ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT: 1
COURSE: MECHATRONICS

PREPARED BY: ID.NO

Bizuayehu Tafese ……………………………….ETR/0396/08

stream : Design

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. Sachin

December/2013 E.C

Assosa,Ethiopia
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Q.1 Discuss the various type of D.C Motors and control of D.C. motors.
Write the application in domestic use.
Direct current (DC) motors are used in a large number of mechatronic designs because of the
torque-speed characteristics achievable with different electrical configurations. DC motor speeds
can be smoothly controlled and in most cases are reversible. Since DC motors have a high ratio
of torque to rotor inertia, they can respond quickly A DC motor (direct current motor) has a lot
of applications in today’s field of engineering and technology. From electric shavers to
automobiles – DC motors are everywhere.

Types of Dc motors

a) Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)

b) Separately Excited DC Motor
c) Self-Excited DC Motor
d) Shunt Wound DC Motor
e) Series Wound DC Motor
f) Compound Wound DC Motor
g) Short shunt DC Motor
h) Long shunt DC Motor
i) Differential Compound DC Motor

A Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)

The permanent magnet DC motor (also known as a PMDC motor) consists of an armature
winding as in case of a usual motor, but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The
construction of these types of DC motor are such that radially magnetized permanent magnets
are mounted on the inner periphery of the stator core to produce the field flux.

B Separately Excited DC Motor

As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that,
the armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized
from a separate external source of DC current as shown in the figure beside.

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C Self-Excited DC Motor

In case of self-excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in parallel or
partly in series, in parallel to the armature winding. Based on this, self-excited DC Motors can be
classified as:

i. Shunt wound DC motor

ii. Series wound DC motor
iii. Compound wound DC motor
D Shunt Wound DC Motor
In case of a shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self-excited DC motor,
the field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage

E Series wound DC Motor

Series Wound DC Motor In case of a series wound self-excited DC motor or simply series
wound DC motor, the entire armature current flows through the field winding as its connected
in series to the armature winding.

F Compound Wound DC Motor

The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the
operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound
self-excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field
winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding

G Short shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field
winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type compound
wound DC motor.

H Long shunt DC Motor

If the shunt field winding is parallel to the armature winding and the series field winding then it’s
known as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long shunt DC motor.

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I Differential Compound DC Motor

In case of a differentially compounded self-excited DC motor i.e. differential compound DC

motor, the arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced by the
shunt field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.

 CONTROL OF DC MOTOR

Control of DC motor is any device that can manipulate the position, speed, or torque of a DC-
powered motor.

Control of DC motor is there are two types those are:

 Armature Control Methods

 Field Control Methods
Armature Controlled Dc Series Motor
Speed adjustment of a DC series motor by armature control may be done by:

1. Armature Resistance Control Method

2. Shunted Armature Control Method
3. Armature Terminal Voltage Control

Armature Resistance Control Method

The power loss in the control resistance of DC series motor can be neglected because this control
method is utilized for a large portion of time for reducing the speed under light load condition. This
method of speed control is most economical for constant torque.

Shunted Armature Control

The combination of a rheostat shunting the armature and a rheostat in series with the armature is
involved in this method of speed control. The voltage applied to the armature is varies by
varying series rheostat R1. The exciting current can be varied by varying the armature shunting
resistance R2. This method of speed control is not economical due to considerable power losses

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in speed controlling resistances. Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below
normal speed.

Armature Terminal Voltage Control

The speed control of DC series m-otor can be accomplished by supplying the power to the motor
from a separate variable voltage supply. This method involves high cost so it rarely used.

Field Controlled Dc Series Motor

Speed adjustment of a dc series motor by field control may be done by:

1. Field diverter method

2. Tapped field control

1 .Field Diverter Method

This method uses a diverter. Here the field flux can be reduced by shunting a portion of motor
current around the series field. Lesser the diverter resistance less is the field current, less flux
therefore more speed. This method gives speed above normal and the method is used in electric
drives in which speed should rise sharply as soon as load is decreased.

