NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY
MILITARY COLLEGE OF SIGNALS
 

    

Digital-Communication-Systems
Research-Report

Software-Defined-Radio 
Submitted By:
ZAIN SHABBIR

Submitted To:
Prof. Col. Raja Iqbal

COURSE : BETE-54-C
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Software-Defined-Radio 
 
 
 
Table of Content… 
• Abstract
• Introduction
• History and Back-Ground
• Basic-Concept
• Block-Diagram of Architecture
• System Explanation
• SDR Software
• Applications
• Advantages/Disadvantages
• Future Trends
• Conclusions

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Abstract: 
                          Software
Defined Radio has emerged as a focus of both academic
research and commercial development for future wireless systems. This paper
reviews the foundation concepts of the Software Radio. It’s hardware schemes
and application fields. It also Explains the Advantages and Disadvantages and
what the Future holds for the Technology.
1. Introduction:
A radio is a system with technology for transferring information wirelessly by means of
electromagnetic radiation in the past a radio was composed of many discrete circuits and
electronic devices and it had a fixed functionality which could not be modified after
manufacturing.
For example,
With a traditional radio one could not turn a commercial FM receiver into a
digital radio receiver. However, nowadays with the Software Defined Radio (SDR) one can
buy an USB DVB-T2 dongle designed for reception of terrestrial TV in a computer and use
it as a GPS receiver, or to decode ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast)
signals and obtain the positions of all the planes in the nearby.
This shows how a SDR outperforms a traditional radio in terms of flexibility and
reconfigurability. According to the Wireless Innovation Forum a SDR is a radio in which all
or part of the functions of the physical layer are defined by software. The increase in the
power of the processors and FPGAs, the reduction of its price and consumption and the
emergence of various integrated RF transceiver circuits made it possible for this technology
to grow in recent years extending from military and research to commercial and amateur
systems. Figure 1 shows a simplified block diagram of a SDR.

Figure 1. Possible design of a software defined radio

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In the middle we have an Analog to Digital Convertor (ADC) which transforms real world
analogue signals into digital and discrete signals which a digital circuit can process and a
Digital to Analog Convertor (DAC) which transforms digital samples into an analogue
waveform to feed the Radio Frequency (RF) stage which prepares the signal to be
transmitted by the antenna. The last component of a SDR is typically a General Purpose
Processor (GPP) where all the digital signal processing takes place. Therefore, it is possible
to modify many parameters of the physical layer of a system (or even change all the physical
layer!) since it is software defined. In the same way as we install different programs or
applications in a computer or smartphone and we give it a new functionality, changing the
software which is run in the GPP we can convert the radio into a communication system
which follows any given standard as Bluetooth, WiFi, FM, DVB-T2, GSM, LTE, etc., or
even in a system with an arbitrary user-defined waveform as is sometimes done in research,
for example.
A SDR, due to its flexibility, is considered an enabling technology for advanced
communication systems which require some type of reconfiguration capability as adaptive or
cognitive radio.
2. History and Back-Ground:
The Software Defined Radio (SDR) is a design paradigm for wireless communications
devices. Its creator, Joseph Mitola, defined the term in the late 90’s(1984) as an identifier of
a class of radios that could be reprogrammed and reconfigured through software.
Mitola envisioned an ideal Software Defined Radio, whose physical components were only

an antenna and an Analog Digital Converter (ADC) on the receiver side. Likewise, the
transmitter would have a Digital Analog Converter (DAC) and a transmitting antenna. The
rest of the functions would be handled by reprogrammable processors.
But the Ideal SDR Imagined in the 90’s is still not achievable, and will not be likely for some
time, the term SDR is used to describe a viable device that is primarily defined by software,
but includes significant hardware components.

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3. Basic-Concept:
The basic concept of the SDR software radio is that the radio can be totally configured
or defined by the software. In an ideal world the incoming signal is immediately converted to
a digital format, and the signal is then processed totally digitally.

4. Block-Diagram of Architecture: 

5. System Explanation:
In this section, a theoretical review of hardware differences between traditional and SDR
receivers is performed at first, explaining also how the software defined transmission takes
place.

A. Traditional Receiver

A traditional or typical receiver, besides the classic demodulation, performs three other
operations:

(1) carrier frequency tuning to select the desired signal

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(2) filter to separate it from others received

(3) amplification to compensate transmission losses.

Moreover, an amplification step is commonly placed before the demodulation block to carry
the signal to an acceptable level for the demodulator circuitry.

Most traditional receivers have used conventional heterodyne schemes for almost a century.
The super heterodyne internals blocks are shown in Figure.2 . A basic understanding of the
structure is necessary to distinguish this conception from the new SDR receiver.

