Science Reviewer

General Science
Science – is a systematic study that is concerned with the facts and principles, and methods that
could be observed in our natural or physical environment. It comes from the Latin word
‘scire’ that means to ‘know’.
– is both a body of knowledge and a process – a way of thinking, a way of solving
problems.

THE BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

The Physical Sciences:
 Physics – The study of matter and energy and the interactions between them. Physicists study
such subjects as gravity, light, and time. Albert Einstein, a famous physicist,
developed the Theory of Relativity.
 Chemistry – The science that deals with the composition, properties, reactions, and the
structure of matter. The chemist Louis Pasteur, for example, discovered
pasteurization, which is the process of heating liquid such as milk and orange
juice to kill harmful germs.
 Astronomy – The study of the universe beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.

The Earth Sciences:

 Geology – The science of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth, and the physical,
chemical, and biological changes that it has experienced or is experiencing.
 Oceanography – The exploration and study of the ocean.
 Paleontology – The science of the forms of life that existed in prehistoric or geologic periods.
 Meteorology – The science that deals with the atmosphere and its phenomena, such as
weather and climate.

The Life Sciences (Biology):

 Botany – The study of plants.
 Zoology – The science that covers animals and animal life.
 Genetics – The study of heredity.
 Medicine – The science of diagnosing, treating, and preventing illness, disease, and injury.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Is the logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to explain different
phenomena in nature. A thing observed by the senses is called a phenomenon; a scientifically tested
observation is called a fact. The scientific method has six basic steps, namely:

a. Identify and clearly state the problem. Questions arise from something observed as unusual;
problem that is specific, measurable, and attainable is identified.
b. Gather information pertinent to the problem. This is done by recalling past experiences concerning
the problem, interviewing problem who are knowledgeable of the problem, and researching in
libraries and research centers.
c. Formulate hypothesis. Based on information or data gathered, an ‘educated guess’ can be
made.
d. Test the hypothesis. Carrying out experiments.
Controlled Experiment – manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may affect the result of
experiment.
1) Trials – number of times experiment is repeated.
2) Controls – factors that are kept constant throughout the experiment.
3) Variables – factors that change during the experiment.
i. Independent or Experimental Variable – factors that are changed.
ii. Dependent Variable – factors that change as a result of changes in the independent
variable.

Presentation of Data
1) Tables – easy to read, organized presentations.
2) Graphs – readily show patterns of data.
i. Line – proper to use when comparing two continuously changing variables.
ii. Bar – appropriate to use when comparing a changing value with an unchanging value.

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e. Draw a generalization or conclusion.
Conclusion – a statement about the result of the experiment.
Law – a statement which describes what happens but does not explain the cause of the
occurrence.
Theory – hypothesis that can be explained from observations.

f. Apply the principle (conclusion) to other situations.

SCIENTIFIC TRAITS
Scientific knowledge may also be obtained through the use of models and ideas, or through
serendipity or accidental discovery. In scientific study, some standards or procedures must be
observed. Scientists should always exhibit scientific attitudes like the following:

a. Curiosity – keen observation of things and events in the surroundings.

b. Logic and System – use of step-by-step experimental method and keeping of accurate records.
c. Open-mindedness – readiness or willingness to change or modify ideas or principles when
necessary.
d. Intellectually Honest – acknowledging contribution of others to one’s success.
e. Hardwork and Perseverance
f. Not Opinionated – using hard evidences to prove ones theory.
g. Creativity and Critical Thinking

TECHNOLOGY
is defined as the application of scientific knowledge to practical purposes. In short, it is an
applied science. It is classified into three kinds, namely:

a. Machines – include tools, gadgets or devices that help us do our activities faster and better. They
make life more pleasant to us to do certain things which we normally cannot do.
(e.g., airplane, internet, CT scan, and computers.)
b. Products – materials produced or made through artificial or natural means. They make life more
pleasant, more convenient, and more comfortable. (e.g., steel, toothpaste, chemical
fertilizers, and pesticides.)
c. Processes – include the ways of doing things. (e.g., food preservation, prawn culture and induced
fruiting.)

MICROSCOPE
An instrument that can magnify or enlarge the image of objects that are too small to
be seen by unaided eyes.
Parts of a Compound Microscope:

 Illuminating Parts – these parts provide light to microscope.

a. Mirror – used for collecting and reflecting light through
the object.
b. Condenser – concentrated the reflected light from the
mirror to the object being examined.
c. Iris Diaphragm – used to regulate the intensity of light
which enters the condenser.
 Magnifying Parts – these parts make the object look larger.
a. Eyepiece/ Ocular – a detachable short cylinder
located at the top of the draw tube which one views
the specimen.
b. Objectives – two objectives lenses are usually
attached to the revolving nosepiece.
i. Low Power Objective (LPO) – the shorter tube
with large lens opening and with lower
magnifying power.
ii. High Power Objective (HPO) – the longer tube
with smaller opening ang higher magnifying
power.

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 Mechanical Parts – these parts support the microscope.
a. Base – the stable structure on which the microscope firmly rest.
b. Pillar – the post or upward extension of the base to which the arm is attached.
c. Arm – the curved handle of the microscope that connects the base and the body tube. It
serves to support the optical mechanism.
d. Inclination Joint – a movable hinge that attached the frame of the microscope to the base. It
is used for tilting or inclining the microscope when necessary.
e. Stage – the platform on which the slide containing the specimen is held in place with a pair of
stage clips. It has a central opening that allows light from below to pass through the specimen.
f. Substage – found below the stage, it holds the condenser above and the iris diaphragm
below,
g. Body Tube – a hollow cylinder, it attaches the draw tube to the microscope and serves as
passageway of light from the object to the ocular.
h. Draw Tube – a smaller cylinder, it is attached to the upper part of the body tube and holds the
ocular
i. Revolving Nosepiece – attached to the base of the body tube, it holds and facilitates shifting
of objective lenses.
j. Dust Shield – located above the revolving nosepiece, it keeps off the dust from the objective
lenses.
k. Adjustment Knobs – used for lowering or raising the objective lenses.
i. Coarse Adjustment Knob – larger knob, used for faster movement when focusing LPO.
ii. Fine Adjustment Knob – smaller knob for slow or little movement when focusing HPO;
also used to get a sharper focus of the object under the LPO.

MEASUREMENT

International System (SI) of Measurement

Measurement is the process of comparing a quantity with a chosen standard. The

International System (SI) is the system of units that scientists have agreed upon and is legally enforced
in almost all parts of the world. There are seven basic quantities in this system:

QUANTITY UNIT
Length Meters (m)
Mass Kilograms (kg)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric Current Amperes (amp)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Amount of Substance Moles
Luminous Intensity/ Light Candelas

Two factors affect the degree of measurements. They are (a.) the ability to use the measuring
instruments properly and (b.) the precision of the instrument. The unit factor method is a systematic
technique for solving numerical problems. The factors are derived from fixed relationships between
quantities. The main purpose is to cancel units not desired using fixed relationships, leaving behind
the unit desired. Units of a derived quantity like density may be inverted to be able to cancel the unit
not desired.

METRIC PREFIXES

Are pretty easy to understand and very handy for metric conversions. You don’t have to know
the nature of a unit to convert, for example, from kilo-unit to mega-unit. All metric prefixes are
powers of 10.

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 PREFIXES SYMBOLS FACTORS
tera T 1012 = 1,000,000,000,000
giga G 109 = 1,000,000,000
mega M 106 = 1,000,000
kilo k 103 = 1,000
hecto h 102 = 100
deka da 101 = 10
deci d 10 -1 = 0.1
centi c 10 -2 = 0.01
milli m 10 -3 = 0.001
micro μ 10 -6 = 0.000,001
nano n 10 -9 = 0.000,000,001
pico p 10 -12 = 0.000,000,000,001

CONVERSION TABLE

LENGTH
100 centimeter (cm) 1m
1,000 meter (m) 1 km
1.60 kilometer (km) 1 mile (mi)
5280 feet (ft) 1 mi
2.54 cm 1 inch (in)
1m 3.28 ft
MASS
1,000 milligrams (mg) 1g
1,000 grams (g) 1 kilogram (kg)
454g 1 lbs
2.2 pounds (lbs) 1 kg
1 metric ton (MT) 1,000 kg

PRESSURE
760 torr 1 mm Hg
760 millimeters mercury
1 atm
(mm Hg)
14.7 pounds per square
1 atmosphere (atm)
inch (psi)
1 atm 1.01 x 105 pasals (pa)

VOLUME
1 cubic centimeter (cc) 1 mL
1 milliliters (mL) 20 drops
4.93 mL 1 teaspoon (tsp)
1, 000 mL 1L
1, 000 cc 1L
3.79 liters (L) 1 gallon (gal)
1, 000 L 1m
1 cubic meter (m ) 33.31 cubic feet (ft )

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TEMPERATURE
There are three temperature scales in use today: Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.

 Fahrenheit – is a scale based on 32 for freezing point of water and 212 for the boiling point of
water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.
 Celsius – is also called centigrade temperature scale, is a scale based on 0 for the freezing
point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by the
Swedish astronomer Andres Celsius, it is sometimes called centigrade scale because
of the 100-degree interval between the defined points. The Celsius scale is in
general use wherever metric units have become accepted, and it is used in
scientific work everywhere.
 Kelvin – this scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in the
international system (SI) of measurement. It is defined as1/ 273.16 of the triple point
(equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous phase) of pure water. The Kelvin
(symbol K without the degree sign) is also the fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale,
an absolute temperature scale named for the British physicist William Thomson,
Baron Kelvin. The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale. The difference between
the freezing and boiling points of water is 100 degrees in each, so that the Kelvin has
the same magnitude as the degree Celsius.
VOLUME
Refers to the amount of space that an object occupies. It is often used to signify more
accurate measurements.

A. Volume of a Regular Solid – A regular solid is one having length, width, and thickness or height
and each can be measured in a single straight line. To measure the volume, we use a
standard unit of measurement which is the meter. The volume of a regular solid is
obtained by multiplying its length, width, and thickness. The volume is expressed in
cubic units.
B. Volume of a Liquid – Liquid volume is also measured in cubic meters but the use of liter (L) is
widely accepted. Graduated cylinder is used to measure the volume of liquid. In
reading the measurement of the volume of clear liquid, read the lower meniscus. For
colored liquids, read the upper meniscus.

C. Volume of an Irregular Solid – An irregular solid is one where a dimension cannot be measured
in a single straight line. The displacement method is used to determine the volume of
irregular solid.
– Displacement method used by Archimedes: Fill a container with
water, put the object in the container and catch the overflow.
DENSITY
Is the mass of the object per unit volume. Substances differ in their densities. Each substance
has a specific density.

All materials with a density less than 1 g/cc (density of water) will float on water, and all those
with a density greater than 1 g/cc will sink.
D = Mass/ Volume (g/cc)

FORCE
Normally refers to the measurement of a push or a pull.

Anything that changes the speed and direction of moving object or that which causes a
stationary object to start moving in straight line.

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Measuring Force – Gravitational force is the pull that the Earth exerts on all objects and is measured
by the weight of an object. Some instrument for measuring weight are: the
bathroom scale and the balance (or kilohan) you often see in the market.

Types of Forces:
 Gravitational Force – downward force that the Earth exerts on objects.
a. Inertia – tendency of an object to remain at rest or maintain its motion unless disturbed
by a force.
b. Friction – resists/ opposes the relative sliding movement of two surfaces in contact with
one another.
c. Centripetal Force – drive a thing inward toward a center or rotation. It keeps an object
moving in a circular path.
d. Force of Gravity – that which is acting on an object which enables it to exert an equal
and opposite force on its support.
 Nuclear Force – the strongest known force which holds together the protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom.
 Electromagnetic Force – binds electrons to the atomic nucleus, atoms in the molecules, ions in
solid matter, and molecules into liquids and solids.

MASS vs. WEIGHT

Mass indicates the quantity of matter in a material object. It does not change, thus it’s
a property that is constant. It is measured in a unit called kilogram (kg). Weight, on the other hand, is
the measure of the pull of gravity on an object. On Earth, it depends on the mass of object and its
distance from the center of the Earth. The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its weight. The
closer is to the center of the Earth, the greater is its weight. Weight is expressed in N unit. 100g = 1N.

WORK
In science, work is done when the force applied to an object actually moves the object
in the direction of the force. This is represented as:

WORK = force x displacement

= Newton-meter or joule

Force – anything that causes motion or a change in motion. Newton

Displacement – the distance and direction through which an object is moved. Meter

MACHINES
Is any mechanical device that we use to help us do our work, or make our work easier.

 Simple Machine – machines that have only one or two parts.

a. Lever – any rigid body which is provided about a point called fulcrum (e.g. crowbar,
hammer, pliers, nutcracker, tongs, table knife, baseball bat).
b. Pulley – a wheel with a grooved rim over which a rope passes. (as in flag pole).
c. Wheel and Axle – consists of a wheel attached to an axle so that if you push on the
wheel, the axle turns also (e.g. doorknob, eggbeater, screw driver).
d. Inclined Plane – a flat surface with one and higher than the other. The longer it is in
relation to its height, the larger is its mechanical advantage (e.g. plank,
ladder, winding road).
e. Wedge – an inclined plane with either one or two sloping sides. The smaller the angle of
the wedge, the greater the mechanical advantage (nail, scissors, chisel,
knife).
f. Screw – spiral inclined planes. Works by transferring force exerted on the circumference
of the screw (food grinder, metal screws).
 Compound Machines – machines that make use of or more simple machines.

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ENERGY
The term energy is derived from the Greek word, energeial. Anything that is able to do
work possess energy. Energy is the ability to do work or the ability to exert force on an object and
make it move.

