
home/course path/dataname: refers to the location on the server where the
data is stored

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An illustration of services provided by the Internet and when to use them is given table below.

OPTION DESCRIPTION
FTP Get a file from another system on the internet
FTP Send a file to another system on the internet
Telnet View files in a directory in a system on another network
E-mail Corresponds or communicate with a particular person on the internet.
Newsgroup Correspond or communicate with a group of people interested in a similar topic
WWW Read multimedia documents on the internet
Gopher Search for everything about a specific topic on the internet.

ACCESSING THE INTERNET

Proper access to the WWW depends on two things, namely, the user’s interface connection and
the installed browser. Different networks provide different kinds of services and connections.
The type of connections chosen by the user will depend on the purpose for which the user
intends to use the internet.

Dedicated access
A dedicated connection allows the User’s computer to remain connected to the internet 24 hours
a day, for example ADSL internet access. Dedicated access is a direct link to the Internet.
Routers pass on the data to internet backbones. A router is used to transmit data from one
network to another. Backbones are high speed phone lines that move data to and from mid-level
servers. These servers pass on the data to local networks as shown below.

Users Router Internet

Dial Up Access
IP Accounts
When the user needs to access the Internet through a service provider, the user can have two
kinds of accounts – SLPIS accounts and PPP accounts, collectively known as IP accounts. A
service provider has direct access to the internet and provides internet services to other users.
The service provider assigns addresses to the users.

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SLIP strands for Serial Line Internet Protocol, and PPP stands for Point-to Point Protocol. Both
SLIP and PPP connections are similar to a dedicated line, though PPP connections are faster that
SLIP connections. With an IP address, the computer appears to be a node on the network like a
dedicated account. The software that the user uses on the machine is downloadable on the user’s
machine and not on the service provider.

Shell Accounts
With a shell account, the user access the Internet for a fixed number of hours and is required to
pay monthly or an annual tariff for the services rendered, depending in the service provider. A
shell account holder can only view text and not graphics. With this kind if a system, the
computer is not actually a part of the Internet, and hence the user does not have any IP address.

Requirements
To connect to the internet, the user needs a computer with communication software such as
Telix, Procom Plus, PCPlus or Speed Touch to access the service provider and browser software
such as internet explorer, Mozilla Firefox or Netscape navigator. Refer to practical manual for
more details.

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