2. Tapped Field Control

This is another method of increasing the speed by reducing the flux and it is done by lowering
number of turns of field winding through which current flows. In this method a number of
tapping from field winding are brought outside. This method is employed in electric traction.

Applications include:

 DC Motors are used in weaving machines and spinning machines.

 Shunt Wound Motors are used in lathe machines and centrifuges.
 They are also used in lifts, fans and blowers.
 Compound Excited Motors are used in presses, electric shovels, conveyors and
Rolling Mills.
 Permanent Magnet Motors are widely used in automobiles in the functioning of
windshield wipers and washers, in blowers for Air conditioners and heaters and to
operate windows.

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 They are used in computer or laptop drives.

 They are also a part of cranes and compressors.
 They are used in food mixers, vacuum cleaners and electric toothbrushes and toys.
Q.2 Describe the different logic functions and their performance.
There is several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The common ones are;

Logic AND Function

The Logic AND Function output is only true when all of its inputs are true, otherwise the output
is false

The Logic AND Function function states that two or more events must occur together and at the
same time for an output action to occur. The order in which these actions occur is unimportant as
it does not affect the final result. For example, A & B = B & A. In Boolean algebra the Logic
AND Function follows the Commutative Law which allows a change in position of either
variable.
The AND function is represented in electronics by the dot or full stop symbol ( . ) Thus a 2-input
(A B) AND Gate has an output term represented by the Boolean expression A.B or just AB.

Switch Representation of the AND Function

Here the two switches, A and B are connected together to form a series circuit. Therefore, in the
circuit above, both switch A AND switch B must be closed (Logic ―1‖) in order to put the lamp
on. In other words, both switches must be closed, or at logic ―1‖ for the lamp to be ―ON‖.
As there are only two Switches, each with two possible states ―open‖ or ―closed‖. Defining a
Logic ―0‖ as being when the switch is open and a Logic ―1‖ when the switch is closed.

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Logic OR Function

The Logic OR function output is only true if one or more of its inputs are true, otherwise the
output is false

The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will become TRUE if either one
―OR‖ more events are TRUE, but the order at which they occur is unimportant as it does not
affect the final result.

Switch Representation of the OR Function

Here the two switches A and B are connected in parallel and either Switch A OR Switch B can
be closed in order to put the lamp on. In other words, either switch can be closed, or at logic ―1‖
for the lamp to be ―ON‖.
Then this type of logic gate only produces and output when ―ANY‖ of its inputs are present and
in Boolean algebra terms the output will be TRUE when any of its inputs are TRUE.

Logic NOT Function

The Logic NOT Function output is true when its single input is false, and false when its single
input is true

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The Logic NOT Function is simply a single input inverter that changes the input of a logic level
―1‖ to an output of logic level ―0‖ and vice versa.
The ―logic NOT function‖ is so called because its output state is NOT the same as its input state
with its Boolean Expression generally denoted by a bar or over line ( ¯ ) over its input symbol
which denotes the inversion operation, (hence its name as an inverter).
As NOT gates perform the logic INVERT or COMPLEMENTATION function they are more
commonly known as Inverters because they invert the signal. In logic circuits this negation can
be represented by a normally closed switch.
Switch Representation of the NOT Function

If A means that the switch is closed, then NOT A or simply A says that the switch is NOT closed
or in other words, it is open. The logic NOT function has a single input and a single output as
shown.