Forms of Energy:
a. Mechanical Energy
 Kinetic Energy – energy possessed by an object or a body in motion.
 Potential Energy – energy possessed by a body because of its position or state.
b. Internal Energy or Thermal Energy – total energy coming from the attractive and repulsive
forces of all the particles or molecules in a body.
c. Heat Energy – energy which flow from one body to another due to a temperature difference
between them, and the flow is always from the hotter to the colder body.
d. Electrical Energy – electricity is the energy of electrons flowing through conductors, like copper
wires and aluminum wires.
e. Chemical Energy – energy stored in matter due to forces of attraction and to the
arrangement of subatomic particles in atoms and of atoms in the
molecules of substances.
f. Radiant Energy – energy of the electromagnetic waves., radio waves, infrared rays, visible
light, ultraviolet rays, x rays, and gamma rays.
g. Nuclear Energy – energy released from nuclear fusion or fission of atomic nuclei of heavy
element or light element.

Methods of Heat Transfer:

 Conduction – The molecules in a material are always moving. When one part of a material is
heated, the molecules in that part move faster and collide with other
molecules. As this goes on, heat is conducted from molecule to molecule until
the heat is spread throughout the material. This is conduction. A conductor is
the material through which heat passes easily. An insulator is a material that
conducts heat poorly.
 Convection – The movement of a gas or liquid brought about by temperature differences
creates a convection current. Heat is transferred by convection when a gas or
liquid moves from one place to another.
 Radiation – Heat transfer when heat is given off in all directions around them is radiation. The
sun and other hot objects radiate energy.

ENERGY RESOURCES
 Nonrenewable Resource – cannot be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.
a. Fossil Fuels
i. Coal – being mined formed from trees and other vegetation buried in swamps created
by the encroaching sea.
ii. Petroleum – a liquid mixture of gaseous liquid and solid hydrocarbons.
iii. Natural Gas – composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. It is 50 to 94% methane and
other hydrocarbons.
b. Nuclear Energy – created by fission or fusion of atoms.
i. Fission – splitting of heavy atoms into lighter atoms.
ii. Fusion – combination of two light atoms to form a heavier atom.
 Renewable Resource – can be replenished or regenerated on a human time scale.
a. Hydroelectrical Power – pertains to the production of electricity by means of generators driven
by water turbines.
b. Geothermal Energy – thermal energy inside the Earth, energy of steam from beneath the
Earth’s surface.
c. Wind Energy – energy harnessed through the windmill or wind turbine.

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 d. Solar Energy – energy from the sun, radiant energy. The visible light is harnessed to produce
the electricity by means of so-called solar cells or photovoltaic cells, which
generate electricity when exposed to sunlight.
i. Photovoltaic or solar cells – refers to the direct conversion of light into electricity.
e. Biomass – is the oldest source of energy ever since prehistoric man discovered fire. It is from the
biological material derived from living or recently deceased organism which may
include both plant life, including fuel, wood, animal dung, and agricultural wastes.

EARTH
Formation of the Earth (modern theories)

 Big Bang Theory

The currently accepted model of the formation of the universe. The big bang theory
described the universe as expanding, having originated from an infinitely tiny, infinitely dense
point around 14 billion years ago (gigayears ago or Gya). According to the theory, matter was
not present at the beginning of time; there was only pure energy compressed in a single point
called singularity.
The fundamental statement of the big bang theory is attributed to Belgian Roman
Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre in 1927. It was supported by Edwin Hubble’s demonstration
of the continuously expanding universe through his observation of galactic redshifts in 1929
and the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson in 1965.
This theory states that, in the beginning there is only a super-massive gaseous point in
our empty universe. Instantaneously and randomly, enough energy is created to break the
gravitational bond holding this massive body together, exploding the super-heated particles
throughout space. In less than one millionth of a second, protons, neutrons, electrons, and
their anti-particles begin to form.
As this moves on, particles begin to cool by giving off energy, which allows them to
combine to create the first and most simple ion, hydrogen, as well as a few more massive
atoms. More time passes; the atoms are becoming more abundant in the universe. They begin
to pull together through atomic forces and the gravitational force. Gaseous bodies become
more massive, attracting more atoms and becoming more massive. The gravitational force of
these early bodies is so great that the collapse in on themselves, beginning fusion.
Hydrogen atoms combine, yielding larger atoms and enormous amount of energy;
enough energy to keep these stars from collapsing. Eventually, the fusion process has to end
and the star will explode, sending out stars, asteroids, and numerous other solid bodies.

 Oscillating Universe
An oscillating universe was Albert Einstein’s favored model after rejecting his own
original model. The oscillating universe followed the general theory of relativity equations of
the universe with positive curvature. The curvature resulted in the expansion of the universe for
a time, and then to its contraction due to the pull of its gravity in a perpetual cycle of big
bang and big crunch.

 Steady State Theory

Proposed by astronomers Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hermann Bondi, the steady
state theory predicted a universe that expanded but did not change its density---matter was
inserted into the universe as it expanded in order to maintain a constant density.

 Inflationary Universe
American physicist Alan Guth proposed a model of the universe based on the big bang
theory. He incorporated a short early period of exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve
the uncertainties of the standard big bang model, such as horizon and flatness problems. This

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 became known as the inflationary model. Another variation of the inflationary model was the
cyclic model developed by Paul Steinhardt and Neil Turok in 2002, which incorporated the
ideas based on the superstring theory.

 Multiverse
Russian-American physicist Andrei Linde developed the concept of inflationary universe
from his chaotic inflation theory in 1983. This theory sees the universe as just one of many
“bubbles” that grew as a part of a multiverse. American physicist Hugh Everett III and Bryce
DeWitt had initially developed and popularized the concept of “many worlds” structure of the
universe in the 1960s and 1970s.

FORMATION OF SOLAR SYSTEM

As matter began to condense and stars began to form, one such star appeared where
the Sun now appears within the Milky Way Galaxy. After igniting with fusion and burning its usable
hydrogen and other larger elements, the star exploded, sending matter out in all directions. Once
again, through gravitational forces, this matter eventually cooled and collected in a few key areas,
forming the planets and the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt is simply an early form of the collection of
matter that was not able to completely form a planet due to Jupiter’s gravity. Some early planets
may have collided with other early planets, creating larger planets, moons, or possibly space rocks.
In the meantime, a smaller star began to form at the center of the previous explosion and our Sun
started its fusion process again.
The solar system started from dust-sized particles that resulted from the big bang. Its age
and that of the planet Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.

Hypothesis about the Formation of Solar System:

 Encounter Hypothesis
According to the encounter hypothesis, about 5 Gya, a rouge star passed close to the
sun and stripped materials (hot gasses) from both the sun and the rouge star. The hot gases
continued to spin in the same direction as the sun, and coalesced into smaller lumps which
formed the planets.
The encounter hypothesis was able to explain why all the planets revolve in the same
direction and why inner planets are denser than the outer ones. However, the first problem
with this theory is that even though hot gases expand, they would not contract. So how did
the lumps of hot gases contract to form planets?

 Nebular Hypothesis
The nebular hypothesis states that the entire Solar System started as a large cloud of
gas that contracted due to self-gravity. Conservation of angular momentum requires that a
rotating disk form with a large concentration at the center, which would start as the protosun,
while planets would begin forming within the disk.
While it incorporated more basic physics, the hypothesis could not account why 99% of
the Solar system’s mass is in the sun, but 90% of its angular momentum is in the planets. It also
does not provide a mechanism to explain why the disk would turn into individual planets.

 Protoplanet Hypothesis
It is based on the main concepts of the nebular hypothesis and concepts based on
new knowledge on fluids and states of matter. According to this hypothesis, the Solar System
began with a fragment from an interstellar cloud composed mainly of hydrogen, helium, and
trace amounts of the light elements. The fragments of the interstellar cloud then formed the
dense central region of the solar nebula, which collapsed more rapidly than its outlying parts.
As the solar nebula contracted, it rotated more rapidly, conserving its angular momentum. It

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 also grew by accretion as material continued to fall inward from its surroundings. The solar
nebula eventually evolved into the sun.
Gravitational instabilities ruptures the thin disk into eddies, each containing many small
particles which built up and accreted. As the accretion continued, larger asteroid0sized
aggregates called planetisimals were formed, which orbited the center of the solar nebula.
The planetisimals further grew in size due to the gravitational attraction they exerted on to one
another, forming moon-sized bodies that would later become planets.

 The planetisimals differed in chemical composition, depending primarily on their

initial distance from the sun as they are formed. As a consequence, the terrestrial
planets formed near the central portion of the solar nebula, where the
temperatures were high enough to vaporize all compounds in the dust except
the high-temperature metallic and silicate minerals in the inner portion of the
disk. The gas giants, on the other hand, formed in the outer disk which remained
relatively cooler, allowing them to be rich in volatile, icy, and gaseous materials.

EARTH’S STRUCTURE

The Earth consists of several layers. The three main layers are the core, the mantle, and
the crust. The core is the inner part of the Earth, the crust is the outer part and between them is the
mantle. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere. Till this moment it hasn’t been possible to take a
look inside the Earth because the current technology doesn’t allow it. Therefore all kinds of research
had to be done to find which material the Earth consists, what different layers there are and which
influence those have on the Eath’s surface. This research is called seismology.

 Core – The inner part of the Earth is the core. This part of the Earth is about 1,800 miles
(2,900 km) below the Earth’s surface. The core is a dense ball of the elements iron
and nickel. It is divided into two layers, the inner core and the outer core. Because
the Earth rotates, the outer core spins around the inner core and that causes the
Earth’s magnetism.
i. Inner core – the center of Earth – is solid and about 780 miles (1,250 km) thick.
Its pressures are great that it cannot melt, even though
temperatures there reach 6700 Fahrenheit (37000 Celsius).
ii. Outer Core – this part is so hot that the metal is always molten. The outer core is
about 1,370 miles (2,200 km) thick.
 Mantle – The layer above the core. It begins about 6 miles (10 km) below the oceanic crust
and about 19 miles (30 km) below the continental crut. The mantle is divided into
the inner mantle and the outer mantle. It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick
and makes up nearly 80% of the Earth’s total volume.
 Crust – The crust lies above the mantle and is the Earth’s hard shell, the surface on which
we are living. In relation with the outer layers the crust is much thinner. It floats
upon the softer, denser mantle. The crust is made up of solid materials but these
materials is not everywhere the same. There is an Oceanic Crust and a Continental
Crust. The first one is about 4-7 miles (6-11 km) thick and consists of heavy rocks,
like basalt. The continental crust is thicker than the oceanic crust, about 19 miles
(30 km) thick. It is mainly made up of light materials, like granite.

PLATE TECTONICS
The Earth’s crust consists of a number of moving pieces or plates that are always
colliding or pulling apart. The Lithosphere consists of nine large plates and twelve smaller ones. The
continents are imbedded in continental plates; the oceanic plates make up much of the sea floor.
The study of Tectonic Plates – called Plate Tectonics – helps to explain continental drift, the spreading

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of the sea floor, volcanic eruptions and how mountains are formed. The force that causes the
movement of the tectonic plates may be the slow churning of the mantle beneath them. Mantle
rock is constantly moved upwards to the surface by the high temperatures below and then sinks by
cooling. This cycle takes millions of years. Tectonic is a term derived from a Greek word Tekton, which
means “carpenter” or “builder”.

 The Plate Tectonics Theory was developed from earlier hypotheses and data collected
about the rocks of the ocean floor. One of the foundational works that gave rise to this
theory is in the first world atlas, “Theatrum Orbis Terrarum,” which was developed and
published by Abraham Ortelius on May 20,1570.

Continental Drift
Proposed by an Austrian Climatologist Alfred Wegener. In his book, “the Origins of of
Continents and Oceans” in 1915, Wegener expanded his theory and presented evidences that
Pangaea (“All Earth”) haad really existed during the Permian period.

Wegener explained that about 1,100 million years ago, there was a supercontinent
named Rodina (which predated Pangaea). During the late Triassic Period, Pangaea began to break
up into two smaller supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland which moved to the
northern and southern extremes of the planet respectively.

i. Laurasia – Eurasia and North America

ii. Gondwanaland – South America, Antartica, Africa, India, and Australia.

The drift of the plates across the surface of the Earth has been going on over million
years, which still changes the outward appearance of the Earth. When you look at the map of the
world, you see how well the east coast of North and South America fits into the west coast of Europe
and Africa. Over millions of years these continents have slowly drifted apart.

Plate Boundaries:

 Divergent Boundary – occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along
boundaries, lava comes out from the center of the ridge and eventually
solidifies into basalt. This effectively produces new oceanic plates. As the
plates pull apart, the lithosphere cracks, producing normal faults. The slips
along these faults are the primary cause of earthquakes in divergent
boundaries.
 Convergent Boundary – is where two plates move toward each other. Sometimes the edge of
one plate is gradually destroyed by the force of collision, sometimes the
impact simple crimps the plates’ edged, thereby creating great
mountain ranges. When one tectonic plate bends beneath the other, it
is called subduction.
 Transform Plate Boundary – is where two plates slide past each other, resembling a strike-slip fault.
Thus, this type of boundary is also referred to as big strike-slip faults or
transform faults. In contrast to convergent and divergent boundaries,
the crust is broken but no materials are created nor destroyed.

Seafloor Spreading

In 1962, Harry Hammond Hess, an American Geologist, who conducted echo-sounding

surveys on the ocean floor, published his findings in his article, “The History of Ocean Basins.” He
found out that magma oozed up from Earth’s interior along mid-oceanic ridges and this eventually
solidified and formed new seafloor. The seafloor on either side of the ridge spreads away from the
crest of the ridge, until it sank into the deep oceanic trenches in the process called subduction.

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 Studies show that volcanic activity under the sea causes magma from beneath the
Earth’s crust to rise to the surface, forming a very long ridge along the middle of the oceans that
separate the large continents. When continental plates collide, one of the plates splits up into two
layers: a lower layer of dense mantle rock and upper layer of lighter crystal rock. As the mantle layer
subducts, the upper layer is peeled off and crumples up against the other plate, thus forming
mountain ranges, like the Alps. The are called crumpled mountains.

Diastrophism – the process which involves movements of the Earth’s crust such that a portion if
pushed up, push down or forced sideways.

 Folding – the process when the sideways forces acting on rocks deform the rocks into
wavelike folds after tilting, bending of wrinkling.
 Faulting – sliding or moving over of rock layers over one another along the break or
fracture, may occur vertically or horizontally.