Figure.2 A Super-Heterodyne Radio Receiver

In the previous scheme, after the signal enters through the antenna, it is typically amplified
by an RF stage that operates only in the frequencies of interest region. Then, the signal is
passed to the mixer which receives the local oscillator contribution by its other input. The
local oscillator's frequency is set by the radio's tuning control. The mixer is in charge of
translating the signal to the Intermediate Frequency (IF).

Typically, the oscillator's frequency is set to a value that ensures that its difference from the
desired signal's frequency is equal to the IF. For example, if someone would like to receive a
FM station at 100.7MHz and the IF were 10.7MHz, the local oscillator should be placed at
90MHz.The operation is known as down conversion.

The next stage is a bandpass filter that attenuates every signal except a specific portion of the
spectrum. The bandwidth of this stage limits the band width of the signal that's being
received. Common center frequencies for the IF stage are 455 kHz and 10.7 MHz for
commercial AM and FM respectively. Likewise, for commercial FM, the bandwidth is
approximately 100 kHz and for AM is above 5 kHz, consistent with the channel spacing
that's 200kHz for AM and 10 kHz for FM .

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At the end, the demodulator recovers the original modulating signal from the IF amplifier's
output employing one of several alternatives. For example, for AM an envelope detector is
used, and for FM a frequencies discriminator. Further processing of the signal depends on
the purpose for which the receiver is intended. In a common home radio, the demodulated
output is passed to an audio amplifier that is connected to a speaker.

B. SDR Receiver

Figure 3. shows the block diagram of a SDR receiver. At first, the RF tuner converts the
analog signal to IF, performing the same operation that the first three blocks of the super
heterodyne receiver. Up to this point the two schemes converge.

Figure 3. Block Diagram of the SDR Receiver

Next, the IF signal is passed to the ADC converter in charge of changing the signal's domain,
offering digital samples at its output. The samples are feed to the following stage's input
which is a Digital Down Converter (DDC). The DDC is commonly a monolithic chip and it
stands as the key part of the SDR system.

It consists of three main components:

(1) a digital mixer

(2) a digital local oscillator

(3) a Finite Impulse Response (FIR) low-pass filter.

The components operation is similar to their analog counterparts. The digital mixer and the
local oscillator shift the IF digital samples to baseband, while the FIR low-pass filter limits
the bandwidth of the final signal. For the implementation of each of its parts, the DDC
includes a high number of multipliers, adders and shift registers.

Observe that the signals are transferred to their baseband equivalent at the digital mixer's
output by the disintegration into the I and Q counter phase components. If the tuning of the
digital local oscillator is modified, the desired signal can be shifted away or towards the
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point where it reaches 0Hz. This variation, together with the bandwidth adjustment of the
low-pass filter, defines which part of the reception is treated as a useful signal.

Another procedure, known as decimation, is commonly performed for reducing the sampling
frequency or sample rate. Thus, the new sampling frequency in baseband results from the
division of the original sampling frequency by an N factor, called decimation factor. The
final sample rate can be as little as twice the highest frequency component of the useful
signal, as proposed by the well-known Nyquist theorem. Furthermore, practical approaches
have shown that reduction can be applied up to an extra 20% without significantly affecting
the quality of the result . This can be expressed numerically as is done in Equation-(1).

Where fb is the frequency at baseband, fs is the sampling frequency, N is the decimator factor
and fb2 is the new calculated baseband frequency after the decimation is applied.

Finally, the baseband samples are passed to the Digital Signal Processing (DSP) block,
where task such as demodulating and decoding are performed, among others.

The PDS block can be implemented in an FPGA if the system is to be adapted to a specific
application. However, PDS stages are commonly found within a general-purpose computer
in the form of specialized software if versatility is to be added to the solution.

C. SDR Transmitter

Although the most common SDR devices are receivers, the technology also includes
transmission schemes. The price of a SDR receiver can be as low as 3000 PKR, while the
cost of SDR transmitters/ receivers typically exceeds 45000 PKR. The SDR transmitter's
structure is explained below.

SDR transmitters receive a baseband signal as an input, typically generated by a DSP step as
it is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Block Diagram of SDR Transmitter

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The first block is a Digital Up Converter (DUC) which transfers the baseband signal to IF.
The DAC that follows transform the samples to the analog domain. Next, the RF converter
shifts the signal towards higher frequencies. Finally, the signal is amplified and directed to
the antenna.