Q.3 Explain the architecture of a PLC with a suitable block diagram. Mention
three industrial applications
PLC Based on architecture:
PLC stands for ―Programmable Logic Controller‖. A PLC is a computer specially designed to
operate reliably under harsh industrial environments – such as extreme temperatures, wet, dry,
and/or dusty conditions. It is used to automate industrial processes such as a manufacturing
plant’s assembly line, an ore processing plant, or a wastewater treatment plant The term PLC
architecture refers to the design specification of the various PLC hardware and software
components and the how they interact with one another to form the overall PLC system. The
architecture of a PLC is based on the same principles of that used in standard computer
architecture. However, PLC architecture does differ because the design is based around

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providing high reliability, immunity to harsh industrial environment, ease of maintenance and
access to large amounts of peripheral inputs and outputs.
An open architecture design allows the system to be connected easily to devices and programs
made by other manufactures. A closed architecture or proprietary system is one whose design
makes it more difficult to connect devices and programs made by other manufacturers. The
programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable
memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting and arithmetic words to control machines and processes.‖

PLC Architecture Block Diagram

Block Diagram of How A PLC Works

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PLCs have three a variety of applications and uses, including:

1 Glass Industry
2 Paper Industries
3 Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)
The production of glass is an elaborate and sophisticated process so the companies involved
often use PLCs with the bus technology in its control mode. PRCs controllers have been in use in
the glass industry for decades. They are used largely to control the material ratio as well as to
process flat glasses.

Paper Industry
The paper industry, PLCs is used in various processes. These include controlling the machines
that produce paper products at high speeds.
Process Automation Plants (e.g. mining, oil &gas)
Manufacturing cement involves mixing various raw materials in a kiln. The quality of these raw
materials and their proportions significantly impact the quality of the final product. To ensure the
use of the right quality and quantities of raw materials, the accuracy of data regarding such
process variables is of the essence.

Q.4 With a help of block diagram, explain digital, logic control.

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Digital Control System

A digital control system model can be viewed from different perspectives including control
algorithm, computer program, conversion between analog and digital domains, system
performance etc. One of the most important aspects is the sampling process level. In continuous
time control systems, all the system variables are continuous signals. Whether the system is
linear or nonlinear, all variables are continuously present and therefore known (available) at all
times

Block diagram of a digital control system

In the early development, an analog system, not containing a digital device like computer, in
which some of the signals sampled, was referred to as a sampled data system. With the advent of
digital computer, the term discrete-time system denoted a system in which all its signals are in a
digital coded form. Most practical systems today are of hybrid nature, i.e., contains both analog
and digital components. Before proceeding to any depth of the subject, we should first
understand the reason behind going for a digital control system. Using computers to implement
controllers has a number of advantages.

Logic control

Logic Control is a key part of a software program that controls the operations of the program.
The control logic responds to commands from the user, and it also acts on its own to perform
automated tasks that have been structured into the program.

Logic Control can be modeled using a state diagram which is a form of hierarchical state
machine. These state diagrams can also be combined with flow charts to provide a set
of computational semantics for describing complex control logic. This mix of state diagrams
and flow charts is illustrated in the figure on the right, which shows the control logic for a simple

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stopwatch. The control logic takes in commands from the user, as represented by the event
named ―START‖, but also has automatic recurring sample time events, as represented by the
event named ―TIC‖.

Q.5 Enumerate the difference between a PLC and a personal computer (PC).

Programmable logic controller (PLC)

PLC stands for programmable logic control. It is computer designed to be used in industry. It
controls the different process and is programmed According to the operational requirement of
that process. And also PLC is a microprocessor based programming technique, which is used to
perform many functions in industrial process. Programmable logic controller operates similar to
the ordinary controller. But in this system different operation are performed by software. If we
want to change program it is only needed to change the program in the software. PLC takes input
instructions in the form of ladder diagram or computer software instructions. These instructions
are decoded in CPU and CPU provides differed signals to control or to operate many devices of
system.