VOLCANOES
A volcano is a gap in the Earth where molten rock and other materials come to the
Earth’s surface. Some volcanoes are just cracks in the Earth’s crusts. Others are weak places in the
Earth’s crust, which occur on places where magma bubbles up through the crust and comes to the
Earth’s surface.
 Magma is a molten rock that occurs by partial melting of the crust and the mantle by
high temperatures deep down in the ground. Once magma comes to the Earth’s
surface it is called lava.
 75% of the current number of active volcanoes in the world (859 active volcanoes) are
located at the pacific ring of fire.

Active and Non-Active Volcanoes:

 Active Volcanoes – volcanoes that are likely to erupt at any moment.
 Dormant Volcanoes – It lies dormant for centuries, but then erupts suddenly and violently.
 Extinct Volcanoes – ones no longer likely to erupt.

Types of Volcanoes:
This is a broad, shallow volcanic cone, which arises because the running
The Shield Volcano
lava, which is fluid and hot, cools slowly.
The Dome Volcano This one has a steep, convex slope from thick, fast-cooling lava.
Throws out – besides lava- much ash into the air. Through this the volcanic
The Ash-Cinder Volcano
cone is built up from alternate layers of ash and cinder.
These are also built up from alternate layers of lava and ash, but besides its
The Composite Volcano
main crater, it has many little craters on its slope.
An older volcano with a large crater which can be 62 miles (100 km) wide.
The Caldera Volcano
In this crater many little new craters are formed.

Featured of Volcano:
1. Cone – most striking part of the volcano. It is usually composed of mixtures of lava and
pyroclastic.
2. Vent – is the opening through which an eruption takes place. They can be straight or
convulated.
3. Magma Chamber – is the large underground pool of liquid rock beneath the Earth’s crust.
4. Crater – is a basin-like depression over a vent at the summit of the cone.
5. Caldera – is a volcanic depression larger than the original crater. It can be created when a
volcano’s summit is clown off by exploding gases or when a volcano collapses due
to a vacated magma chamber.
6. Lava – is the rock or magma expelled from a volcano during eruption.

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 7. Dikes – are the barrier or obstacle in a volcano. It is found in igneous forms that under great
pressure, cut fractures or fissures across previously formed metamorphic, sedimentary,
or igneous rocks.
8. Sills – known as intrusive sheets, are solidified lava flows that originally forced their way
between and parallel to older layers of rocks.
9. Codult – is a channel or pipe conveying liquid materials such as magma.
10. Flank – is the side of a volcano.
11. Summit – is the highest point or apex of a volcano.
12. Throat – is the entrance of a volcano.
13. Ash Clouds – is expelled in the atmosphere; volcanic ash or ash clouds is composed or
pulverized rock and glass created during eruption.
14. Volcanic Bombs – are the chunks of lava blasted into the air which solidified before reaching
the ground.
15. Pyroclastic Flow – are fast moving currents of hot gases and rock traveling down from a
volcano. This includes pumice flow, ash flow, block and ash flow, glowing
erupting cloud called “nuee ardent,” and avalanche.
16. Tephra Fall – refers to fragmented material that consists of pumice, scoria, lithic materials, or
crystals, or combination of the four.
17. Lahar – also called mudflows are flowing mixture of volcanic debris and water.

EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is in fact the shaking of the ground caused by sudden movements in
the Earth’s crust. The biggest earthquake are set off by the movement of tectonic plates. Some
plates slide past each other gently, but others can cause a heavy pressure on the rocks, so they
finally crack and slide past each other. By this, vibrations or shock waves are caused, which go
through the ground. It is these vibrations or seismic waves which case an earthquake. The closer to
the source of the earthquake (the focus or hypocenter), the more damage occurs. Earthquakes are
classified according to the depth of the focus.

The closer the focus to the surface, the heavier the earthquake. The earthquake is
always the most intense on the surface directly above the focus (epicenter). In general big
earthquakes begin with light vibrations (foreshocks). These are the initial fractures in the rocks. After
the main shock, there may be minor aftershocks, most of the time for months. This occurs as the rocks
settle down.

 Seismograph – instrument that detects and records the ground motion from an
earthquake.
 Seismogram – the record collected from the seismograph.
 Seismic Waves – the energy released from the hypocenter of an earthquake.

Hypocenter vs Epicenter:
 Focus/Hypocenter – point within the Earth.
 Epicenter – point above the focus on the surface.

Types of Waves:
 Body Waves – waves that travel within the interior of the Earth.
a. Primary waves – P-waves; are body waves in which the particles of the material
move back ad forth parallel to the direction of wave motion. It is
a compressional wave.

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 b. Secondary waves – S-waves; are body waves where the particles of the material
move back and forth perpendicular to the direction of the
wave motion. They are also referred to as shear waves.
 Surface Waves – waves that travel along the Earth’s surface.
a. Rayleigh waves – surface waves that cause the ground to ripple up and down;
rolling motion.
b. Love waves – surface waves that cause the ground to move back and forth in a
snake-like movement; side-to-side motion.

THE ROCK CYCLLE

The three major types of rocks, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are
interrelated by a series of natural process. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and crystallization of
hot molten lava and magma. Igneous rocks undergo weathering and erosion to form sediments.
Sediments are deposited and lithified by compaction and cementation to form sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rock become buried by additional sedimentary deposition, and when they are deep
within the Earth, they are subjected to heat and pressure which causes them to become
metamorphic rocks. With further burial and heating, the metamorphic rocks begin to melt. Patially
molten metamorphic rocks are known as migmatite. As melting proceeds with increasing
temperatures and depths of burial, eventually the rock becomes molten and becomes magma,
which cools and crystallizes to form plutonic igneous rock, or which is erupted onto the Earth’s
surface as lava, and cools and crystallizes to form volcanic igneous rock.

 WEATHERING – breaking down of rocks brought about by either physical or chemical means
giving rise to sediments or the rock fragments.
A. Physical or Mechanical Weathering
1. Frost Wedging – water expands when it freezes.
2. Exfoliation or Unloading
i. Rocks breaks off into leaves or sheets along joints which parallel the
ground surface;
ii. Caused by expansion of rocks due to uplift and erosion; removal of
pressure of deep burial.
3. Thermal Expansion
i. Repeated daily heating and cooling of rock;
ii. Heat causes expansion; cooling causes contraction.
iii. Different minerals expand and contract at different rates causing stresses
along mineral boundaries.
B. Chemical Weathering – rocks react with water, gases, and solutions (may be acidic); will add
or remove elements from minerals.
1. Dissolution (or solution)
i. Several common minerals dissolve in water:
 Halite
 Calcite
ii. Limestone and marble contain calcite and are sluble in acidic water
iii. Marble Tombstone and carvings are particularly susceptible to chemical
weathering by dissolution. Note that the urn and tops of ledges are
heavily weathered, but the inscriptions are somewhat sheltered and
remain legible.
iv. Caves and caverns typically form in limestone
 Speleothems are cave formation
 Speleothems are made of calcite
 Form a rock called travertine
 Stalactites – hang from ceiling

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  Stalagmites – on the ground
v. Karest Topography forms on limestone terrain and is characterized by:
 Caves/ caverns,
 Sinkhole,
 Disappearing Streams,
 Springs
2. Oxidation
i. Oxygen combines with iron-bearing silicate minerals causing “rusting”
ii. Iron oxides are produced. Iron oxides are red, orange, or brown in color
iii. Mafic rocks such as basalt (which may contain olivine, pyroxene, or
amphibole) weather by oxidation to an orange color.
iv. “Georgia Red Clay” derives its color from the oxidation of iron bearing
materials.
3. Hydrolysis
C. Biological Weathering – organisms can assist in breaking down rock into sediment or soil.
1. Roots of trees and other plants
2. Lichens, fungi, and other micro-organisms
3. Animals (including humans)

 EROSION – The process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried along by such agents
as wind and running water.
 DEPOSITION – the process by which rock fragments and sediments are carried by erosion are
dropped or deposited in other places
 COMPACTING – the process by which rock fragments and other materials that accumulated,
usually at the bottom of a thick column of water, get cemented together and
harden into rock.
 METAMORPISM – a change in constitution of a rock brought about by pressure, heat and
chemical action resulting in a more compact and highly crystalline condition
of the rock.

MINERALS AND GEMS

 Minerals – are solid, inorganic (not living) substances that are found in and on Earth. Most are
chemical compounds, which means they are made up of two or more elements.
For example, the mineral sapphire is made up of aluminum and oxygen. A few
minerals, such as gold, silver, and copper, are made from a single element.
Minerals are considered the building blocks of rocks. Rocks can be a combination
of as many as six minerals. Many minerals, such as gold and silver, are very valuable
because they are beautiful and rare. Limestone, clay, and quartz are other
examples of minerals.
 Gems – are minerals or pearls that have been cut or polished. They are used as ornaments,
such as jewelry. Precious stones are the most valuable gems. They include diamond,
rubies, and emeralds.

ATMOSPHERE
The Earth is surrounded by all kinds of gases. This layer is called the Earth’s Atmosphere.
Without this atmosphere life on Earth isn’t possible. It gives us air, water, heat, and protects us against
harmful rays of the sun and against meteorites.

This layer around the Earth is a colorless, odorless, tasteless ‘sea’ of gases, water, and
fine dust. The atmosphere is made up of different layers with different qualities. It consists of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and 0.04% of other gases. The atmosphere
measures about 500 miles (800 km).

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 The atmosphere is of vital importance for life on Earth. Without atmosphere, life would
be impossible. It gives us air to breath and protects us from meteorites and ultraviolet rays from the
sun. The atmosphere absorbs so much heat that the temperatures on Earth are such that life is
possible. The weather, that exists by constant circulation of water to water vapor, to rain to water. This
cycle causes, together with the differences in temperature and circulation of air (wind), erosion of
the Earth’s surface. By erosion the outside of the Earth changes thorugh the years.

Layers of the Atmosphere:

 THE TROPOSPHERE
The lowest layer of the atmosphere and measures about 7 miles (12 km). It contains
over 75% of all the atmosphere’s gases and vast quantities of water and dust. As the sun heats the
ground, it keeps this thick mixture churning. The weather is caused by these churnings of the mass.
The troposphere is normally warmest in height. At the equator it is at 11.2 miles (8 km) high, at 50 N
and 50 S, 5.6 miles (9 km) and at the poles 3.7 miles (6 km) high.

 STRATOSPHERE
The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to its boundary (the Statopause), 31
miles (50 km) above the Earth’s surface. In this layer there is 19% of the atmosphere’s gases and it
contains little water vapour. Compared to the tropopause it is calm in this layer. The movement of
the gases are slow. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a band of ozone gases, that absorbs
harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. the higher you get in the atmosphere, the warmer the air gets.
The temperature rises from -76 Farenheit (-60 Celsius) at the bottom to a maximum of about 5
Farenheit (10 Celsius) at the stratosphere.

 MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere is the next layer above the stratopause and extends to its upper
boundary (the Measopause), at 50 miles (80 km) above the ground. The gases in the mesosphere are
too thin to absorb much of the sun’s heat. Although the air is still thick enough to slow down
meteorites hurting into the atmosphere. They burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. The
temperatures in the mesosphere drops to -184 Fahrenheit (-120 Celsius) at the mesopause.

 THERMOSPHERE
The Thermosphere is the layer above the mesopause. The gases of the thermosphere
are even thinner than those in the mesosphere, but they absorb ultraviolet light from the sun.
Because of this, the temperatures rise to 3,600 Fahrenheit (2,000 Celsius) at the top. This is at a height
of 430 miles (700 km) of the Earth’s surface. In the thermosphere is a separate layer, the Ionosphere.
This layer extends 62 miles (100 km) to 190 miles (300 km) of the Earth’s surface.

 IONOSPHERE

The ionosphere is a part of the thermosphere. It is made of electrically charged gas

particles (ionized). The particles get this electric charge by ultraviolet rays of the sun. The ionosphere
has the important quality of bouncing radio signals, transmitted from the Earth. That’s why places all
over the world can be reached via radio.

 EXOSPHERE
The exosphere is the outmost layer of the atmosphere and extends from 430 miles (700
km) to 500 miles (800 km) above the ground. In this layer gases get thinner and thinner and drift off
into space.

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AIR
Air Movement
Warm air is less dense than cold air. Thus, warm air rises above cold air making the
pressure below lower. The horizontal movement of air from high pressure area to lower pressure area
produces wind.

Sea Breezes and Land Breezes

When spending a day at the beach, a noticeable drop in temperature may occur
during the early afternoon as a cool breezes beigns to blow off of the water. This wind is known as the
“sea breeze,” which occurs in response to differences in temperature between a body of water and
neighboring land.
Sea-breeze circulation most often occur on warm sunny days during the spring and
summer when the temperature of the land is normally higher than the temperature of the water.
During the early morning hours, the land and the water start out at roughly the same temperature.
On a calm morning, a given pressure surface will be at the same height above the land and water.
A few hours later, the sun’s energy begins to warm the land more rapidly than the
water. By later in the day, the temperatures of the land increases while the temperature of the water
remains relatively constant. This occurs because water, especially large bodies of water like a lake or
ocean, are able to absorb more energy than land without warming.
It is important to remember that the air is not heated directly from above the sun. In
fact, most of the incoming solar energy actually passes right through the atmosphere. However, as
the land absorbs this energy, heat is radiated back into the atmosphere (from the Earth), warming
the overlying air. Some of this heat is transported to higher levels in the atmosphere through
convection.
On the other hand, since the temperature of the water remains relatively constant
throughout the day, the air over the water is not heated from below (as over land), resulting in lower
air temperatures over the water.
On clear, calm evenings, temperature difference between a body of water and
neighboring land produce a cool wind that blows offshore. This wind is called “land breeze.” Land
breezes are strongest along the immediate coastline but weaken considerably further inland.
Land-breeze circulations can occur at any time of year, but are most common during
the fall and winter seasons when water temperatures are still fairly warm and nights are cool.
On clear and calm evening, the Earth’s surface cools by radiating (giving off) heat
back into space, and this results in a cooling of the immediate overlying air.
Since the air over land cools more rapidly than the air over water, a temperature
difference is established, with cooler air present over land and relatively warmer air located over
water.