Within the DUC, the Interpolation Filter is responsible for raising the baseband signal's
sample rate to match the operating frequency of the components that follow. Therefore, it
performs the Decimator's opposite operation in the receiver's architecture. Then, the digital
mixer and the local oscillator shift the samples to IF, the shift being controlled by the local
oscillator.

6. SDR Software:
While the hardware components are essentials in the SDR conception, the definition of the
paradigm it-self points out the necessity of complementary dedicated software. In this
section, a description of the main software tools that allows the SDR signal manipulation is
offered.

A. SDR Frameworks

In order to operate a SDR device, from a personal computer or from an FPGA running
Digital Signal Processing, software is needed for enabling the interaction. However, before
developing software, a framework must be created providing low-level interface functions.
Several attempts have been made since1980. Most major efforts are listed below.

 The Software Radio (1980-1985)

 National Instruments - LabVIEW (1986 present)
 SPEAKeasy I (1992-1995)
 MIT- SpectrumWare (1994-1999)
 SPEAKeasy II (1995-1997)
 Joint Tactical Radio System (1997- present)
 IRIS (1999 - present)
 (2001- present)
 GNU Radio (2001 - present)
 Flex-Radio SDR-1000 (2002-present)
 SDR Framework (2002)
 Agile Radio (2003)
 CallRadio (2005 - present)
 Rice - WARP (2006 - present)
 High Performance SDR (2006 - present)
 Virginia Tech - Open Source SCA Implementation (2006 - present)
 Lyrtech - Small Form Factor SDR (2007 present)
 Virginia Tech - Cognitive Engine (2007 present)
 HYDRA (2007)
 P-HAL (2008 - present)
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 Microsoft - SORA (2009 - present)
 Karlsruhe Institute of Technology - MATLAB / Simulink/ USRP (2009)
 MathWorks - MATLAB / Simulink / USRP (2011 - present)

Though the above list is not complete, it illustrates the increasing popularity of the SDR
technology. Projects grouped by year are show in Figure 5. Obviously, the number of
emerging frameworks has increased since 2000.

Figure. 5 Number of Frameworks Implemented By Year

7. Applications:
Once the SDR device is in communication with the personal computer, one can start looking
for uses of the technology, offering specific solutions. The concept of unified platform and
the ability to correct errors in real time are the classic applications of SDR. However, studies
have identified other significant applications, such as: Dynamic Spectrum Positioning,
Opportunity Driven Multiple Access (ODMA), Spectrum Regulation and Cost Reduction
(some SDR implementations are more cheaper than its analog counterpart) .

A little beyond its traditional applications, the SDR philosophy begins to dawn on high-
impact areas within telecommunications. This is the case of Driver Assistance GPS signals
Reception, HF Propagation Analysis, Interpretation of Cellular Technology Emissions
particularly the OFDM modulation, and the Identification of Radio Frequency Emissions.

In other visionary fields, SDR experiments have provided encouraging results that motivate
to continue the investigations. Potential applications are being found in areas as diverse as
prototypes development, microscopic investigations of the strength of the magnetic
resonance, aviation tests, evaluation of multi-path communications, broadcast transmissions
in multi-media mobile environments, cooperative wireless networks diversity, crossings
prototypes between wireless networks layer, quantum optical communications and
particularly in cognitive radio research.

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1) SDR-Sharp

The first software is called SDR-Sharp and displays in real time all the readings that is
capable to generate the SDR device, which it translates to 3.2 MHz in the case of the Teratec
RTL2831. As shown in Figure 6.

it offers of 4 main windows to the user. The top one shows the spectrum displayed in real
time, in which three FM radio stations are visible in the selected example. The next window,
known as waterfall chart, illustrates the signal's time behavior showing the most intense
emissions in warmer colors.

Figure 6. Real-Time Spectrum Visualization

The two lower windows are in charge of plotting the selected bandwidth inside the full
spectrum displayed in the top window. To the left, the IF spectrum can be perceived. To the
right, the frequency distribution of the voice demodulated signal is illustrated. In addition,
the transmission's acoustic content can be heard if a speaker is connected to the computer.
Obviously, in the example above, the demodulation scheme used a FM demodulator. In
addition, the software allows demodulation of the AM (Amplitude Modulation), CW
(Continuous Wave), USB (Upper Side Band), LSB (Lower Side Band) and DSB (Double
Side Band) signals.

Understanding how SDR-Sharp works, some applications can be identified. They are shown
below:

 Cheap Radio Receiver: A general purpose computer may become a cheap radio
receiver if a SDR device is connected to it. SDR-Sharp works well on single core
2GHz computers with at least 1GBof RAM. However, there are some operations that
consume more resources.
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 Interference Detection: Not all emissions are kept within the frequency region
specifically conceive for them. Some devices let escape signals, resulting from
undesired intermodulation, which can interfere with other radio users. As it is visible
in Figure .7, SDR-Sharp is a very useful tool when is necessary to detect an
interference.