Personal computer (PC)

PCs eventually developed features that put them in line with PLCs in terms of functionality. In
addition, they retained their robustness as well as customization due to the availability of card
slots and ports. The processing power of PCs was often greater than PLCs as they contained real-
time kernel, enabling it to perform time-critical tasks and implement control algorithms. PC has a
superior ability to perform monitoring/ supervising functions such as report generation, historical
trending, calculations and storage of data. Whatever may be the size and nature of the
applications, PC can play an important role. For small pilot projects, where the control is usually
undefined, the PC with its flexibility and true programmability is the proper tool real time
multitasking environment tailored for PC based control systems ensures that the information path

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between field input/output modules and the host is always open or strictly speaking never closed
long enough to interfere with the process under control.

Q.6 what are the benefits of Mechatronics in industry? Mention application

defense.

Mechatronics word is made from the combination of words mechanics and electronics, so it is a
field of science which mainly includes mechanical and electronic engineering. Mechatronic
systems are sometimes referred to as smart devices. While the term smart is elusive in precise
definition, in the engineering sense we mean the inclusion of elements such as logic, feedback,
and computation that in a complex design may appear to simulate human thinking processes

BENEFITS OF MECHATRONICS:

 It provides high degree of flexibility to modify or redesign the systems.

 It provides excellent performance characteristics.
 It Results in automation in production, assembly and quality control.
 Mechatronic systems provide the increased productivity in manufacturing organization. It
reduces cost. Mechanical solutions are expensive when compared to mechatronics
solutions, which lowers cost.
 A mechatronic solution improves design time, product size and reliability. It is also more
user-friendly and safer to use.
 Using mechatronic solution increases reliability.
 Mechanical designs get damaged over time whereas mechatronic design is more reliable.
An example is the odometer present in the cars.

APPLICATIONS OF MECHATRONICS:

• Mechatronic is widely used in our day to day lives. Be it contact-free magnetic bearings,
digitally controlled combustion engines, robots, automated guided vehicles or other machine
tools, mechatronics is present everywhere.

• It is used in home appliances such as dish washer and washing machines.

• It is used in laser optical systems. It is part of the image and sound processing devices such as
sound operators and automatic focusing device.

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• Mechatronic is also used in intelligent measuring devices like calibration devices, measuring
and testing of sensors.

• Mechatronic is used in the medical field as well. Many medical applications such as magnetic
resonance, ultrasonic probes, and arthroscopic devices use mechatronics.

• It is used in automation like automatic air conditioning systems, security system, automatic
door systems. It is also used in pressure, heat and position control systems.

• It is widely used in aeronautics engineering’s for unmanned aerial vehicles and automatic
pilots. In the defense industry it is used for automatically guided vehicles and mine detection
robots.

Q.7 what are position sensors? Explain the working of Hall Effect sensors and
mention the advantages of it.

Position sensors are a vital component of many industrial processing set-ups and monitoring
equipment. Sensors are typically needed for quality control and ensuring safety. In some
commercial applications like consumer products, sensors provide the framework for some
functions. A position sensor is a sensor that facilitates measurement of mechanical position. Position
sensors play an increasing role in our daily lives. As their name implies, position sensors provide position
feedback. They are able to perform precise motion control, encoding and counting functions by
determining the presence or absence of a target or by detecting its motion, speed, direction or distance.

Hall Effect Sensor

Magnetic sensors are solid state devices which generate electrical signals proportional to the
magnetic field applied on it. These electrical signals are then further processed by a user specific
electronic circuit to give the desired output.
An external magnetic field is used to activate these Hall Effect Sensors. When the magnetic flux
density in the vicinity of Sensor goes beyond a specific defined threshold, it is detected by the
Sensor. On detection, the Sensor generates an output voltage which is also known as Hall
Voltage.

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Working Principle of Hall Effect Sensor

Hall Effect Sensor is based on Hall Effect Principle. This principle says that when a conductor or

semiconductor with current flowing in one direction is introduced perpendicular to a magnetic

field a voltage could be measured at right angles to the current path.