Air Pollution
When large amount of dust, soot, bacteria, and other harmful gases get into the air, air
is being polluted. Today, the main source of air pollution in the Philippines are: 1) industry and 2)
transportation.
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
POLLUTANT SOURCES EFFECTS
Ozone is not created directly, Ozone near the ground can
Ozone – a gas that can be but is formed when nitrogen cause a number of health
found in two places. Near the oxides and volatile organic problems. Ozone can lead to
ground (the troposphere), it is a compounds mix in the sunlight. more frequent asthma attacks
major part of smog. Higher in That is why ozone is mostly in people who have asthma
the air (the stratosphere), it found in the summer. Nitrogen and can cause soar throaths,
helps block radiation from the oxides come from burning, coughs, and breathing
sun. gasoline, coal, or other fossil difficulty. It may even lead to
fuels. There are many types of premature death. Ozone can

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 volatile organic compounds, also hurt plants and crops.
and they come from sources
ranging from factories to trees.
Carbon monixide is released
Carbon monoxides makes it
when engine burn fossil fuels.
hard for body parts to get
Emissions are higher when
oxygen they need to run
engines are not tuned properly,
correctly.exposure to carbon
Carbon Monoxide – a gas that and when fuel is not completely
monoxide makes people feel
comes from the burning of fossil burned. Cars emit a lot of the
dizzy and tired and gives them
fuels, mostly in cars. It cannot be carbon monoxide found
headaches. Elderly people with
seen or smelled. outdoors. Furnaces ad heaters
heart disease are hospitalized
in the home can emit high
more often when they are
concentrations of carbon
exposed to higher amounts of
monoxide, too, if they are not
carbon monoxide.
properly maintained.
High levels of nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide mostly comes
exposure can give people
from power plants and cars.
coughs and can make them
Nitrogen dioxide is formed in
feel short of breath. People who
Nitrogen Dioxide – a reddish- two ways—when nitrogen in the
are exposed to nitrogen dioxide
brown gas that comes from the fuel is burned, or when nitrogen
for a long time have a higher
burning of fossil fuels. It has a in the air reacts with oxygen at
chance of getting respiratory
strong smell at high levels. very high temperatures.
infections. Nitrogen dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide can also react
reacts in the atmosphere to
in the atmosphere to form
form acid rain, which can harm
ozone, acid rains, and particles.
plants and animals.
Particulate matter can be
divided into two types—coarse Particulate matter that is small
Particulate Matter – solid or
particles and fine particles. enough can enter the lungs
liquid matter that is suspended
Coarse particles are formed and cause health problems.
in the air. To remain in the air,
from sources like road dust, sea Some of these problems include
particles usually must be less
spray, and construction. Fine more frequent asthma attacks,
than 0.1-mm wide and can be
particles are formed when fuel respiratory problems, and
as small as 0.00005 mm.
is burned in automobiles and premature death.
power plants.
Sulfur dioxide exposure can
Sulfur dioxide mostly comes affect people who have
from the burning of coal or oil in asthma or emphysema by
Sulfur Dioxide – a corrosive gas power plants. It also comes from making it more difficult for them
that cannot be seen or smelled factories that make chemicals, to breath. It can also irritate
at low levels but can have a paper, or fuel. Like nitrogen people’s eyes, noses, and
“rotten egg” smell at high levels. dioxide, sulfur dioxide reacts in throats. Sulfur dioxide can harm
the atmosphere to form acid trees and crops, damage
rains and particles. buildings, and make it harder for
people to see long distances.
Outside, lead comes from cars
in areas where unleaded
gasoline is not used. Lead can High amounts of lead can be
also come from power plants dangerous for small children
Lead – a blue-gray metal that is and other industrial sources. and can lead to lower IQs and
very toxic and is formed in a Inside, lead paint is an kidney problems. For adults,
number of forms and locations. important source of lead, exposure to lead can increase
especially in houses where paint the chance of having heart
is peeling. Lead in old pipes can attacks or strokes.
also be a source of lead in
drinking water.
Toxic Air Pollutants – a large Each toxic air pollutant comes Toxic air pollutants can cause
number of chemicals that are from a slightly different sources, cancer. Some toxic air
known or suspended to cause but many are created in pollutants can also cause birth
cancer. Some important chemical plants or are emitted defects. Other effects depend

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pollutants in this category when fossil fuels are burned. on the pollutant, but can
include arsenic, asbestos, Some toxic air pollutants, like include skin and eye irritation
benzene, and dioxin. asbestos and formaldehyde, and breathing problems.
can be found in building
materials and can lead to
indoor air problems. Many toxic
air pollutants can also enter the
food and water supply.
Stratospheric Ozone Depleters – CFCs are used in air If the ozone in the stratosphere
chemicals that can destroy the conditioners and refrigerators, is destroyed, people are
ozone in the stratosphere. These since thay work well as exposed to more radiation form
chemicals include coolants. They can also be the sun (ultraviolet radiation).
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), found in aerosol cans and fire This can lead to skin cancer and
halons, and other compounds extinguishers. Other eye problems. Higher ultraviolet
that include chlorine or stratospheric ozone depleters radiation can also harm plants
bromine. are used as solvents in industry. and animals
The greenhouse effect can lead
Carbon dioxide is the most
Greenhouse Gases – gases that to changes in the climate of the
important greenhouse gas. It
stay in the air for a long time planet. Some of these changes
comes from the burning of fossil
and warm up the planet by might include more
fuels in cars, power plants,
trapping sunlight. This is called temperature extremes, higher
houses, and industry. Methane is
the “greenhouse effect” sea levels, changes in forest
released during the processing
because the gases act like the composition, and damage to
of fossil fuels, and also comes
glass in a greenhouse. Some of land near the coast. Human
from natural sources like cows
the important greenhouse health might be affected by
and rice paddies. Nitrous oxide
gases are carbon dioxide, diseases that are related to
comes from industrial sources
methane, and nitrous oxide. temperature or by damage to
and decaying plants.
land and water.

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

 Meteorology – study of atmospheric phenomena.
 Weather – describes the condition of the atmosphere in a particular time. (cool and dry,
humid, windy, rainy, or stormy).
 Climate – average weather in a region over a number of years or usually decades. (tropical)
CLOUDS – little drops of water or ice hanging in the atmosphere. A cellometer measures the height of
clouds.
CLOUD TYPE DESCRIPTIVE NAME DESCRIPTION
Cirrus Mare’s tails Thin, feathery
Cirrocumulus Mackerel sky Small patches of white
Cirrostratus Bed sheet clouds Thin, white sheets
Stratus High fogs Low, gray blanket
Cumulus Cauliflowers Flat-bottomed, white puffy
Cumulonimbus Thunderheads Mountains of heavy, dark clouds

WINDS
Wind Systems
The major wind system in the Philippinnes are:
a. Northeast Trade Winds – from north, north east and east.
b. Southwest Monsoon (habagat) – originates from Southeast trade winds south of the equator.
c. Northeast Monsoon (amihan) – from east, south east.

Cyclones – low pressure areas in the tropics

a. Tropical Depression – with wind speed of less than 63 kph.
b. Tropical Storms – with wind speed of 63-118 kph.
c. Typhoon – with win speed of more than 118 kph

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THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms affect small areas when compared with hurricanes an winter storms. The
typical thunderstorm is 15 miles in diameter and lasts an average of 30 minutes. Nearly 1,800
thunderstorms are happening at any moment around the world. That’s 16 million a year.
Despite their small sizes, all thunderstorms are dangerous. Every thunderstorm produces
lightning, which kills more people each year than tornadoes. Strong winds, hail, and tornadoes are
also dangers associated with some thunderstorms.
You can estimate how many miles away a storm is by counting the number of seconds
between the flash of lightning and the clap of thunder. Divide the number of second by five to get
the distance in miles. The lightning is seen before the thunder is heard because light travels faster
than sound.
Thunderstorms need three things:
 Moisture – to form clouds and rain.
 Unstable Air – relatively warm air that can rise rapidly.
 Lift – fronts, sea breezes and mountains are capable of lifting air to help from thunderstorms.

LIGHTNING
The action of rising and descending air within a thunderstorm separates positive and
negative charges. Water and ice particles also affect the distribution of electrical charge. Lightning
results from the bulldup and discharge of electrical energy between positively and negatively
charged areas. Most lightning occurs within the cloud or between the loud and ground.
The average flash of lightning cloud turn on a 100-watt light bulb for more than 3
months. The air near a lightning strike is hotter than the surface of the sun. The rapid heating and
cooling of air near the lightning channel causes a shock wave that results in thunder.
Your chances of being struck by lightning are estimated to be 1 in 600,000 but those
chances can be reduced by following safety rules. Most lightning deaths and injuries occur when
people are caught outdoors, and most happen in the summer. Many fires in the western United
States and Alaska are started by lightning. In the past 10 years, more than 15,000 fires have been
started by lightning.

THE OZONE LAYER

Ozone is a molecule containing three oxygen atoms. It is blue in color and has a strong
color. Normal oxygen, which we breath, has two oxygen atoms and is colorless and odorless. Ozone
is much less common than normal oxygen. Out of each 10 million air molecules, about 2 million are
normal oxygen, but only 3 are ozone.
However, even the small amount of ozone plays a key role in the atmosphere. The
ozone layer absorbs a portion of the radiation from the sun, preventing it from reaching the planet’s
surface. Most importantly, it absorbs the portion of ultraviolet light called UVB. UVB has been linked to
many harmful effects, including various types of skin cancer, cataracts, and harm to some crops,
certain materials, and some forms of marine life.
At any given time, ozone molecules are constantly formed and destroyed in the
stratosphere. The total amount, however, remains relatively stable. While ozone concentrations vary
naturally with sunspots, the seasons, and latitude, these processes are well understood and
predictable. Each natural reduction in ozone levels has been followed by a recovery. Recently,
however, convincing scientific evidence has shown that the ozone shield is being depleted well
beyond changes due to natural processes.
CFCs – are stable substances that only exposure to strong UV radiation breaks them
down. When that happens, the CFC molecule releases atomic chlorine. One chlorine atom can
destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules. The net effect is to destroy ozone faster than it is naturally
created.

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ASTRONOMY
The Universe
i. 13.7 billion years: age of the universe.
ii. 200 million years: Interval between the Big Bang and the appearance of the first stars.
iii. 4%: Proportion of the universe that is ordinary matter.
iv. 23%: Proportion that is dark matter.
v. 73%: Proportion that is dark energy.

Colors of the Universe:

 Blue Planets – Earth, Neptune, and Uranus are all blue because of gases in their atmosphere.
 Blue Stars – These are the hottest stars, with a surface temperature of more than 37,000 °F.
 Yellow Stars – These are warm stars, such as the Sun. Their temperature is about 10,000 °F.
 Red Stars – The coolest stars are red. Their surface temperature is less than 5,500 °F.
 Red Shift – When light coming from a distant star is seen through a spectroscope (an
instrument that separates light into its different colors); the light we receive
continues to shift toward the red area of the spectrum, which is the least
powerful. This means that, since the light is becoming weaker and weaker, the
star must be travelling away from us. This makes scientists believe that our
universe is expanding.
 Red Spot – A swirling cloud on the planet Jupiter is a raging storm of gases, mainly red
phosphorous.
Space Glossary
 Galaxies – are immense system containing billions of stars. Astronomers have estimated that
the universe could contain 40 to 50 billion galaxies. Galaxies have different shapes:
some are spiral, others are elliptical, or oval-shaped, and some are irregular.
 Milky Way – is our own galaxy. Just about all that you can see in the sky belongs to our galaxy-
--a system roughly 200 billion stars. The milky way is a spiral-shaped galaxy about
100,000 light-years in diameter and about 10,000 light-years in thickness.
 Solar System – is made up of the Sun (solar means sun) at its center, the nine planets that orbit
it, and the various satellites, asteroids, comets, and meteorites that are also
controlled by the Sun’s gravitational pull.
 Sun – is the closest star to Earth and the center of our solar system. Every second, it converts 49
million tons (45 million metric tons) of matter into pure energy, which reaches us in the
form of light. The sun weighs more than 300,000 times as much as Earth and is 109 times
larger.
 Sunspots – appear as dark spots on the Sun, and are believed to be cooler than the rest of the
Sun. They appear in 11-year cycles.
 Planet – is the term used for a body in orbit around the Sun. The word comes from the Greek
“planetes,” and means “wanderers.” Our solar system has nine planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Since 1994, evidence
has been found that planets also exist beyond our solar system. At least 10 planets
existing in other solar system have been discovered.
 Satellite (Moon) – is the term for a body in orbit around a planet. As long as our own Moon was
the only moon known, there was no need for a general term for the moons
of planets. But when Galileo Galilei discovered the four main moons of the
planet Jupiter, Johannes Kepler wrote Galileo a letter suggesting he call
them “satellites” (from the Latin satelles, which means attendant). The word
means the same thing as “moon.”
 Orbit – is the term for the path traveled by a body in space. It comes from the Latin orbis,
which means circle. Some orbits are nearly circular, but the orbits of the most planets
are ellipses---shaped like ovals.

