BENC 2423 MICROPROCESSOR

TECHNOLOGY

Chapter 1: Introduction to Microprocessor

1 DR. SYAFEEZA AHMAD RADZI

Definition of microprocessor
 Microprocessor (abbreviated µP)
• The word comes from the combination micro and processor.
• Micro is the term used to represent the size of the circuit that form this
solid state device. (micro = 10-6)
• Thick of human hair = 100 micron.
• Processor means a device that processes numbers, specifically binary
numbers, 0’s and 1’s.

MOSFET structure with L

= 1 micron
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Microprocessor
 A digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors
on a single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC).

 The microprocessor is a programmable device that takes in

numbers, performs on them arithmetic or logical operations
according to the program stored in memory and then
produces other numbers as a result.

Layout of an IC
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Microprocessor: What is it used for?
 Microprocessors are used for general
purpose computing systems such as
• Personal Computer (PC) – computer on your desk
• Laptop – portable computer you can put on your
lap
• Mainframe – powerful computers for high
performance task
• Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) - hand-sized
computer

 Microprocessor is also used for embedded

system (special purpose) An embedded system is
some combination of
computer hardware and
• General-purpose microprocessors are also used in software, either fixed in
embedded systems, but generally require more capability or programmable,
support circuitry than microcontrollers. Electronic that is specifically designed
for a particular function.
devices/gadgets that have the capability like computer
• Computing systems embedded within electronic
devices designed to perform a specific function
Microprocessor: What is it used for? (cont..)
Eg: (micro-p as embedded system)
Type of embedded system Example
Portable devices digital watches, PDAs, digital cameras,
GPS units and MP3 players.
Larger systems traffic lights, systems controlling power
plants and factory controllers.
Telecommunications systems also use several embedded systems
from telephone switches to mobile
phones.
Consumer electronics video game consoles, DVD players and
printers.
House hold appliances microwave ovens, washing machines
and dishwashers use embedded
processors as well.
Others: automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote
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controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys.
Microprocessors in the market

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Components of a
microprocessor/controller
 CPU: Central Processing Unit
 I/O: Input /Output
 Bus: Address bus & Data bus
 Memory: RAM & ROM
 Timer
 Interrupt
 Serial Port
 Parallel Port

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 General-purpose microprocessor
(older version)
 E.g: Motorola 68000
 CPU for Computers (general purpose application)
 Commonly no RAM, ROM, I/O on CPU chip itself

Many chips on motherboard

Data Bus
CPU
General-
Serial
Purpose RAM ROM I/O Timer COM
Micro- Port
Port
processor
Address Bus

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 Microcontroller :
 A single-chip computer
 On-chip RAM, ROM, I/O ports...
 Meant for special purpose application (cannot be used for general
purpose)
 Example：Motorola’s 6811, Intel’s 8051, Zilog’s Z8 and PIC 16X

CPU RAM ROM

A single chip
Serial
I/O Timer COM
Port
Port
Microcontroller

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Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller (older version)
Microprocessor Microcontroller
 CPU is stand-alone, RAM, • CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O and timer
ROM, I/O, timer are separate are all on a single chip
 designer can decide on the • fixed amount of on-chip ROM,
amount of ROM, RAM and RAM, I/O ports
I/O ports. • for applications in which cost,
 expensive power and space are critical
 versatility
• single-purpose (control-oriented)
 general-purpose
• Low processing power
 High processing power
• Low power consumption
 High power consumption
• Bit-level operations
 Instruction sets focus on
processing-intensive • Instruction sets focus on control
operations and bit-level operations
 Typically 32/64 – bit • Typically 8/16 bit
 Typically deep pipeline (5-20 • Typically single-cycle/two-stage
stages) pipeline
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Newer version of microprocessor:
 The architecture is just like microcontroller: everything in
one chip (RAM, ROM, I/O…) – known as system-on-chip.
 Can be used for general purpose and special purpose
application.
 Newer version of microcontroller remains for special
purpose application: Arduino.