Advantages of Hall Effect Sensors

o They can be used for multiple sensor functions like position sensing, speed sensing as well as for
sensing the direction of movement too.
o As they are solid state devices, there is absolutely no wear and tear due to absence of moving
parts.
o They are almost maintenance free.
o They are robust.
o They are immune to vibration, dust and water.

Q.8 Explain static and dynamic characteristic of sensors.

Static Characteristics of Sensors

The static characteristic of the sensor refers to the relationship between the output and the input
of the sensor for the static input signal. Because both input and output are independent of time at
this time, the relationship between them is that the static characteristics of the sensor can be
described by an algebraic equation without time variables, or by using input as abscissa and
output as longitudinal coordinates. The main parameters that characterize the static
characteristics of the sensor are linearity, sensitivity, hysteresis, repeatability, drift and so on.

(1) Linearity: refers to the degree to which the actual relationship curve between sensor output
and input deviates from the fitting line. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum deviation
between the actual characteristic curve and the fitting straight line in the full range to the output
value of the full range.

(2) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is an important indicator of static characteristics of sensors. It is

defined as the ratio of the increment of output to the corresponding increment of input that
causes the increment. Sensitivity is expressed by S.

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(3) Hysteresis: The phenomenon that the input-output characteristic curve does not coincide
with the output characteristic curve becomes hysteresis when the input of the sensor changes
from small to large (positive stroke) and from large to small (reverse stroke). For the input signal
of the same size, the positive and negative stroke output signals of the sensor are different in
size. This difference is called hysteresis difference.

(4) Repeatability: Repeatability refers to the degree of inconsistency in the characteristic curve
of the sensor when the input varies continuously and repeatedly over the whole range in the same
direction.

(5) Drift: Sensor drift refers to the change of sensor output over time when the input is constant.
This phenomenon is called drift. There are two reasons for the drift: one is the sensor’s own
structural parameters; the other is the surrounding environment (such as temperature, humidity,
etc.).

Dynamic characteristics of sensors

The so-called dynamic characteristics refer to the output characteristics of the sensor when the
input changes. In practical work, the dynamic characteristics of the sensor are often expressed by
its response to some standard input signals. This is because the response of the sensor to the
standard input signal can be easily obtained by experimental method, and there is a certain
relationship between the response of the sensor to the standard input signal and its response to
any input signal. The latter can be inferred by knowing the former. The most commonly used
standard input signals are step signal and sinusoidal signal, so the dynamic characteristics of the
sensor are often expressed by step response and frequency response.

Sensor linearity

Usually, the actual static characteristic output of the sensor is a curve rather than a straight line.
In practice, in order to make the instrument have uniform calibration reading, a fitting straight
line is often used to approximate the actual characteristic curve. Linearity (non-linear error) is a
performance index of this approximation degree.

There are many ways to select the fitting line. If the theoretical straight line connected with zero
input and full range output points is used as the fitting line, or the theoretical straight line with
the least square deviation of each point on the characteristic curve is used as the fitting line, the
fitting line is called the least square fitting line.

Sensitivity of Sensors

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Sensitivity refers to the ratio of output change (y) to input change (x) of the sensor under steady-
state operation.

It is the slope of the output-input characteristic curve. If there is a linear relationship between the
output and input of the sensor, the sensitivity S is a constant. Otherwise, it will vary with the
input.

The dimension of sensitivity is the dimension ratio of output to input. For example, if the output
voltage of a displacement sensor changes to 200 mV when the displacement changes 1 mm, its
sensitivity should be expressed as 200 mV/mm.

When the output and input dimensions of the sensor are the same, the sensitivity can be
understood as an amplification factor.

Higher measurement accuracy can be obtained by improving sensitivity. However, the higher the
sensitivity, the narrower the measurement range and the worse the stability.

Resolution of sensor

Resolution refers to the ability of the sensor to sense the smallest change in the measured value.
That is, if the input changes slowly from a non-zero value. When the input change value does not
exceed a certain value, the output of the sensor will not change, that is, the sensor can not
distinguish the change of the input. Only when the change of input exceeds the resolution will
the output change.

