https://open.oregonstate.

education/aandp/chapter/23-2-digestive-system-processes-and-regulation/

Functions of the Digestive Organs (Table 23.3)

Organ Major functions Other functions

 Ingests food
 Chews and mixes food  Moistens and dissolves food,
 Begins chemical breakdown of allowing you to taste it
carbohydrates  Cleans and lubricates the teeth
Mouth and oral cavity
 Moves food into the pharynx
 Has some antimicrobial activity
 Begins breakdown of lipids via
lingual lipase

 Propels food from the oral cavity

 Lubricates food and passageways
Pharynx to the esophagus

 Propels food to the stomach  Lubricates food and passageways

Esophagus

Stomach  Mixes and churns food with gastric  Stimulates protein-digesting

juices to form chyme enzymes
 Begins chemical breakdown of  Secretes intrinsic factor required
proteins for vitamin B12 absorption in small
 Releases food into the duodenum intestine
as chyme
 Absorbs some fat-soluble
substances (for example, alcohol,
aspirin)
Functions of the Digestive Organs (Table 23.3)

Organ Major functions Other functions

 Possesses antimicrobial functions

 Mixes chyme with digestive juices

 Propels food at a rate slow enough
for digestion and absorption
 Absorbs breakdown products of  Provides optimal medium for
Small carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and enzymatic activity
intestine nucleic acids, along with vitamins,
minerals, and water
 Performs physical digestion via
segmentation

 Liver: produces bile salts, which

emulsify lipids, aiding their
digestion and absorption  Bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juices
help neutralize acidic chyme and
Accessory  Gallbladder: stores, concentrates,
provide optimal environment for
organs and releases bile
enzymatic activity
 Pancreas: produces digestive
enzymes and bicarbonate

 Further breaks down food residues

 Food residue is concentrated and
 Absorbs most residual water,
temporarily stored prior to
electrolytes, and vitamins produced
Large defecation
by enteric bacteria
intestine  Mucus eases passage of feces
 Propels feces toward rectum
through colon
 Eliminates feces

SALIVARY SECRETION
Saliva contains two major types of protein secretion: (1) a serous secretion that contains ptyalin (α-amylase), which
is an enzyme for digesting starches, and (2) mucus secretion that contains mucin for lubricating and for surface
protective purposes.

Composition of Saliva

1. Mucus

Mucus is an aqueous mixture of proteoglycans and glycoproteins. Salivary mucins are O-glycosylated and consist of
peptides with many oligosaccharides linked covalently to the hydroxyamino acid serine or threonine.

The physiological functions of mucin are related to its high viscosity.

2. Electrolytes

The principal inorganic constituents of saliva are sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate, which, with the
exception of bicarbonate, originate directly from the plasma. Rates of salivary flow vary depending on stimulation,
and there are wide variations in electrolyte concentration. Saliva is formed by a process that initially requires
uptake of sodium and other electrolytes from the interstitium of the terminal structural unit of the salivary gland,
the acinus or end piece. Water flows passively. This primary or precursor fluid has a sodium concentration similar
to plasma, and the potassium concentration is similar to or slightly higher than plasma. As the primary fluid passes
from the acinus along the duct system, the concentration of sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes changes.

3. Amylase

Salivary amylase splits the α1, 4-glucosidic bonds of various polysaccharides. 

C. Functions of Saliva

Saliva continuously bathes the oral cavity, which protects the surface epithelium. Ingested food is moistened and
lubricated by saliva, thereby facilitating mastication and swallowing. 

Regulation of Salivary Secretion

Salivation is controlled via the parasympathetic system from the salivary nuclei in the brain stem. Factors that
induce salivation include:

 Taste stimuli, especially sour taste

 Higher centers especially appetite anticipation, smells and visual clues

 In response to signals from the stomach and upper GI tract, particularly irritating stimuli. Salivation can
also occur as a prelude to vomiting.

III. GASTRIC SECRETIONS

Gastric acid, gastric juice, or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed within the stomach lining. Composed of
hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride, gastric acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins by
activating digestive enzymes, which together break down the long chains of amino acids of proteins. Gastric acid is
regulated in feedback systems to increase production when needed, such as after a meal. Other cells in the
stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring a regulated pH. These cells also produce mucus
– a viscous barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large
amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to neutralize
gastric acid passing into the digestive tract.

There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:

1. The cephalic phase: Thirty percent of the total gastric acid secretions to be produced is stimulated by
anticipation of eating and the smell or taste of food. This signalling occurs from higher centres in the brain
through the vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X). It activates parietal cells to release acid and ECL cells to
release histamine. The vagus nerve (CN X) also releases gastrin releasing peptide onto G cells. Finally, it
also inhibits somatostatin release from D cells.

2. The gastric phase: About sixty percent of the total acid for a meal is secreted in this phase. Acid secretion
is stimulated by distension of the stomach and by amino acids present in the food.

3. The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when chyme enters the small intestine, and is
stimulated by small intestine distension and by amino acids. The duodenal cells release entero-
oxyntin which acts on parietal cells without affecting gastrin.

Regulation of secretion

Diagram depicting the major determinants of gastric acid secretion, with inclusion of drug targets for peptic ulcer
disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

Gastric acid production is regulated by both the autonomic nervous system and several hormones.

The parasympathetic nervous system, via the vagus nerve, and the hormone gastrin stimulate the parietal cell to
produce gastric acid, both directly acting on parietal cells and indirectly, through the stimulation of the secretion of
the hormone histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells (ECL). Vasoactive intestinal peptide, cholecystokinin,
and secretin all inhibit production.

The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and negative
feedback mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, G cells, D cells and
enterochromaffine-like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus
in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly.