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Evolution of microprocessor

68k uses CISC architecture

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Evolution of ARM processor
ARM microprocessors are the most widely used processors in the world today - 1.66 billion ARM processor
units were shipped in 2005! Arguably among the most advanced systems in their class, ARM processors are a
Cambridge success story. The ARM processor architecture will be used to provide concrete examples of how
the theory is implemented in the real world.

ARM7TDMI was designed in 1998. It uses RISC architecture

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Comparison between Havard and Von
Neumann Computer Architecture
• Basically, there are 2 types of digital computers namely Von Neumann and
Havard.
• Havard comes later than Von Neumann with more advance features.

Von Neumann Havard

 Same memory holds data, instructions  Separate memories for storing data and
program (instructions).
 A single set of address/data buses
 Two sets of address/data buses between
between CPU and memory CPU and memory
 Processor needs two clock cycles to  Processor can complete an instruction
complete an instruction. Pipelining the in one cycle if appropriate pipelining
instructions is not possible with this strategies are implemented.
architecture.
address address address

Data Program
control control control
Memory Processor Memory Processor Memory
(RAM) (ROM)
Instructions/data data instruction

 Most of the modern computing architectures are based on Harvard architecture. But the
number of stages in the pipeline varies from system to system.
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What is pipelining?
Pipelining, a standard feature in RISC processors, is much like an assembly line. The
processor works on different steps of instruction at the same time that results in
shorter period of time. Eg: Laundry analogy

Without pipelining With pipelining

 A smarter approach would be to put the
 4 loads of dirty laundry need to be washed, 2nd load of dirty laundry into the washer
dry and folded. after the 1st load was already clean and
 We could put the 1st load in the washer whirling happily in the dryer.
(30 min), dry (40 min) and fold.  Then, while the 1st load is being folded, the
 Repeat for 2nd, 3rd and 4th load. 2nd load would dry, and the 3rd load could
 If we start at 6pm, we would still be doing be added to the pipeline laundry.
laundry until midnight.  Using this method, the laundry would be
finished by 9.30pm.

Wash, dry, fold

Wash, dry, fold
Wash, dry, fold

Wash, dry, fold

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A RISC-based computer design approach means processors require fewer transistors
than typical complex instruction set computing (CISC) x86 processors in most personal computers.
This approach reduces costs, heat and power use.
These characteristics are desirable for light, portable, battery-powered devices—
​including smartphones, laptops and tablet computers, and other embedded systems.[3][4][5]
supercomputers, which consume large amounts of electricity, ARM could also be a power-efficient solution.

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Types of instruction set
Complex Instruction Set Computer Reduced Instruction Set Computer
(CISC) (RISC)
Many addressing modes Fewer addressing modes
Long instructions Compact, uniform instructions
Variable length instructions Fixed length instruction
Fewer line of code More lines of code  large memory
footprint
Pipelining is difficult Pipelining is easy

Each instruction is
Each instruction in fixed length
can be in variable
length

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What is the difference between CISC and
RISC?
 CISC – Complex Instruction Set Computer
 RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer

 Example:

Which one is faster?

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Basic Architecture of Microprocessor-based
System
 Microprocessor itself is completely useless – must have
supporting devices to be a complete computer system.
 Essential elements
• Microprocessor (or CPU)
• Memory
• Input/output
 Connected by system bus (lines)

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 Basic Architecture of Microprocessor-based
System (cont.)
Initially, the system designers need to decide what instructions they need to use according to their design.

How do CPU access data from memory or input port?

CPU will request instruction from memory.
Instructions and data are stored in memory in specific locations determined by the program.
Data can also be obtained from input port.
Each location in memory has a unique address associated with it.
Instructions are obtained by the CPU by placing an address on the address bus.
Instructions are transferred via the data bus as they are requested by CPU.
CPU executes the instructions, store the modified data back in memory.
22 control bus will coordinate all of these operations.
The
CPU operation (How CPU communicates
with memory?)
Microprocessors are controlled by
programs, which are simply lists of
simple instructions.
Microprocessors can execute
millions of these instructions
every second.
 Most processors operate according to
von Neumann sequence/cycle.
 In the EXECUTE step, results are
returned to registers and memory.