Figure .7 Interference Produced by RF Transmission

 Spectrum Relocation: A SDR receiver allows exploring a wide range of frequencies so

that not used or not assigned spaces can be found, as well as frequencies with very low
access. This type of studies allows for transmission relocation, optimizing the
consumed bandwidth.
 Spectrum Regulation and Automatic Transmission's Identification: Unfortunately,
radio users do not always maintain discipline. Sometimes emissions occur in
unauthorized bands. Real time monitoring is achievable trough SDR-Sharp. In
addition, such a versatile tool induces the implementation of Systems for Automatic
Transmission's Identification. Emissions can be distinguished not only by its
bandwidth, but by its cyclic variation and specific characteristics such as the tail's
shape of the signal. Note that the automatic identification cannot be executed directly
with SDR-Sharp. New software needs to be created.
 Checking Repeaters Systems: If the power receiver from several repeaters is
periodically measured in a common geographic point, damage, interference or
disruptions can be detected. Similarly, if a SDR transmitter was available, or a
conventional radio device with a similar functionality, low rate or probably down sites
availability could be checked. Furthermore, with the employment of frameworks as
the mentioned above it's possible to automate the process.

2) RTLSDR Scanner

Another very useful software is RTLSDR Scanner which has the characteristic of being cross
platform as it has been tested on Windows 7 and 8, Ubuntu 12 and 13 and Macintosh
Systems like Leopard and Mountain Lion. In short, the application is a spectrum analyzer

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that performs consecutive scans and allows to gather data and to make comparisons. Unlike
SDR-Sharp, it does not operate at real time.

Figure .8 shows a measurement made with RTLSDR Scanner. In it, the computation of the
received power's average after performing several scans over a1 MHz bandwidth is revealed.
Note that a specific area may be selected if the user wishes to obtain numerical values for the
Maximum Power, Low Power and Average Value.

Figure. 8 Spectrum Analyzing with RTLSDR Scanner

The plotted results can be saved in different formats and comparisons can be performed over
them to analyze the measurements. One of the comparisons is shown in Figure .9. where data
from consecutive scans is plotted. The colored area represents the signal's variation. For
example, the peak to the extreme left is colored, which means that the maximum is not
constant but appears at intervals in this area. By contrast, the peak to the extreme right is not
colored, indicating that the local maximum hasn't fall throughout the all observation period.

Figure .9 Plotting the Difference between Consecutives Scans

Taking advantage of the benefits offered by RTLSDR Scanner, some applications can be
identified. They are show below:

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 Measurement of the repeaters' electrical parameters: RTLSDR Scanner allows
checking if the signal parameters offered by manufacturers are actually implemented
by their equipment. Transmitted power and frequency deviation can be easily checked,
as well as the appearance of harmonics frequency bands near to the one intended for
the communication.
 Noise Characterization by Bands: By exploring the spectrum, qualified personal may
analyze the noise level of each band obtaining as a result the possibility of making
adjustments in the propagation calculation methods.
 Spectrum Intruders Identification: Scanning silence zones, unauthorized transmissions
can be detected.

3) SDR for Android

One of the platforms for which SDR applications have been developed is Android. The
software SDR Touch turns the phone in to a SDR receiver whose range fluctuates between
50MHz and 2 GHz in AM, FM and SSB depending on the used hardware. There is also
another software called Pocket HAM Bands Transceiver who allows the remote listening of
SDR receivers.

Figure. 10 SDR Touch Interface

4) SDR in the Web

SDR's perspectives in the future are many and varied, but its application is particularly
important when Internet connected systems are brought into consideration. From this point
of view, there are two fundamental approaches:

1. Transmission over Internet of own SDR signals.

2. Free access to foreigners SDR in remote locations.

For the transmission of a local own signal (approach 1) the software RTL_TCP may be used.
With two PCs, a hub and SDR RTL 2831 the possibility to visualize data received through
the network was verified. However, when a laptop was added as a third active element, the
disadvantage of the scheme became evident: only one remote host can receive the signal at a
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given time. There are two solutions to the problem: conditioned by the necessities of each
particular user. However, if the conditions are given, the second-one is recommended over
the first.

 Place several SDR devices in a centralized server so each remote may have access to a
different one. This can be made because of the low prices of the SDR hardware
available on the market. However, note that the alternative requires some centralized
service that should act as a judge and rule the access to various devices connected.
 Establish a Linux server responsible for handling requests to a single device. This
application already exists.