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 Asteroids – also known as the minor planets, are small bodies orbiting the Sun that resemble
planets. More that 5,000 asteroids have been discovered, and most are found
between Mars and Jupiter. Usually having an irregular shape, asteroids---at least
those discovered thus far---can range size from 580 miles (940 km) in diameter,
which is the size of the asteroid Ceres, to just 33 ft. (10 m) in diameter.
 Comets – are made up of frozen dust and gases, and have been described as large, dirty
snowball with icy centers. They often travel on extremely elongated orbits around
the Sun. Some comets have orbits that take just 10 years to circumnavigate while
other comets have orbits that take hundreds of thousands of years to circulate. The
tail of a comet, called a coma, forms when the comet comes within 100 million
miles of the Sun. It is then affected by the solar wind (hydrogen and helium that
travel away from the Sun at high speeds), which causes a tail of dust and gases to
form behind the comet.
 Meteors – are fragments of comets, planets, moons, or asteroids that have broken off. It is
estimated that a billion meteors enter our atmosphere every day. Contact with our
atmosphere causes most to disintegrate before reaching Earth. Those that do not
disintegrate completely but fall to Earth are called meteorites.
 Stars – are composed of intensely hot gases, deriving their energy from nuclear reactions
going on in their interiors. Our sun is the nearest star. Stars are very large---some are
even bigger than planets. Our sun has a diameter of 865,400 miles---making it a
comparatively small star.
 White Dwarfs – occur when a star runs out of energy and shut down. The force of gravity at its
center pulls the mass of the star in on itself, forcing it to collapse. It resembles
the glowing cinders of a fire that has died down. It is called a white dwarf
because it emits a white glow.
 Brown Dwarfs – are also called failed stars. They lack enough energy to be true stars but are
also too massive and hot to be planets.
 Supernova – is an extremely large exploding star. Just before the star dies, it releases huge
amounts of energy, briefly becoming millions of times brighter than it was. Then it
immediately shrinks.
 Neutron Stars – are formed after a supernova explodes and shrinks. The shrunken form of the
stars becomes incredibly dense and compact as gravity pulls as of its matter
inward. It becomes so compressed that a million tons of its matter would
hardly fill a thimble. This density crushes together the electrons and protons
that make up its atoms, turning them into neutrons.
 Pulsars – are believed to be rapidly spinning neutrons star that give off bursts of radio waves at
regular intervals. Pulsar is a shortened version of pulsating star.
 Quasors – (quasistellar objects) are believed to be the most remote object in the universe.
Despite their small size they produce tremendous amounts of light and microwave
radiation: not much bigger than Earth’s solar system, they pour our 100 to 1,000
times as much light as an entire galaxy containing a hundred billion stars.
 Black Hole – is created by the total gravitational collapse of a massive star or group of stars. It
is the final phase of some stars, in which gravity sucks the star in on itself---it
implodes rather than explodes. This makes it so dense that not even light can
escape its gravitational field.
 Nebula – is a giant glowing cloud thought to be made up of dust and gas. Nebulae were
thought to have been galaxies that appeared as a blur because they were so far
away, but as more powerful telescopes were created, they showed the nebulae
were not clumps of stars but in fact a hazy cloud of gasses. A nebula is illuminated
by bright stars nearby. More than 300 nebulae have been named.

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The Sun
The diameter of our closest star, the Sun, is 1,392,000 km. The sun is thought to be 4.6
billion years old. The sun is a medium-size star known as a yellow dwarf. It is a star in the milky way
galaxy and the temperature in its core is estimated to be over 15,000,000 °C.
In the Sun’s core, hydrogen is being fused to form helium is being fused to form helium.
The energy created by this process radiates up to the visible boundary of the Sun and then off into
space. It radiates into space in the form of heat and light.
Because the sun is so massive, it exerts a powerful gravitational pull on everything in our
solar system. It is because of the sun’s gravitational pull that Earth orbits the sun is the manner that it
does.
The sun has several layers: the core, the radiation zone, the convection zone, and the
photosphere (which is the surface of the Sun). in addition, there are two layers of gas above the
photosphere called the chromospheres and the corona.
Events that occur on the sun include sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and solar
prominences.
i. Sunspot – are magnetic storms on the photosphere that appear as dark areas. Sunspots
regularly appear and disappear in eleven-year cycles.
ii. Solar Flares – are spectacular discharges of magnetic energy from the corona. These
discharges send streams of protons and electrons outward into space.
Solar flares can interrupt the communications network here on Earth.
iii. Solar Winds – are the result of gas expansion in the corona. This expansion leads to ion
formation. These ions are hurled outward from the corona at over 500
km/s.
iv. Solar Prominences – are storms of gas which erupt from the surface in the form of
columns which either shoot outward into space or twist and loop
back to the Sun’s surface.
v. Corona – the very hot outermost layer of a star’s atmosphere. Our sun’s corona can
only be seen during a total solar eclipse.
The sun gives off many kinds of radiation other than light and heat. It also emits radio
waves, ultraviolet rays, and X-rays. The Earth’s atmosphere protects us from the harmful effects of the
ultraviolet rays and the X-rays.
The Sun does rotate, but because it is a large gaseous sphere, not all parts rotate at the
same speed. This is known as a differential rotation.

THE PLANETS
There are nine planets in our solar system including Earth. So far, no life as we know it
exists on any planet other than our own.

1. Mercury – the planet closest to the sun, has almost no atmosphere, and its dusty surface of craters
resembles the moon. The planet was named for the Roman God Mercury, a winged
messenger, and it travels around the sun faster than any other planet. Mercury is
difficult to see from Earth---in fact, the famous astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, for all
his research and observation, never once was able to see Mercury.
2. Venus – is often called Earth’s twin because the two planets are close in size, but that’s the only
similarity. The thick clouds that cover Venus create a greenhouse effect that keeps it
sizzling at 864 °F. Venus, named after the Roman Goddes of Love and Beauty, is also
known as the “moon star” and “evening star” since it is visible at these times to the
unaided eye. Venus appears as a bright, white disk from Earth.
3. Earth - is not perfectly round; it bulges at the equator and is flatter at the poles. From space the
planet looks blue with white swirls, created by water and clouds.
i. Size: Four planets in our solar system are larger and four are smaller than Earth.
ii. Diameter: 7,926.2 miles (12,756 km)

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 iii. Surface: Earth is made up of water (70%), air, and solid grounds. It appears to be
the only planet with water.
iv. Atmosphere: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), other gases.
v. Rotation of its Axis: 23 hrs, 56 mins, 4 sec.
vi. Rotation around the sun: 365.2 days.
vii. Mean Distance from Sun: 92.9 million miles (149.6 million km)
viii. Satellites: 1
4. Mars – because of its blood-red color (which comes from iron-rich dust), this planet was named for
Mars, the Roman God of War. Mars is the 4th planet from the Sun, situated between Earth
and Jupiter. Three-quarters red, Mars also has dark blotches on it and while areas at the
poles---these are white polar ice caps.
5. Jupiter – the largest planet in our solar system, was named for the most important Roman God
because of its size. About 1,3000 Earths would fit into it. Viewed through a large
telescope, Jupiter is stunningly colorful---it is a disk covered with bands of blue, brown,
pink, red, orange, and yellow. Its most distinguishing feature is the “the Great Red Spot,”
an intense windstorm larger in size than Earth, which has continued for centuries without
any signs of dying down. It has 63 moons and 4 rings.
6. Saturn – the second-largest planet, has majestic rings surrounding it. Named for the Roman God of
Farming, Saturn was the farthest planet know by the ancients. Saturn’s seven rigs are flat
and lie inside one another. They are made of billions of ice particles. It has 30 moons and
about 100 rings.
7. Uranus – is a greenish-blue planet, twice as far from the Sun as its neighbor Saturn. Uranus wasn’t
discovered until 1781. It discoverer, William Herschel, named it Georgium Sidus (The
Goergian Star) after the English king, George III. Later its name was changed to Uranus,
after an ancient Greek Sky God, since all the other planets had been named after
Roman and greek gods. It has 27 moons and 11 rings.
8. Neptune – named after an ancient Roman Sea God, is a stormy blue planet about 30 times
farther from the Sun than Earth. Neptune was discovered when astronomers realized
that something was exerting a gravitational pull on Uranus, and that is was possible
than an unknown planet might be responsible. Through mathematical calculations,
astronomers determined there was indeed an undiscovered planet out in space--- a
year before it was actually seen for the first time through a telescope (in 1846). It has
13 satellites and 4 rings.
9. Pluto – named after the Roman and Greek God of the Underworld, is the coldest, smallest, and
outmost planet in our solar system. Pluto and its moon, Charon, are called “double
planets” because Charon is so large it seems less of a moon than another planet. Pluto
was predicted to exist in 1905 and discovered in 1930. It is the only planet that has not yet
been studied closely by a space probe. During each revolution around the sun, Pluto
passes inside Neptune’s orbit for 20 years, making Neptune the outermost planet for that
time. Pluto passed inside Neptune’s orbit in 1979 and remained ther until 1999.

THE MOONS

Earth’s moon is a small ball of gray rock revolving 239,000 miles around Earth. It is just
one of many in the solar system. The moon has no air and no water. It is about one-fourth as large as
Earth.
The moon travels around Earth in an oval orbit at 36,800 kph. The moon does not have
an atmosphere, so temperature range from -184 °C during its night to 214 °C during its day except at
the poles where the temperature is a constant -96 °C.
The moon is actually a little lopsided due to the lunar crust being thicker on one side
than the other, when you look at the moon, you will see dark and light areas. The dark areas are
young plains called Maria and are composed of basalt. The basalt flowed in and flooded the area
created by a huge impact with an asteroid or comet. The light areas are the highlands, which are

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mountains that were uplifted as a result of impacts. The lunar surfaced is covered by a fine-grained
solid called “regolith” which results from the constant bombardment of the lunar rocks by small
meteorites.
Scientists theorize that the Moon was the result of a collision between Earth and an
object the size of Mars. One theory states that the debris from the impact was hurtled into space
where, due to gravity, it combined. This resulted in the formation of the moon.
The gravitational pull of the moon on the Earth affects the ocean tides on Earth. The
closer the moon is to Earth, the greater the effect. The time between high tides is about 12 hours and
25 minutes.

BIOLOGY
The area of sciences dealing with living things. It indicated biological concepts and
process skills, technology and attitudes and values for addressing the needs and problems of society.
In recent years, the development of techniques in generic engineering and increased understanding
of the molecular basis of cellular processes have led to the emergence of a new and exciting field of
scientific research called technology.

Organic Compounds – characterized by the presence of carbon.

A. Carbohydrates – are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (e.g., sugar, starches, and
cellulose) atoms. They have the general formula CnH2nOn. Their sizes range from
the small simple sugars like glucose and frustose to the large and complex
forms like starch and glycogen. Only the simple sugars (monosaccharides) can
easily pass across cell membranes. Most carbohydrates serve as energy
molecules or energy reserves in living organisms.
B. Cellulose – gives strength and protection to plant cells.
C. Lipids – are macromolecules such as fats, oil, and waxes. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. It is a group of carbon compounds that is insoluble in water. The building
blocks used to form fats are fatty acids and glycerol. Lipids serves as a long term energy
storage and a heat insulator.
D. Proteins – are made up of repeating units of amino acids. They are a component of the muscles
and all other tissues. In the form of enzymes, they control the rate of chemical reactions
inside the cell. Without the enzymes, such chemical process hardly occur.
E. Enzymes – are proteins that act as catalysts (substances that can increase or speed up chemical
reaction). Enzymes are specific in their actions. They are not used up in the reaction.
F. Nucleic Acids – are carriers of hereditary information in living organisms. What an organism looks
like, and what it can do, are controlled by nucleic acids.
G. Vitamins – are substances necessary in very small amount for body growth and activity. They are
also needed to prevent certain diseases. Vitamins are organic substances essential to
life but not required as energy sources. The sources of most Vitamins are plants and
bacteria.

Inorganic Compounds – characterized by the absence of carbon.

A. Water – is the most abundant inorganic compound. About 65% to 95% of the substances of every
living thing is water. It is the medium of transport for food, minerals, and other substances
in living system.
B. Carbon Dioxide – supplies the carbon found in substances made by living things. It is a chemical
element or compound occurring naturally. They may come from the soil
maybe dissolve in water, or maybe found as salt in seawater.

Life Functions – all living things carry out certain activities or functions in order to maintain life.
A. Nutrition – is the process of ingesting and absorbing food to provide the energy for life, promote
growth, and repair or replace damaged tissues.

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B. Transport – involves movement of nutrients water, ions, and other materials into and out of the
various cells and tissues of organisms. This process includes absorption of small
molecules across cell membranes and secretion of biochemicals such as enzymes,
mucous, and hormones. In many species, the circulatory system plays an important
role in transport.
C. Metabolism – includes the process by which nutrients and simple molecules are used to from
more complex molecules for growth, repair, and reproduction (anabolism).
Metabolism also includes the process of breaking down complex molecules to
release energy from chemical bonds (catabolism) and to provide small molecules
such as simple sugars and amino acids as building blocks for more complex
molecules (anabolism).
D. Homeostasis – an internal balance in all aspect of metabolism and biological function.
E. Digestion – is a special form of catabolism that breaks food down into smaller molecules and
releases energy.
F. Absorption – allows small molecules to pass through cell membranes throughout the body tissues.
This allows for a gas exchange and in some species such as plants and fungi
nutrients are obtained by absorption from soil and water.
G. Stimuli – the behavior of living things is a response to stimuli in the environment. These stimuli may
include things such as light, chemical signals, noise, or a change in the seasons.
H. Excretion – is the elimination of waste products.
I. Reproduction – is the process by which an organism produces offspring either sexually or
asexually. Its main purpose is for the perpetuation of species.
1. Asexual – is the reproduction without the use of gametes or sex cells. It can produce offsprings
in less time.
 Binary Fission – commonly observed in single-celled organism such as bacteria,
archaea, and protozoa. It is the splitting of the body or parent cell of
an organism to produce 2 identical daughter cells.
i. Transverse Fission – Protist, tapeworms, schypostome polyps,
ii. Longitudinal Fission – Paramecium, euglena
 Budding – occurs in unicellular organisms such as yeast, and in simple multicellular
animals such as hydra. It is the growing of bud out of parent cells of
bodies which when detached can grow into another organism that
resembles the appearance of parent.
 Fragmentation – common type of asexual reproduction among plants and in some
animals such as sponges and flatworms. In these organisms, the
parent body breaks up into several pieces. The “pieces” or
fragments develop into new organisms.
 Regeneration – related to fragmentation. It is the ability of an organism to regrow a
lost body part. When animals sea star and planaria are cut into
pieces, each piece grows the lacking parts, forming new organism.
 Spore Formation – also called multiple fission. Bread molds, mosses, and ferns
reproduce by forming spores that germinate into new
individuals without fertilization.
 Vegetative Reproduction – some plants are dividing cells in their roots, stem, or leaves
which differentiate into various kinds of special cells.
i. Cuttings
ii. Grafting
iii. Scion
iv. Tuber
v. Rhizome
vi. Stolons
vii. Bulbs

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 2. Sexual – requires the union of gametes. It also includes the flowering plants.
 Hermaphrodism – organism that has 2 sexual organs.
 2 important steps:
1. Gametogenesis – process of producing gametes.
i. Spermatogenesis – process of forming sperm cells.
ii. Oogenesis – process of forming egg cells (ova).
iii. Sporogenesis – process of forming of gametes of flowering plants.
2. Fertilization – process that refers to the union of the gametes.
i. External Fertilization – union of gametes outside the body of the organism;
seashells, frogs, fishes.
ii. Internal Fertilization – union of gametes inside the body of the organism; higher
forms of animals and human.
iii. Pollination – process of transferring or heading of pollen grains (containing
sperm cell) to the stigma (part of pistil – female organ). Thus, it
will produce a seed (the zygote).
 Self-pollination
 Cross-pollination

COMPONENTS OF AN ORGANISM
A. CELL
The basic unit and smallest structures capable of basic life processes, such as taking in
nutrients, expelling waste, and reproducing. All living things are composed of cells.

