Data Center Operational

and Services
Understanding the OSI Model

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International Organization for Standardization

(ISO)
Multi-industry association that attempts to standardize and define
items that increase communication and compatibility in many
different countries
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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

Seven layer reference model created by the ISO

Defines and separates networking hardware and software into distinct

layers and functions
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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

OSI Reference Model is a seven-layer model to describe how to connect any combination
of devices for purposes of communications.

This model describes the task in terms of seven functional layers, and specifies functions
that must be available at each layer.

The focus in this model is on the “interconnection” and on the information that can be
passed over this connection.

The OSI model does not concern itself with the internal operations of the systems
involved.
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Reasons for Layering

1. Simplifies the network model
2. Enables programmers to specialize in a particular level or layer of the
networking model
3. Provides design modularity
4. Encourages interoperability
5. Allows for standardized interfaces to be produced by networking
vendors

Protocol
Defined method for communication between systems
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Reasons for Layering

Protocol
Defined method for communication between systems

Computers must use a common protocol to communicate properly

Examples: TCP/IP and IPX/SPX
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OSI Reference Model

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As a group, these layers

form the OSI protocol
stack

Figure 1-1:
OSI Reference Model
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Peer OSI Communication

Each layer will only talk to its peer on the opposite side of the communications
process

Each layer is unaware of the activities of all other layers of the model

Allows error checking to occur on two separate layers simultaneously

Each layer does provide services to the layer above it and receives services from
layer below it
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Seven Layers of the OSI Model

1. Physical layer
2. Data Link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Sessions layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
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The seven layers of the OSI

reference model
communicate with each
other via peer
communication

Figure 2:
Peer OSI Communication
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Layer Functions: Physical

(Layer 1)
Layer 1 in the OSI model

Has the following responsibilities:

1. Definition of the physical characteristics of the network hardware
2. Representation of binary digits as voltages (encoding)
3. Transmission of signals on the wire
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Figure 1-3:
568B twisted pair wiring
scheme
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Layer Functions: Physical

(Layer 1)
Connectors, cables, and devices like repeaters and hubs can be associated
with the physical layer

When choosing cable, consider the following:

Expense
Physical location
Distance
Security requirements
Transmission speed required
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Layer Functions: Data Link (Layer 2)

Has several responsibilities:
1. NIC functions, including identification of source and destination nodes
via physical addresses (Media Access Control (MAC) Address
2. Definition of how data is packaged for transport in smaller units
known as frames
3. Error detection / notification
4. Flow control of information sent across the link
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Layer Functions: Data Link (Layer 2)

Data Link layer has two sublayers that further articulate its function:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC) layer
2. Media Access Control (MAC) layer

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) created

these sublayers to identify and isolate the separate responsibilities
required at this level of the protocol stack
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Figure 1-4:
Data Link layer
subdivision
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Layer Functions: Data Link (Layer 2)

MAC layer defines the media access method and provides a unique
identifier for the network card

The unique identifier is a 48-bit address represented as 12-digit

hexadecimal number given to each network card during production

Every network interface card must have a unique physical address

(also called the MAC address)
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Figure 1-5:
MAC address
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Layer Functions: Data Link (Layer 2)

Ethernet
A standard networking architecture that defines the physical layout, lengths, and
types of media that can be used

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Network access method used by Ethernet networks
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Layer Functions: Network (Layer 3)

Has the following function:
1. Error handling
2. Software addressing for data packets
3. Data routing and connectivity
4. Best path selection
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Layer Functions: Network (Layer 3)

The Network layer contains the logical address for the computer
Software/logical addressing for data packets, such as IP, IPX, and
AppleTalk

Protocols at the Network layer allow computers to route packets to

remote networks using a logical address
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Layer Functions: Transport (Layer 4)

Provides point-to-point data transportation

Responsibilities include:
1. End-to-end error-free transmission and delivery between ultimate sender
and receiver
2. Flow control
3. Data segmentation into maximum transmission unit (MTU) size
4. Messaging service for the Session layer
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Layer Functions: Transport (Layer 4)