Generally, the resolution of the sensor varies from point to point in the full range, so the
maximum change value of the input which can make the output step change in the full range is
often used as the index to measure the resolution. If the above indicators are expressed as
percentage of full range, they are called resolution. The resolution is negatively correlated with
the stability of the sensor.

Q.9 what are buses? Explain types of buses.

A buse is a high-speed internal connection. Buses are used to send control signals and data
between the processor and other components.

The bus contains multiple wires (signal lines) with addressing information describing
the memory location of where the data is being sent or retrieved. Each wire in the bus carries a

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bit(s) of information, which means the more wires a bus has, the more information it can address.
For example, a computer with a 32-bit address bus can address 4 GB of memory, and a computer
with a 36-bit bus can address 64 GB of memory.

Three types of bus are used.

 Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other components such as
primary storage and input/output devices. The address bus is unidirectional.
 Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components. The data bus
is bidirectional.
 Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components. The control bus
also carries the clock's pulses. The control bus is unidirectional.

Q.10 Distinguish between a transducer and sensor.

Sensor
Sensor is the devices that detect the change in the environment. It can be temperature sensor,
pressure sensor or Humidity sensor. As we Know sensors sense just like eyes and ears. Sensor
measured information (data being sensed) shall be sent to the processor or controller for them to
work on it.
Transducer
Transducer is the devices which transform energy from one form to another. It also transforms a
non-electrical physical into an electrical signal. It provide output response to specific input
measured which may be physical quantity.

Sensor Transducer

A device that convert physical A device that converts energy one form to another form
parameters to electrical output. is known as Transducer.
The word Sensor comes from The word Transducer comes from Europe.
USA.
The use of Sensor is for sensing The uses of transducer are for sensing element and also
element itself. for circuitry.
In Sensor changes its resistance In Transducers change in resistance to change in
with temperature voltage.
All the sensors are not transducers. All Transducers contain a Sensor

It is a sensor when it responds to a It becomes transducers when connected in a bridge

stimulus. circuit.

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Examples of Sensor: Temperature Example of Transducer: Strain gauge, and

Sensor, and Proximity Sensor. Piezoelectric Transducer.

Q.11 Explain with neat sketches the functioning of following sensors:

(i) Pyroelectric sensor

(ii) Thermo diodes

(i) Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensors are generally used to detect weak infrared irradiation due to their high
sensitivities at room temperature. However, they require the use of metallic packages to insulate
the sensitive element from thermal disturbances and electromagnetic noise, making their
miniaturization difficult. Moreover, it is difficult for the pyroelectric sensors to detect a
stationary human body because the surface charge generated on the pyroelectric element
disappears gradually when the human body is stationed. Thermopile infrared sensors, which are
used in remote thermometry, are also available, but they require the same thermal isolation
technique and are unable to respond to fast signals. As the sensitivity of thermopiles is one order
of magnitude lower than pyroelectric infrared sensors, the application of thermopiles is thus
limited to proximity sensing.A focusing device is needed to direct the infrared radiation onto the
sensor. While parabolic mirrors can be used, a more commonly used method is a Fresnel plastic
lens. Such a lens also protects the front surface of the sensor and is the form commonly used for
sensors to trigger intruder alarms or switch on a light when someone approaches.

We use the finite element method for the calculation of the coupled thermo-electro-mechanical
fields for an instance of a linear sensor array, derive the modulation transfer function from the
simulation data, and compare the result to an analytical solution. Applications; Security,
Lighting appliances, Household or other appliances

(ii) Thermo diodes

The term "thermal diode" is sometimes used for a (possibly non-electrical) device which allows
heat to flow preferentially in one direction. Or, the term may be used to describe an electrical
(semiconductor) diode in reference to a thermal effect or function. Or the term may be used to
describe both situations, where an electrical diode is used as a heat-pump or thermoelectric
cooler.

Thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are used in temperature sensors operating in the range
from -80 to + 150 °C. the Upper limit of the temperature range is limited by the thermal

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breakdown of the p-n transition and for certain types of germanium sensors reaches 200 °C, and
for silicon sensors - even 500 ° C. The lower limit of the temperature range of thermal diodes
and thermal transistors is determined by a decrease in the concentration of the main carriers and
can reach for germanium sensors — (240 - 260) °C, for silicon -200 °C.

The main advantages of thermo-diodes and thermo-transistors are small size, the possibility of
interchangeability and, most importantly, low cost, allowing them to be used in single-use
sensors.

Q.12 Explain the principle and application of proximity and light sensors.
Light sensors

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light sensors
such as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and other
industrial applications. Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a
resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high
resistance semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdS photoresistor
varies inversely to the amount of light incident upon it. Photoresistor follows the principle of
photoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material. Figure shows the construction of a photo resistor. The
CdS resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin
material. The sensitive coils electrodes are connected to the control system though lead wires. On
incidence of high intensity light on the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which
will be used further to generate the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Operating Principles

Detection Principle of Inductive Proximity Sensors

Inductive Proximity Sensors detect magnetic loss due to eddy currents that are generates on a
conductive surface by an external magnetic field. An AC magnetic field generates on the
detection coil, and changes in the impedance due to eddy currents generated on a metallic object
are detected. Proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the presence of an object (often
referred to as the ―target‖) when the target enters the sensor’s field. Depending on the type of proximity
sensor, sound, light, infrared radiation (IR), or electromagnetic fields may be utilized by the sensor to
detect a target. Proximity sensors are used in phones, recycling plants, self-driving cars, anti-aircraft
systems, and assembly lines. There are many types of proximity sensors, and they each sense targets in
distinct ways. The two most commonly used proximity sensors are the inductive proximity sensor and the
capacitive proximity sensor
Other methods include Aluminum-detecting Sensors, which detect the phase component of the
frequency, and All-metal Sensors, which use a working coil to detect only the changed
component of the impedance. There are also Pulse-response Sensors, which generate an eddy
current in pulses and detect the time change in the eddy current with the voltage induced in the
coil.

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Detection Principle of Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive Proximity Sensors detect changes in the capacitance between the sensing object and
the Sensor. The amount of capacitance varies depending on the size and distance of the sensing
object. An ordinary Capacitive Proximity Sensor is similar to a capacitor with two parallel plates,
where the capacity of the two plates is detected. One of the plates is the object being measured
(with an imaginary ground), and the other is the Sensor’s sensing surface. The changes in the
capacity generated between these two poles are detected.
The objects that can be detected depend on their dielectric constant, but they include resin and
water in addition to metals.

Applications of Proximity Sensors

Proximity sensors have number of applications. The very basic is the detection of objects. This
application of proximity is hugely use. For example in cell phones the proximity sensors are the essential
parts. In different projects of engineering different proximity sensors are used for various functionalities.
Proximity sensors are also using in parking lots, sheet break sensing and conveyor systems.
These are the main applications of the light sensors that are described with the detailed.

A. Brightness Control

 In our mobile phone and laptops, we increasing and decreasing the resolution of the
screen light is varied by light sensors.
 Ambient sensors are mostly used in electronic devices like mobiles, laptops and
computers.
 These sensors are also used in different street light for the automatic control of light.

B. Security System
 In different security circuits, light sensors are used. In shipping, these sensors provide
protection for the different products that are moving from one place to another.
 Light sensors are installed in the cabin where the products are saved when someone tries
to open the door light sensor sense slight and sends a signal to the alarm connected with
it.

C. Agriculture
 The light of the sun plying the significant rule in agriculture for the production of the
different crops.

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 Different food seed requires a different quantity of light, so it is important to know which
part of the land is under the sunlight.

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