 Cytology – study of cell.

 Robert Hooke – discovered the cell in 1665.
 “Cell” comes from the Latin word “Cella,” which means chamber or storeroom.
 Humans have an approximately 6 trillion cells.
 Somatic Cells/ Vegetative Cells – body cells.
 Reproductive Cells/ Gametes – sex cells.

2 Kinds of Cell:
1. Unicellular – composed of only 1 cell (e.g., bacteria and protozoa).
2. Mulitcellular – composed of 2 or more cells (e.g., plants, animals, and fungi).

Parts of a Cell:

PARTS DEFINITION
it is the outermost part that covers the cell. It is
characterized as a semi-permeable membrane. It is
Cell Membrane
composed of fats and protein. It helps in regulating the
internal cell balance.
the liquid part of the cell. This is where all the organelles are
Cytoplasm
suspended.
"ER" is the tubular structures that are found near the nucleus.
It serves as the delivery system of the cell and has a
structure similar to a maze.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
2 types of ER:
1. Rough ER - lined with ribosomes.
2. Smooth ER - contains no ribosomes.
flat vesicular structures that are stacked one above the
Golgi Bodies/ Golgi other. It serves as the packaging center of the cell. It
Apparatus secrete and store hormones and enzymes that help in
transportation out of the cell.

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 it is a sausage-like part that are often referred as the
Mitochondira "Powerhouse of the Cell." it releases food energy from food
molecules to be used by the cell (respiration).
the coverinf of the nucleus and serves as the boundary
Nuclear Membrane between cytoplasm and nucleuplasm. It has many pores
that aid in the transport of substances.
Nucleolus manufactures the ribosome.
Nucleoplasm the liquid inside the nucleus.
the brain of the cell, which controls all the functions
Nucleus
occuring in the cell. It contains the blureprint of DNA.

the "suicide bag" of the cell. It is a small sac-like structure

Lysosome and contains strong digestive enzymes which when
released can break down worn out organelles or food.

tiny spherical structure floating in the cytoplasm and also

Ribosome line the membranes of the rough ER. It contains RNA that
helps in protein synthesis.

fluid filled organelles that are enclosed by a membrane. It

looks like a "bubble. " it is used for the storage of food,
Vacoule
water, sugar, minerals, and waste products.

*plant cell has a larger vacoule (Central Vacoule).

PARTS THAT ARE ONLY PRESENT ON AN ANIMAL CELL
hair-like organlles which extend from the surface of many
animal cells. The structur is both identical, except the
Cillia and Flagella length. Their function includes locomotion for unicellular
organisms and to move substances over surface in
multicellular organisms.
PARTS THAT ARE ONLY PRESENT ON A PLANT CELL

the outermose covering of a plant cell. It is made up of

Cell Wall celluloase , and it helps provide mechanicla support to the
cell. It also helps maintain the pressure within.

responsible for giving the plant colors

2 types:

1. Chromoplast - organelle that have different colors in

different cells. They contain chloroplast (green pigment =
chlorophyll ), xanthophyll (yellow, orange, and red
Plastids
pigment ), and carotene (bright yellow or bright brown
pigment )that helps give the flowers and fruits their color.
This is the most important in the process of photosynthesis

2. Leukoplast - colorless organelles which store starch or

other plant nutrients

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 ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

Cell Structure:
 Prokaryotic Cell
are among the tiniest of all cells, ranging in size from 0.0001 to 0.003 mm (0.000004 to
0.0001 in) in diameter. It is found only in bacteria and archaebacteria, all the components, including
the DNA, mingle freely in the cell’s interior, a single component. It can be rod like, spherical, or spiral
in shape. Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a protective cell wall and live in a watery environment,
whether it is soil moisture, a pond, or the fluid surrounding cells in the human body. Tiny pores in the
cell wall enables water and the substances dissolved in it, such as oxygen, to flow into the cell; these
pores also allow wastes to flow out.
 Pilus – (plural: pili) is a structure that extends out of the cell to transfer DNA to another
bacterium.
 Plasmid – a small chromosome with extra genes.

 Eukaryotic Cell
Are typically about ten times larger than prokaryotic cells. In animal cells, the plasma
membrane, rather than a cell wall, forms the cell’s outer boundary. Plant cells have all the
components of animal cells and boast several added features.With a design similar to the plasma
membrane of prokaryotic cells, it separates the cell from its surrounding and regulated the traffic
across the membrane. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as nucleus, while
prokaryotic cells do not.

Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells:

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Page 30 of 50
  Trivia:
 Biggest Cell (General): Ostrich Egg.
 Smallest Cell (General): Acetabularia or the Mermaid’s Wine Glass (algae).
 Biggest Cell (Human): Egg Cell.
 Smallest Cell (Human): Nerve Cell.

B. TISSUE
A group of cells performing a specific function.
 Plant Tissue
1. Vascular Tissue – responsible for the distribution of water, food, and minerals.
a. Xylem – water conducting.
b. Phloem – food conducting
2. Epidermis/ Dermal Tissue – it forms the outer covering of plants for protection. It secretes
cutin, a waxy layer, which slows down evaporation in plants
from parasite invasions.
3. Ground Tissue – is relatively unspecialized and protects the vascular tissue from physical
injury. It also produce and stores food and water.
4. Merismatic Tissue – responsible for the primary growth of plant.
a. Apical Meristem – responsible for increase in length of the plant body.
b. Lateral Meristem – responsible for increase in girth and diameter.
c. Intercalary Meristem – responsible for rapid growth and regrowth of many monocots.
 Animal Tissue
1. Connective Tissue – joins, supports, and protects the other types of tissue. It is most widely
distributed tissue in the body. It is composed of relatively few cells
embedded in non-living materials called matrix.
 Matrix – contains tiny-living fibers
a. Dense Connective Tissue – made up of thick collagen fibers and dark, compressed cells
between fiber bundles. It is for flexibility and support, schock
absoption, and reduction of friction. It makes up cartilage,
and bones. (e.g., tendon, ligament, urinary tract)
b. Loose Connective Tissue – made up of elastic fibers with few scattered thin collagen
fibers. This tissue fills the space between organs and serves as
packing materials surrounding the elements of other tissue.
This is found under the skin, around the nerves, the blood
vessels, and the heart and lungs. (e.g., Adipose tissue,
areolar tissue).
c. Liquid Connective Tissue – forms the blood and the lymph.
d. Fat Tissue - composed of cells in which large droplets of fat are stored.
2. Muscular Tissue – specialized cells with the ability to contract and produce movement.
a. Skeletal Muscles – are attached to the bones and move the skeleton.
b. Smooth Muscles – also known as the unstriated or the involuntary muscles. It is found in
the walls of many internal organs, such as the digestive organ,
except the heart.
c. Cardiac Muscles – it has a dark and light bands and can only found in the heart.
3. Nervous Tissue – responsible for the transmission of messages throughout the body. It is
found in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs.
4. Epithelium/ Epithelial Tissue – composed of one or more layers of cell that protects all
internal and external body surface. Epithelial tissue that

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 occurs on surfaces on the interior of that body is known as
endothelium.
a. Squamous Epithelium – composed of flat irregular shaped cells. They form the top layer
of the skin, the covering of the heart and lungs, and the lining
of the blood vessels.
b. Cuboidal Epithelium – basically cube shaped. They are found in the ducts of some
organs such as kidney, middle ear, and the brain.
c. Columnar Epithelium – are long, narrow, and tightly packed cells. They line the digestive
tract and the upper respiratory tract.

C. ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS

 Plant Organ System
1. The Shoot System
a. Stem - are usually above ground, grow upward, and bear leaves, which are attached
in regular pattern at nodes along the stem. The portions of the stem between
nodes are internodes. Stems increase in length through the activity of an apical
meristem at the stem tip. This growing part also gives rise to new leaves, which
surround and protect the stem tip, or apical bud, before they expand.
i. Branches
ii. Buds
b. Leaves – the primary photosynthetic organ of most plants. Leaves are usually flattened
blades that consist, internally mostly parenchyma tissue called mesophyll,
which is made up of loosely arranged cells with spaces between them. The
leaf blade is connected to the stem through a narrowed portion called the
petiole, or stalk, which consists mostly of vascular tissue
i. Flowers – including the carpels, stamens, petals, and sepals are all
modified leaves that have taken on reproductive functions.
2. The Root System
a. Roots – the function of roots is to anchor the plants substrate and to absorb water and
minerals. The epidermis is just behind the growing tip of roots and is covered
with root hairs, which outgrowths of the epidermal cells. The root hairs increase
the surface area of the roots and serve as the surface through which water
and nutrients absorbed. Internally, roots consist largely of xylem and phloem.
Thus, roots are important food storage. Such roots have an abundance
parenchyma tissue.
b. Rhizomes – found in ferns, poplars, ginger, turmeric, lotus, etc. It is a horizontal stem with
upright leaves containing vascular tissue.
i. Tubers – swollen underground stems in plants that store food.

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 Animal Organ System
1. Musculoskeletal System – this system is responsible for movement of an animal. Contraction
of skeletal muscle takes place within sacromere. An adult human
skeleton consists of about 206 bones:
a. Skull: 29 bones (including the bone of the face and the 3 tiny bones in each ear).
b. Spine: 26 bones called vertebrae.
c. Ribs and Breastbone: 25 bones.
d. Shoulder, Arms, and Hands: 64 bones.
e. Pelvis, Legs, and Feet: 62 bones. And etc.
 Joints – occurs when two bones meet.
Sacromere – a tiny unit that comprises the bands in striated muscles.
Consists of 2 kinds of protein.
 Actin
 Myosin

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2. Nervous System – is like a communication network that transmits information by electrical
signals called nerve cells or neurons.
 Neurons – basic cell of the nervous system. It carries nerve impulses, or
action potential from one part of the body to another.
 Cell Body – controls the growth of the nerve cell.
 Dendrites – short-branched fibers that carry impulses or messages
toward the cell body.
 Axon – also known as nerve fibers. It is typically long, thin fibers that
carries messages away from the cell body.
a. The Central Nervous System – is where the interneurons receive and pass on messages.
i. Brain – a moist and spongy organ with an average 3 lbs. in weight. It is the control
center of the CNS. It consists of 10 billion neurons.
 Cerebrum – large upper region of the brain. It is responsible for intelligence and
reasoning. Consists of deep folds, which is divided into many ridges
and depression. The outer part of the hemisphere is covered with a
thin tissue is called gray hemisphere. The rest of the part is made of
white matter.
 Right Hemisphere – controls the left side of the body. The more artistic
and creative side of the brain.
 Left Hemisphere – controls the right side of the body. The more
academic and logical side of the brain.
 Cerebellum – located beneath the back of part of the cerebrum. It coordinates
the muscle movement. Also, it helps maintain balance and posture.
It has an outer layer of gray matter and white matter in the brain’s
interior.
 Brain Stem – it is located below the cerebellum at the base of the skull, which
serves as the body’s life support system. It controls the heart beat,
breathing, and blood pressure.
 Medulla – it controls breathing, heart rate, and swallowing.
 Pons – it regulates the breathing and helps to control eye movement.
 Midbrain – also linked to vision and controls the movement of the eye
and constriction and dilation of the pupil.
 Thalamus – one of the smaller parts of the brain, which serves a relay station for
sense. Responsible in processing the information from the sense organ.
 Hypothalamus – regulates body temperature, use of water, blood pressure, and
release of regulatory chemicals.
 Hippocampus – small organ located within the brain’s medical temporal lobe. It is
associated mainly with long-term memory.

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 ii. Spinal Cord – is a rod of brain tissue that extends about 2/3 of the way down the back
just below the ribs. It is covered with 3 meninges and cerebrospinal
fluid. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column, which allows
the trunk to bend.
 Meninges – 3 membrane layers of protective tissue that covers the brain
and spinal cord.
 Dura Mater
 Arachnoid Mater
 Pia Mater
 Cerebrospinal Fluid – helps the brain cushion and protects the brain and
spinal cord.
b. The Peripheral Nervous Sytem – made up of cranial and spinal nerves. PNS carry
impulses to and from the CNS. Responsible for
providing sensory (afferent), information to the CNS
and carrying motor (efferent), and commands out
to the body’s tissues.
 Cranial Nerve – consists of 12 pairs. It connects the brain primarily with
sense organ, the heart, and other internal organs.
 Spinal Nerve – consists of 31 pairs. It carries impulses between spinal cord
and the skeletal muscles.
i. Somatic Nervous System – transmits impulses to and from the skeletal muscles and
sensory neurons of the skin. This is under conscious
voluntary control.
ii. Automatic Nervous System – controls involuntary functions involving glands, internal
organs, and other smooth muscle tissues.
 Sympathetic Nervous System – prepares body for action and stress. “Fight or
Fight.”
 Parasympathetic Nervous System – helps the body to conserve energy. “Rest or
Digest.”

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 3. Endocrine System – made up of a group of organs called endocrine glands. A gland is the
smallest living unit in the body that produces and releases chemical
substances called hormones. It is also known as the “system of checks
and balances.”