Both options are viable, being the selection conditioned by the necessities of each particular
user. However, if the conditions are given, the second-one is recommended over the first.

Regarding the free access to foreigners SDR in remote locations (approach 2), it needs to be
let clear that this alternative is equally or more valuable than the previous. Worldwide, there
are a lot of SDR devices ruled by amateur users and nonprofit associations. The geographical
location of all 79 stations is provided In Figure 11.

Figure.11 SDR Receivers Around The World

You may notice, the majority of the receivers are located in Europe, although there are
stations in all continents. The operating bands and the signal's quality offered by the
deployed devices differ from one location to another, understandable fact if the spontaneous
nature of the network is considered. However, by accessing several terminals, multiple bands
can be covered, especially in high density areas.

The SDR Internet transmission possibilities shown above leads to consider the following
applications of the technology:

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 Estimation of Wireless Transmission Losses: Providing centralized control of several
SDR devices deployed at strategic locations enables the comparison of received
signals, which allows the estimation of path loss and the validation of the coverage
computations made with specialized software like RadioMobile .

Figure.12. Location of Unknown Transmitters from at least three different

Locations

 SDR as a service: The Corporation that achieves deploying a large SDR network will
be able to provide access to the receivers as a service to third parties with specific
interests.
 Radiogoniometry: Location of emission's source using information supplied by several
receivers located at distant positions. If at least three of them are used, the location of
a radiofrequency source can be accurately determined. However, the application is not
directly usable with the software presented.
 Improvement of Shortwave Communications: Using remote SDR receivers, shortwave
transmissions can be heard even from distant countries. Thus, HF communication
reception quality may be improved through Internet.
 Spectrum Exploring: The listen to specific bands in remote locations can be useful for
many organizations.

8. Advantages/Disadvantages:
Advantages of SDRs:
Communicators across the globe are now enjoying the advantages of SDRs.
Desirable characteristics include:
a) The ability to receive and transmit various modulation methods using a
common set of hardware;
b) The ability to alter functionality by downloading and running new software at
will.
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c) The possibility of adaptively choosing an operating frequency and a mode best
suited for prevailing conditions.
d) The opportunity to recognize and avoid interference with other
communications channels;
e) Elimination of analog hardware and its cost, resulting in simplification of radio
architectures and improved performance
f) The chance for new experimentation.
Disadvantages of SDRs
While SDRs offer benefits as outlined above, a few obstacles remain to their
universal acceptance. Those include:
a) The difficulty of writing software for various target systems,
b) The need for interfaces to digital signals and algorithms,
c) Poor dynamic range in some SDR designs,
d) Designing Antennas over a Wide-Range of Frequencies,
e) Increased Power Consumptions
f) Increased complexity
d) A lack of understanding among designers as to what is required and Security
Issues.
9. Future Trends:
• Adaptive radio: An adaptive radio can monitor its own performance as well as
modify the associated parameters in order to constantly adapt and achieve the most
efficient communication link.
• Cognitive radio: Cognitive radios provide a step further in complexity compared to
adaptive radios. A cognitive radio is aware of its environment and state of operation
(e.g. localization, RF spectrum usage, and local
regulations). A cognitive radio can make
behavioral decisions by constantly comparing
and analyzing its environment against the radio
objectives and possibilities in order to maximize
the communication link’s QoS.
• Intelligent radio: Intelligent radios are
cognitive radios that are capable of self-learning
(often related to the concept of “machine
learning”). Self-learning radio provides the end-
user with the possibility of increasing
performance even further by performing self-
adaptation to meet cognitive objectives and by
making decisions based on experience.
                                                                                                                        Figure .13 

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10. Conclusions:
SDR technology has many applications in radio environments and is becoming
increasingly popular among all type of users. While the first projects were
unstable, there are currently a lot of frameworks that allow the manipulation of
radio signals only with a personal computer and an inexpensive SDR device such
as the Teratec RTL2831U. The applications are multiple. Besides providing a
very cheap radio receiver, SDR devices can be combined with free
software to facilitate examination of the spectrum, detection of interferences,
assigning of frequency
distributions in an efficient manner, testing repeater systems’ operation and
measuring their electrical
parameters, identifying spectrum intruders and characterization of noise by bands
and regions of the
world. In addition, SDR versatility envisions its possible application in the
improvement of shortwave communications. Similarly, the continued growth of
the SDR with worldwide available receiving points announces the formation, in a
not too distant future, of a vast network through which it will be possible to listen
to radio broadcast on any part of the world by using Internet.

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