Protocols that reside at the Transport layer can be
connection-oriented or connectionless
Data sent by a connectionless transport is also called a datagram
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Layer Functions: Session (Layer 5)

Enables two applications on the network to have an ongoing
conversation or dialog

Examples of Session layer protocols include:

SQL
NetBIOS
RPC
X-Windows
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Layer Functions: Session (Layer 5)

Provides the following services:
1. Control for data exchange (full or half duplex)
2. Data synchronization definition
3. Failure recovery
4. Communication setup and teardown
5. Clocking or timing
6. Initial link setup and link termination when communications complete
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Layer Functions: Session (Layer 5)

The Session layer allows the transfer of a large set of data across the
network
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Layer Functions: Presentation (Layer 6)

Prepares the data from Application layer for transmission over the network

Components include extensions and coding schemes such as:

BMP
WAV
ASCII

This layer also provides encryption services when data encryption is used
in network communications
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Layer Functions: Presentation (Layer 6)

Has these responsibilities:
1. Data translation
2. Data formatting
3. Data syntax restructuring
4. Data encryption
5. Data compression
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Layer Functions: Application (Layer 7)

Has the following responsibilities:
1. Initiating the request for network service
2. Providing network services to applications such as e-mail and Web
browsers

This layer is concerned with user interaction with the computer and the
network
Contains many protocols and utilities, such as telnet, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SMTP,
and SNMP
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Layer Functions: Application(Layer 7)

Programs and protocols that provide application-layer services:
NICE (Network Information and Control Exchange) - provides network monitoring
and management capabilities

FTAM (File Transfer, Access, and Management - provides capabilities for remote file
handling

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - provides file transfer capabilities

X.400 - specifies protocols and functions for message handling and e-mail services
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Layer Functions: Application(Layer 7)

CMIP - provides network management capabilities based on a framework formulated
by the ISO

SNMP - provides network management within a non-OSI framework. This protocol

does not conform to the OSI model, but does provide functionality that is specified
within the OSI model

Telnet - provides terminal emulation and remote login capabilities. Telnet’s

capabilities go beyond the application layer

rlogin - provides remote login capabilities for UNIX environments

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Data Encapsulation
Data is sent from one computer to another in a data packet

The packet contains data from the sending application and additional information
added by the protocol stack

Prior to transmission across the network, the data is organized into a data frame at
layer 2

Protocol data unit (PDU)/Header

Information added to a data packet by the layers of the protocol stack

Encapsulation
Process that occurs during transmission through the protocol stack in which data from the
higher layers is wrapped in a protocol header and/or trailer
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Figure 1-6: Encapsulation

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Table 1-1: Five steps of data

encapsulation
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OSI Reference Model

Open System Interconnection reference model is a Network
architectural model developed by ISO and ITU-T.

The model consists of seven layers, each of which specifies particular

network functions such as addressing, flow control, error control,
encapsulation, and reliable message transfer.
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OSI Reference Model

The lowest layer (the physical layer) is closest to the media
technology.

The lower two layers are implemented in hardware and software

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OSI Reference Model

While, the upper five layers are implemented only in software.

The highest layer (the application layer) is closest to the user.

The OSI reference model is used universally as a method for teaching

and understanding network functionality.
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Chapter Summary
Two or more computers connected by media form a network

The ISO developed the OSI model in the mid-1980s to standardize

networking models

Data transmission can be connection-oriented or connectionless

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Chapter Summary
The OSI model has seven layers:
1. Physical layer
2. Data Link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
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Chapter Summary
The Presentation layer, the sixth layer, handles data translation,
encryption, and formatting for transmission on the network or for
interpretation by the Application layer
When the network user sends data to the network, it goes through
five-step data encapsulation process
The Application layer, the seventh and highest layer, handles the
interface between the network and the user
When the network user sends data to the network, it goes through a
five-step data encapsulation process
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Chapter Summary
This process takes place as the data packet travels down the OSI
stack
When the network user sends data to the network, it goes through
a five-step data encapsulation process
This process takes place as the data packet travels down the OSI
stack