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
GLANDS HORMONES FUNCTIONS
The antidiuretic hormone increases the uptake of
Oxytocin Antidiuretic water in the kidney. The oxytocin is to control muscle
Hypothalamus
Horomone (ADH) contractions of uterus and milk production.it regulated
activities in the body, metabolism, and reproduction,
Adrenocorticotropic It stimulates adrenal gland to release specific
Hormone (ACTH) hormones.
Thyroid-Stimulating It stimulates the thyroid gland to release specific
Pituitary
Hormone (TSH) hormones.
Grown Hormone It regulates the growth of the skeletal system.
Prolactin It stimulates milk production in the mammary gland.
It controls “fight to fight” response. The adrenaline is
released when a person is frightened. It produces
Adrenaline specific hormones that affect the functioning of the
Adrenal (epinephrine) kidneys, metabolism, and response to the stressful
situations. It also secretes both male and female sex
hormones in both sexes.
Aldosterone It increases the uptake of sodium and water in kidney.
Thyroxine It regulates the rate of metabolism. Contains iodine.
Thyroid
Calcitonin Controls calcium level in the bloodstream.
It regulates the minerals (calcium and phosphorus) in
Parathyroid Parathyroid Hormone
the body---bloodstream.
Insulin It controls the level of sugar in the blood.
Pancreas
Glucogen It stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose.
It plays an important role in developing some of the
Estrogen
Thymus, Ovaries, body’s defenses against infections.
and Testes Testosterone These 2 reproductive glands play a vital role in
Progesterone reproduction.

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4. Cardiovascular – moves materials between body system, including oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, and waste products.
a. Heart – muscular organ that pumps blood to the different parts of the body. Its base lies
just below the 2nd ribs. A sac known as the pericardium encloses it. Wighes
about 300 g.

i. 3 layers of tissue from the wall of the heart:

 Epicardium – outer layer of the heart wall and the inner layer of the pericardium
that is closely adhered to the heart.
 Pericardial Cavity – cavity between the outer pericardium and the
epicardium. It is filled with pericardial fluid.
 Myocardium – is the middle part that is composed of cardiac muscle tissue.
 Endocardium – a thin layer of tissue that lines the muscular of the heart.
ii. 4 Chambers of the Heart:
 Septum – divides the heart into 4 chambers.
 Atria – thin-walled.
 Ventricle – thick-walled.
 Right Ventricle – receives oxygen-poor blood from the vena cava.
 Left Ventricle – receives blood from the pulmonary veins.
 Right Atrium – pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
 Left Atrium – pumps oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body.
iii. 2 Sets of Velves of the Heart:
 Valves – flaps of muscles that prevent blood from back flowing. It works to
ensure that blood will move only in one direction.
 Atrioventricular Valves – also known as cuspid valves, are located between the
atria and ventricles. When the ventricles contract, the
atrioventricular valves are closed to prevent blood from
blood flowing into the atria.
 Right Antriventicular Valve – tricuspid valve.
 Left Atrioventricular Valve – bicuspid or mitral valve.
 Semilunar Valves – located at the bases of the large vessels leaving the
ventricles. When the ventricle relax, the semilunar valves
close to prevent blood from flowing back into ventricles.
 Pulmonary Semilunar Valve – vavle between the right ventricle and
pulmonary artery.
 Aortic Semilunar Valve – valve between the right ventricle and aorta.

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iv. 3 Blood Vessels of the Heart:
 Artery – conveys oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle away from the heart.
EXCEPT for the pulmonary arteries, that transport oxygen-poor blood
from the right ventricle to the lungs. Arteries are elastic blood vessel.
 Pulmonary Artery – conveys blood pumped by the right ventricle to
the lungs for oxygenation. It branches into 2
connecting to each of the lungs.
 Aorta – largest artery.
 Arterioles – smallest artery that regulated blood flow to tissue capillaries.
 3 layers of tissue of the arterial walls:
1) Tunica Externa – composed of connective tissue containing various
amounts of collagenous fibers, which makes this layer
tough and strong.
2) Tunica Media – thickest layer, which composed of layers of smooth
muscle. It supports the entire blood vessel and changes
the diameter of the vessel to regulate the blood flow
and to handle high pressure of blood flow.
3) Tunica Intima – the innermost layer, which composed of connective
tissues and lined with simple squamous epithelium. It is in
direct contact with the blood flow.
 Vein – conveys oxygen-poor blood coming from all part of the body towards the
heart. EXCEPT for the pulmonary veins, which transmits oxygen-rich blood
because it has been oxygenated by the lungs.
 Vena Cava – largest vein.
 Superior Vena Cava – carries deoxygenated blood from the
upper half of the body.
 Inferior Vena Cava – carries deoxygenated blood from the
lower half of the body.
 Venules – smallest vein.
 3 layers of tissue of the vein:
1) Tunica Adventitia
2) Tunica Media – fewer elastic muscle compared to the Tunica Media of
artery, which can easily collapse when cut. It has a wider
lumen and is equipped with valves.
 Lumen – (plural: lumina) is the inside space of a tubular
structure.
3) Tunica Intima
 Capillaries – the smallest and the most numerous blood vessels. They form the
connection between the arterioles and venules. Capillaries are
one-cell lock, which allows the materials (gases, nutrients, and
waste products of metabolism between the blood and tissue cells)
to easily exchange.
 Movement of Substance:
1) Diffusion
2) Filtration
3) Osmosis
v. 3 Phases of Cardiac Cycle:
 Diastole Phase of All Chambers
During this phase, all the heart chambers are relaxed. The right atrium
receives blood from the vena cava. The left atrium receives blood from the
pulmonary vein. The atrioventricular valves are open, allowing the blood to flow

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 freely into the ventricles. The semilunar valves are closed preventing blood to
backflow in the ventricles. This phase lasts only about 0.4 seconds.
 Systole Phase of Atria
The sinoatrial node located within the walls of the right atrium contracts.
Its contraction signals the atria to contract only for about 0.1 seconds. This brief
contraction completely fills the ventricles with blood. The atrioventicular valve
are open while the semilunar valve are closed.
 Sinoatial Node (SA) – is also known as the peacemaker. it is a
neuromuscular tissue that maintains and
sets the rate at which the heart contracts.
Located at the walls of the right atrium.
 Systole Phase of Ventricles
The atrioventicular valves closes and the semilunar valves are open. The
left ventricles receives impulses from the Purkinje fibers and it contracts.
Contraction of the right ventricle forces deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the
pulmonary artery. Contraction of the left ventricle forces oxygenated blood to
the different parts of aorta. The aorta branches out to provide oxygenated
blood to all parts of the body.
vi. Sound of the Heart – the normal heart sound is described as “lub-dub.” It is also
called as heartbeat. Stethoscope can detect heart sound.
 Lub – is the first sound (S1) that’s usually softer in pitch and longer in duration. The
vibration of contraction of the ventricles and the closing of the
atrioventricle valves produces it.
 Dub – is the second sound (S2), which is higher in pitch and shorter in duration
because the cusps of the semilunar valves are more rigid than the mitrial
and tricuspid valves. The vibration of the closing of the semilunar valves
produces it.
b. Blood – is a liquid tissue and the circulating medium of the cardiovascular system. It
comprises 8% of the human body weight. An average adult has about 5 L of
blood. Its main function is to transport materials and to fight infections,
i. 2 Components:
 Plasma – is the liquid portion of the blood. It comprises about 55% of the blood
by weight. It’s a straw colored fluid consisting of about 92% of water, 8%
of blood proteins, and trace amounts of inorganic materials.
 Corpuscles – the formed elements suspended in the plasma, comprise 45% of the
blood weight. These elements are synthesized in the bone marrow
(myeloid tissue) of flat and long bones.
 Erythrocytes – are the biconcave in shape, elastic, and anucleated Red
Blood Cells (RBC). Its color is attributed by the hemoglobin,
an iron-containing molecule that can bind with oxygen. This is
the reason why RBC can transport gases throughout the
body.
 Anucleate – lack of cell nucleus.
 Leukocytes – are the amorphous and nucleated White Blood Cells (WBC). It is
the “soldier of the body” because they defend the body
against infectious diseases and foreign materials through
phagocytosis and/or secreting antibodies.
 Phagocytosis – ingesting and killing harmful organisms.
 Granulocytes – WBC with granules
1) Neutrophils – absorbs neutral kinds of stain.
2) Eosinophils – absorbs basic kinds of stain.
3) Basophils – absorbs acidic kinds of stain.

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  Agranulocytes – WBC without granules
1) Monocytes – largest type of leukocytes.
2) Lymphocytes
 Thrombocytes – are the irregular in shape Blood Platelets. They are not true
cells, but only a remnant of the mother cell in the myeloid
tissue. They disintegrate upon contact with air .
ii. Steps in Blood Clotting:
 When there is a cut, blood oozes out releasing the plasma and blood
corpuscles. The thrombocytes disintegrate upon contact with air.
 The disintegration of the platelets causes the change of the inactive bood
protein thromboplastinogen to thromboplastin, an active chemical substance
(enzymes).
 Thromboplastin plus calcium ions will catalyze the conversion of another inactive
chemical substance prothrombin to thrombin.
 Thrombin catalyzes the change of fibrinogen, a soluble blood protein into its
insoluble form called fibrin thread.
 Fibrin threads from a network over the injured part and seal it to prevent more
blood cells from coming out until a red mass of connective tissue forms on top of
it. This red mass of connective tissue is the clot that forms over the injured area.
 After sometime, the clot shrinks and a straw colored fluid called serum exudes
out of the injured part. This serum is the plod plasma, which lacks blood protein
fibrinogen in it.
iii. Blood Relationships – Austrian Scientist Karl Leinster discovered the 4 different blood
groups that characterized human population in 1900.
 Antigens – located on the plasma membrane of RBC.
 Antibodies – located in the blood plasma
ANTIGENS ANTIBODIES
BLOOD TYPE
(RBC) (BLOOD PLASMA)
A A B
B B A
AB A and B None
O None Anti A and B
 Blood Type O – Universal Donors. Can only receive from another type O.
 Blood Type AB – Universl Recipients. Can accept all the blood types.
iv. Blood Pressure – is the force exerted by the circulating blood upon the walls of the
blood vessels. It is also the force that moves the blood from the
heart to the different blood vessels. The pressure causes the
arteries to rhythmically stretch.
 BP is always given two numbers:
 Systolic Pressure – number above.
 Diastolic Pressure – number below.
 Pulse – stretching of the artery caused by the blood pressure
 Radial Artery – on the radial side of the wrist.
 Facial Artery – at the point of crossing the mandible.
 Carotoid Artery – on the side of the neck.
 Temporal Artery – at the temple above and to the outer side of the eyes.
 Brachial Artery – on the inner side of the biceps.
 Femoral Artery – on the groin.
 Popliteal Artery – behind the knee.
 Dorsalis Pedis Artery – at the anterosuperior aspect of the foot.

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 Arterial Pulse Points Cardiovascular System

4. Immune/ Lymphatic System – includes lymphatic vessels which permeate the body to fight
infections.
 Lymph – a clear fluid derived from plasma.
 Lymphocytes – small leukocyte.
 Lymph Vessel – branches that reach most of the body tissues. It works with the vein to
return fluid from the tissue.
 Lymph Nodes – are often referred as glands, but they are not true glands. It is a
lymphatic tissue in the body.
 Bone Marrow – is not a lymphatic tissue, but can be considered as part of the lymphatic
system because it is here that the B cell lymphocytes of the immune
system mature.
 Lymphatic Tissues:
 Thymus – located in the thoracic cavity under the neck. It is made up of 2 lobes of
lymphoid tissue. Each lobe has a medulla surrounded by a cortex. It is
large during childhood, but it gets smaller as human age.
 Medulla – inner region of an organ or tissue.
 Cortex – is where immature lymphocytes first go to become T cells.
 Spleen – located in the upper-left part of the abdomen. It’s tucked up under the ribs.
It filters blood, which removes old or damaged RBC though phagocytosis
by macrophages. It detects viruses and bacteria and triggers the release
of lymphocytes.
 Tonsils – masses of lymphoid tissue found in the back of the throat and nasal cavity.
Produces lymphocytes and antibodies.
 Appendix – is a pouch of lymphatic tissue that’s attached to the large intestine.
Located at the lower-right area of the abdomen. Releases mucus into
the large intestine.
 Peyer’s Patches – part of the Gut Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT). Located in the
mucosa and submucosa throughout the small intestine, although
they’re more concentrated in the ileum. It contains mostly B cells.

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  Lamina Propria Lymphocytes – type of GALT, located in the mucosa of small
intestine and contain mostly B cells.
 Intraepithelial Lymphocytes – type of GALT, located between the cells of epithelial
layer of small intestine, between the tight junctions.

5. Integumentary/ exocrine System – comprises the skin and its appendages acting to
protect the body from various kinds of damage.
 Dermis – inner layer of the skin.
 Sweat Glands – excrete waste and cool the body through evaporation of fluid
droplets.
 Sebaceous Glands – secrete oily, waxy substance called sebum that lubricates and
waterproofs the epidermis
 Blood Vessels – supplement temperature regulation.
 Nerve Endings – sense receptors
 Bases of the hair and nails.
 Epidermis – outer layer of the skin, which its surface is made of dead cells that sheds
from the body..
 Pigments
 Pores
 Ducts
 Hairs
 Nails

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6. Digestive/ Excretory System – consists of series of organs and structures that help break
down food and absorb nutrients.
 2 phases of Digestion:
i. Mechanical Phase – process of chewing.
ii. Chemical Phase – food is acted upon chemical substance called enzymes, which
convert food into simplest equivalents that the body cells can
utilize.
 2 Parts of Digestion:
i. Alimentary Tract
 Mouth – food is mechanically and chemically digested. Food that enters mouth
is lubricated and chewed until it forms into a ball-shaped mass called
bolus.
 Teeth – adult mouth has 32 teeth except the wisdom teeth. Use for breaking
down the food.
 Gingiva – also known as the gums, surrounds the teeth and covers the jaw
bone.
 Tongue – is a muscular organ that mixes food with saliva and aids in
swallowing. Contains taste buds.
 Hard Palate – helps facilitate the movement of food toward the larynx.
 Soft Palate – responsible for closing off the nasal passages when swallowing.
 Uvula – serves to keep the throat well lubricated.