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What is memory?
 Memory consists of electronic components that store instructions and
data (binary) waiting to be executed by the processor.
 Memory stores three basic categories of items:
 OS and System software
 Application program
 Processed data
 Types of memory:
 Random Access Memories – SRAM, DRAM
 Read Only Memories –ROM, PRO , EPROM, EEPROM, Flash
 Storage – floppy disk, hard disk, CD, DVD, Blue-ray CD, tape.

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 Memory system in microprocessor based
(cont.)

Data bus is bidirectional

Write – data units are stored into
specified address in memory
Read – data unit comes out from
specified address in memory

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Accessing memory in microprocessor based
system
Read data from a memory into a
microprocessor
• Set address of the memory location
where intended data is stored.
• Set the Read control signal
• Data is read.

Write data from a microprocessor

into a memory
• Set address of the memory location
where processed data will be stored.
• Set the Write control signal
• Data is written/stored

Is this memory a RAM or ROM

type??

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Volatile vs nonvolatile memory
 Volatile memory
 When the computer power is turned off, the contents lost
 Example: RAM
 RAM is a read/write memory in which data can be written
into or read from any selected address.
 Nonvolatile memory
 Data are stored permanently.
 Does not lose its contents when power is removed from
computer
 Example: ROM, flash memory
 Data can be read from a ROM, but there is no read/write
operation as in the RAM.
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RAM

Function of RAM in modern computer architecture

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Memory map in microprocessor-based
system

Refer to the datasheet of ARM processor to know the

exact memory location

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Input/Output peripherals
 Input/output devices are electronic circuits/equipment
used to enter information and instructions into a
computer for storage or processing
 Input devices – keyboard, mouse, scanner
 Output devices – printer, monitor

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Software
 Once you have a working prototype, you can put away
the soldering iron because all operational changes can
then be made with software.
 Areas such as address decoding, chip enables, instruction
timing and hardware interfacing become important when
programming microprocessors.
 Eg: Basic I/O operation
To route the data from the input switches to the output LEDs, the data from the
input port must first be read into the microprocessor before they can be sent to
the output port.

The software used to drive microprocessor-based

systems is called assembly language.

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Software (cont.)

Closer to human language

English-like terms
representing binary
code

Binary code (1s and

0s)

•CPU
•Memory (RAM, ROM)
•Disk drives
•Input/Output

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Applications for each language
 Applications for Machine Language
 Virtually, no one programs in machine language because it wastes human time and is
difficult to document
 An assembler costs is very little and greatly reduces the programming time.
 Applications for Assembly language
 Limited data processing
 Short to moderate-sized programs
 High volume applications
 Real-time control applications
 Applications involving more input/output or control than computation
 Applications for High-Level Language
 Long programs
 Low volume applications
 Programs which are expected to undergo many changes
 Compatibility with similar applications using larger computers
 Applications involving more computation than input/output or control
 Applications where the amount of memory required is already very large
 Availability of a specific program in a high-level language which can be used in the
application.

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Software (cont.)
Assembly language
 To avoid using 1s and 0s strings, english-like terms called mnemonics or opcodes
are used.
 Each microprocessor have its own mnemonic instructions.
 Mnemonic instruction for a given processor is called instruction set.
 Assembly program for Motorola processors will not work on Intel processors.
Even if the processors are within the same family, the assembly program are also
different.

Then, why do you need to use assembly language?

 Teach how a computer works at the machine level
 Consume small memory
 Fast

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Assembly language
 Why do you need to learn assembly language?
 Software engineers who create compilers will need good
understanding of the machine including its architecture,
instruction set(s) and programmer’s model.
 Application engineers, or any engineer writing hand optimized
routines for performance reasons, will need to understand
assembly.
 Certain features of processors can only be accessed using
native instructions of the hardware. Eg: saturated maths
operation or access to coprocessors.
 Hardware engineers who design the next generation of
microprocessors and microcontrollers will need to understand
how they work at the lowest level.

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