Nerve endings in the stomach secrete two stimulatory neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and gastrin-releasing

peptide. Their action is both direct on parietal cells and mediated through the secretion of gastrin from G cells and
histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells. Gastrin acts on parietal cells directly and indirectly too, by stimulating
the release of histamine.

The release of histamine is the most important positive regulation mechanism of the secretion of gastric acid in the
stomach. Its release is stimulated by gastrin and acetylcholine and inhibited by somatostatin.

BILIARY SECRETION

A. Composition of Bile

The hepatocytes continuously secrete bile into the bile canaliculi; it is transported through a system of ducts to the
gallbladder, where it is modified, concentrated, and stored. During digestion, bile is discharged into the lumen of
the duodenum, where it aids in emulsification, hydrolysis, and solubilization of dietary lipids. The digestive
functions of bile are accomplished almost exclusively by the detergent action of its major components, the bile
salts and phospholipids.

Gallbladder Bile
Liver Bile

Water 97.5 g/dl 92 g/dl

Bile salts 1.1 g/dl 6 g/dl

Bilirubin 0.04 g/dl 0.3 g/dl

Cholesterol 0.1 g/dl 0.3 to 0.9 g/dl

Fatty acids 0.12 g/dl 0.3 to 1.2 g/dl

Lecithin 0.04 g/dl 0.3 g/dl

Na+ 145 mEq/L 130 mEq/L

K+ 5 mEq/L 12 mEq/L

Ca++ 5 mEq/L 23 mEq/L

Cl− 100 mEq/L 25 mEq/L

28 mEq/L 10 mEq/L

B.Function of Bile Salts in Fat Digestion and Absorption

The bile salts have two important actions in the intestinal tract:

First, they have a detergent action on the fat particles in the food. This decreases the surface tension of the
particles and allows agitation in the intestinal tract to break the fat globules into minute sizes. This is called
the emulsifying or detergent function of bile salts.

Second, and even more important than the emulsifying function, bile salts help in the absorption of (1) fatty acids,
(2) mono-glycerides, (3) cholesterol, and (4) other lipids from the intestinal tract.

PANCREATIC SECRETION

A. Composition of Pancreatic Juice

1. Electrolyte Composition

The cation content of pancreatic secretion is similar to that of plasma, Na + being the predominant cation and the
concentrations of K+ and Ca2+ being much lower. A unique characteristic of pancreatic fluid is its high
HCO3 − concentration and alkaline pH. 
2. α-Amylase

The amylase produced by the pancreas catalyzes the specific hydrolysis of α-1,4-glucosidic bonds, which are
present in starch and glycogen (α-1,4-glycan-4-glycan hydrolase).

3. Proteolytic Enzymes

The proteolytic enzymes of the pancreas are responsible for the major portion of protein hydrolysis, which occurs
within the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract. The pancreas secretes two types of peptidases. Trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and elastase are endopeptidases that attack peptide bonds along the polypeptide chain to produce
smaller peptides. The exopeptidases attack either the carboxyl-terminal or amino-terminal peptide bonds,
releasing single amino acids. The principal exopeptidases secreted by the pancreas are carboxypeptidases A and B.
The endopeptidases and exopeptidases act in complementary fashion, ultimately producing free amino acids or
very small peptides. The free amino acids are absorbed directly, and the small peptides are further hydrolyzed by
the aminopeptidases of the intestinal mucosa.

Relationships among the Activities of Pancreatic Endopeptidases and Exopeptidases-

Enzyme Type Activity

Trypsin Endopeptidase Produces peptides with C-terminal basic amino acids

Carboxypeptidase B Exopeptidase Removes C-terminal basic amino acids

Chymotrypsin Endopeptidase Produces peptides with C-terminal aromatic amino acids

Elastase Endopeptidase Produces peptides with C-terminal nonpolar amino acids

Carboxypeptidase A Exopeptidase Removes C-terminal aromatic and nonpolar amino acids

4. Lipase

The pancreas produces several lipolytic enzymes with different substrate specificities. The most important of these
from a nutritional viewpoint is the lipase responsible for hydrolysis of dietary triglyceride.

B. Control of Pancreatic Secretions

Hormonal Control- Pancreatic secretion is controlled and coordinated by both neural and endocrine mechanisms.
When ingesta or HCl enters the duodenum, the hormone secretin, which is produced by the duodenal mucosa, is
released into the circulation. Secretin increases the volume, pH, and HCO 3 − concentration of the pancreatic
secretion.

SMALL INTESTINE

The upper small intestine secretes the hormones Cholecystokinase and secretin, mucous, Intestinal digestive
juices, and possibly enzymes. The Digestive enzymes are secreted by the small intestine at a rate of about 1800 ccs
a day. The pH of the small intestine secretions averages 7.5 to 8.0.

Hormone Secretion
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is secreted in response to fats and peptides in the upper small intestines, particularly the
duodenum. Actions of CCK include:

 Secretion of Pancreatic Enzymes

 Contraction of Gallbladder

 Relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi

 increased tension in the pyloric sphincter, inhibiting stomach emptying

Secretin is released in response to the presence of Acid in the duodenum. Actions of Secretin include:

 Secretion of Copious amounts of bicarbonate rich fluid by the biliary and gall bladder ducts

 Secretion of alkaline rich mucous by Brunners glands

 increased tension in the pyloric sphincter, inhibiting stomach emptying

Brunner's Glands

The first few centimeters of the Duodenum, between the pylorus of the stomach and the Ampulla of Vater, contain
numerous compound mucous glands called Brunner's Glands. These secrete an alkaline rich mucous - pH between
8.0 & 8.9 - in response to various stimuli:

 Local irritation and the presence of Acid

 Vagal Stimulation

 Gastrointestinal hormones, particularly secretin.

The mechanism for secreting the alkaline rich mucous is similar to that already discussed for the stomach