 Pharynx – also known as the throat, is located immediately posterior to the

mouth. It is about 5-6 in. long. It is the common passage way for
digestion and respiration.
 Esophagus – muscular tube through which food passes toward the stomach.
 Stomach – is the “expanded organ,” a muscular, elastic, pear-shaped organ
that is about 30.5 cm. long and 15.2 cm. wide.
 Rugae – stomach folds.
 Gastric Glands – within the rugae.
 Chyme – semifluid partially digested food.
 3 functions:
1) Storing of the swallowed food.
2) Mixing of food with digestive juice.
3) Conveying its contents slowly into the small intestine.
 Cells that Produces the Composition of Gastric Juice
1) Mucus-Secreting Cells – secretes alkaline mucus that protects stomach
lining from stress and corroding effects of acid.
2) Parietal Cells – secretes hydrochloric acid.
3) Chief Cells – also known as zymogenic cells, secretes the protein-
digesting enzymes.
4) G Cells – secretes hormone gastrin.
 Small Intestine – considered as the organ of complete digestion and absorption.
It secretes enzymes that changes food materials into their
simplest components. It is considered as the longest organ of the

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 digestive system (approximately 6m long and 2.5cm in diameter
when stretched).
 Duodenum – shortest and the most fixed part of the small intestine.
 Jejunum – middle and freely movable portion of the small intestine.
 Ileum – longest and highly coiles part of the small intestine.
 Large Intestine – also known as the colon. About 1.5m long and 5cm in diameter.
 3 Functions:
1) Temporary stores fecal materials.
2) Absorbs vitamins produced by certain symbolic bacteria in colon.
3) Reabsorbs water from the undigested residue.
 3 Parts:
1) Ascending Colon – the primary part of the large intestine.
 Cecum – proximal part of ascending colon. A blind sac that
bears the vermiform appendix.
2) Transverse Colon – the middle part of the large intestine.
3) Descending Colon – the last part of the large intestine.
 Sigmoid Colon – S-shaped distal end of descending colon.
 Rectum – located at the distal end of sigmoid colon. About 8in. long and serves
as a warehouse for the undigested residue or feces.
 Anus – end part of the rectum that functions as the exit point for fecal materials.
ii. Accessory Organs
 Salivary Glands – secretes saliva that lubricates food.
 Saliva – contains enzymes that helps in chemical digestion.
Combination of watery fluid (serous fluid) and mucus.
 3 types of Salivary Glands:
1) Parotid
2) Sublingual
3) Submandibular
 Liver – largest organ in the body. Located at the upper-right of the abdomen. It
produce bile from bilirubin, a waste product forms when RBC are being
destroyed.
 2 Functions of Bile:
1) Emulsification of fats
2) Neutralization of the chyme from the stomach
 Gall Bladder – stores bile until it is needed for digesting fatty foods in duodenum.
 Pancreas – large, elongated gland that lies posterior to the stomach. It is a
yellowish organ about 18cm long and 4cm wide. It functions both as
exocrine and endocrine gland.

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7. Respiratory System - supplies oxygen to the body through breathing, which is the process
of drawing air into the lungs (inhalation) and its corresponding
expulsion (exhalation).
 Nose – gateway of respiratory system. The nasal cavity is lined with cilia and mucus
membrane.
 Cilia – tiny hairs
 Mucus – sticky fluid that moisten and warm the air that is breathed,
and trap dirt and other particles
 Pharynx – narrow space located right after the mouth and nose.
 Nasopharynx – part of pharynx that is related to respiration.
 Larynx – the voice box. Organ that connects pharynx and trachea and contains vocal
chord.
 Vocal Chord – produces sound when vibrated by air.
 Trachea – “wind pipe.” It is a narrow and cylindrical tube about 5in long located right
after the larynx. Composed of rings of cartilage and is lined with mucus
membrane. It functions as the passageway of oxygen.
 Cartilage – connective tissue.
 Lungs – are the primary, cone-shaped, organs of the respiratory system that is
surrounded by rib cages.
 Pleura – 2 layered membrane that covers lungs.
 Hilum – slit like opening of the inner surface of lungs where each primary
bronchus inserts.
 Bronchi – (singular: bronchus) 2 small tubes connected to the trachea.
 Primary Bronchi – first division of the trachea, which inserts the lungs
 Bronchial Tree – divisions and subdivisions of bronchi to the lungs.
 Bronchioles – smallest subdivisions that lacks with cartilage tissues. They are less than
1mm in diameter.
 Air Sacs – looks “bunches of grapes”. Considered as the functioning system of lungs.
 Alveoli – (singular: alveolus) pocketing air sacs. Surrounded by capillaries.
 Diaphragm – sheet of smooth muscles located below the lungs.

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8. Reproductive System – allows the production of offspring.
 Male Reproductive System
 Vas Deferens – is the tube that receives sperm from the epididymis of each testicles.
It is about 18in long and loop over the bladder.
 Urethra – is the tube that passes through the penis to the outside of the body, which
carries urine and sperm. It prevents mixing of sperm and urine through the
valve within.
 Penis – soft, tubular organ that hangs in front of the body. External organ of male
which sperm are delivered into female’s body.
 Erectile Tissue – grows and becomes stiff due to increase of blood flow.
 Scrotum – pouch of skin that hangs behind the penis. They are the houses of testes
and protects the sperm.
 Testes – made up of coiled tubules, which sperms are produced. They also produce
testosterone.
 Sperm Cell – fertilizes the egg cell to become a matured ovum.
 Semen – mixture of nutrients and sperm cells.
 Epididymes – coiled J-shaped tube located at the back of each testicles. Stores
sperm for 2-4 days.
 Seminal Vesicles – secretes fluid that nourishes sperm.
 Ejaculatory Ducts – tubes that are lined with muscles that contracts to force semen
out of the body during ejaculation.
 Prostate – a gland that surround the bladder that secretes prostate fluid, a
component of semen.

Male Reproductive System Parts of a Sperm Cell

 Female Reproductive System

 Ovaries – the 2 ovaries are small and almond-shaped organs. They secrete estrogen
and progesterone to produce mature egg cell.
 Fallopian Tube – 2 very fine tubes that extended from each ovary into the uterus.
They contain egg cells until fertilization, and they provide
passageway leading the sperm to the egg and the fertilized egg
to the uterus.

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  Uterus – it is the womb. Is a hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located between 2
ovaries. It is here where a fertilized egg will develop and grow into a baby.
However, if the egg remains unfertilized, the uterus sheds, then leave the
body as menstrual charge.
 Endometrium – is the tissue lining the inner cavity of the uterus.
 Cervix – a narrow structure within an inch-long canal connecting the lower end of
the uterus to the upper portion of the vagina.
 Vagina – it is the birth canal, a hollow tube leading from the cervix to the outside of
the body. The wall is elastic, which allows it to expand during childbirth or
sexual intercourse.
 Vulva – external genitalia.
 Mons Veneris – is the hairy skin-covered pad of fat over the pubic bone.
 Labia Minora – small lips covered with modified skin.
 Labia Majora – large lips covered with pubic hair.
 Clitoris – small almond-shaped erectile tissue located below junction of minora.
 Vaginal Orifice – opening of the vagina.

Female Reproductive System Vulva Diagram

 Phases of Menstrual Cycle

 Follicular Phase – the endomentrium breaks down;1-5 days
 Ovulation – in the ovary, the follicle matures and rebuilds the endometrium; 6-13
days. Secondary oocytes released from the ovary; 14 days.
 Luteal Phase – formation of the corpus luteum, endometriuem thickens and
develops; 15-28 days.
 Corpus Luteum – yellow hormone-secreting sturucture that develops in
an ovary after an ovum had been discharge but
degenerates after a few days unless pregnancy has
begun.
 Process of Fertilization and Development of Embryo
 1st Week of Development – After the fertilization, the zygote travels in the oviduct to
get nutrients from maternal secretions, then it’ll
undergo the process of mitotic cell divisions, which then
form into cleavages. When it reaches the uters,
cleavages will transform into a solid group of cells
called morula and later will develop into a blastocyst.

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 Once the blastocyst is formed, it begins to adhere itself
to the uterine lining.
 Zygote – is a eukaryotic cell formed by a fertilization between 2 gametes.
 Morula – solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum.
 Blastocyst – structure formed in the early development of mammals.
 Throphoblast – surface layer of blastocyst.
 Implantation – process of attachment.
 Embryo – is the initial development stage of human after fertilization.
 Placenta – bond that holds the embryo to the wall of the uterus.
 Umbilical Cord – embryo’s lifeline, which transport oxygen and food from the
mother through the placenta towards the embryo.
 Amniotic Sac – sac of thin sheet tissue.
 Amniotic Fluid – where the embryo floats, which serves as the shock absorber
and helps the embryo to maintain its temperature.
 Fetus – developed embryo after 2 months, which is about 1.2in (3cm) long. The fetus
grows with the help of placenta. At 4 months, the fetus starts to move
around a lot and can be recognized. At 7 months, the baby’s eyelashes are
formed and eyelids can be recognized. At 9 months, all the organs are
develop and the baby is ready for delivery.

9. Urinary System – also known as “renal system,” that cleans dissolved waste products from
the blood and excreted them.
 Kidneys – are pair of bean-shaped organs found along the posterior wall of the
abdominal cavity. It is surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds and
protects them from physical damage. It filters metabolic wastes, excess ions,
and chemicals from the blood to form urine.
 Ureters – pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. Are about
10-12in long.
 Ureterovesical Valves – prevents urine to back flow.
 Urinary Bladders – sac-like hollow organ used for the storage of urines. The walls stretch
to hold anywhere from 600-800mL of urine.

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CELL DIVISION

A. Mitosis – cell division that produces 2 daughter cells in each succession that are roughly identical
copies of the parental cells before it starts to gorw.
1. Prophase – each chromosome gradually condenses and thickens, and becomes more visible
even under an ordinary light microscope; the nuclear membrane and nucleus
gradually dissociate and spindle fibers radiating from 2 opposite poles are formed.
2. Metaphase – each chromosomes moves toward an imaginary line, called the equatorial
plate, that divides the cell into 2; the chromosomes are perpendicular to the
long axes of the spindle fibers.
3. Anaphase – the kinetochore that joins 2 sister chromatids tgether splits and each chromatid or
single stranded chromosome moves toward opposite poles.
4. Telophase – the single stranded chromosomes relax into the extended state upon reaching
the poles; the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reform in each pole.
Cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasms, usually occurs at the latter part of this
stage.
B. Meiosis – divides cells with haploid chromosomes.
 Haploid – half set of chromosomes in an organism.
 Meiosis I – concentrates on reducing the diploid chromosomal number to haploid.
1. Prophase I - nuclear membrane breaks down and nucleolus disappear. The spindle fibers
begin to form and single chromosome strands appear and double up.
2. Metaphase I – 2 sister chromatids pair with its homologous sister chromatids. Crossing over
the homologue pair and spindle fibers completely forms.
3. Anaphase I – homologoues of each pair split and move to the opposite sides, the
chromosomes number on each side is half the original number.
4. Telophase I – the nucleus appear and the pinching f the cell membrane is completely so
there are 2 new cells.
 Meiosis II – focuses on producing 4 daughter cells, each carrying haploid chromosomes.
1. Prophase II – spindle fibers begin to form, while the nuclear membrane breaks
2. Metaphase II – the chromosomes align at the center and spindle fibers form completely.
3. Anaphase II – the chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart and move toward
opposite sides.
4. Telophase II – the nuclear membrane appears and the membrane pinches completely to
form new cells.

HEREDITY
Process of transmitting biological traits from parent to offspring through genes. Also
referred as the inherited characteristics of an individual.

 Gregor Johann Mendel – “Father of Heredity.”

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 Classification of Carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharides – are simple sugars, containing 1 sugar unit
i. Trioses - contain 3 Carbon atoms; MF: C3H6O3
ii. Tetroses – contain 4 Carbon atoms; MF: C4H8O4
iii. Pentoses – contain 5 Carbon atoms; MF: C5H10O5
iv. Hexoses – contain 6 Carbon atoms; MF: C6H12O6
 Aldose – contains an aldehyde group; glucose, mannose, and galactose.
 Ketose – contains a ketone group; fructose
2. Oligosaccharides – composed of 2 to 10 monosaccharide unit linked by glycosidic bond. It
yields 2 or more monosaccharide unit on hydrolysis.
 Glycosidic Bond - bond between saccharides.
 Hydrolysis – splitting of larger molecule into smaller subcomponent which use
water as one of the reactant.
– catabolic process (breaking down).
i. Disaccharides – yields two monosaccharides either or unlike when hydrolyzed.
 Reducing Sugars – sugars that can be oxidized by mild oxidizing agents.
a. Maltose
b. Lactose
c. Cellobiose
 Non-reducing Sugar – sugars that can’t be oxidized by mild oxidizing agents.
a. Sucrose
3. Penultimate Carbon – 2nd to the last carbon of a configurated sugar.
i. Trisaccharides – yields 3 monosaccharide unit on hydrolysis; MF: C18H32O21
ii. Tetrasaccharides – yields 4 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis; MF: C24H43O21
4. Polysaccharides - composed of 11 monosaccharides and up.
i. Energy Storage Polysaccharides
 Starch
 Glycogen
 Inulin
 Dextran
ii. Structural Polysaccharides
 Cellulose
 Pectin
 Agar
 Chitin
 Alginic Acid
 Fatty Acids – carboxylic acid consisting of hydrocarbon chain.
 Ester Bond – bond which links the glycerol to fatty acids.
 Glycerides – are esters of fatty acids and alcohol
1. Fats - stored excess food in the body.
i. Saturated Fats – is the unhealthy fatty acid with single bond between all of its carbon
atoms. It is solid at room temperature.
ii. Unsaturated Fats – is the plant base healthy fatty acid that have one or more double
bond between its carbon atoms. It is liquid at room temperature.
2. Oils - are liquid at room temperature
3. Waxes - serves as protective body covering to organisms. They make plant and animal
tissues water-resistant.
 Triglyceride – main energy storage. It is one of the principle group in lipids. It is made up of
glycerol and 3 fatty acids.

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