Lecture 09

Prepared by

Rocksana Akter
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
DUET, Gazipur
 Vertical Alignment:
• The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile
‘
of the centre line of the road.
•The vertical alignment consists of grades and
vertical curves.
• The vertical alignment of a highway influences:
i. Vehicle speed
ii. Acceleration and deceleration
iii. Sight distance
iv. Vehicle operation cost
v. Comfort while travelling at high speeds
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 Gradients:
•Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the
‘
length of road with respect to the horizontal.

•It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in n or also as

percentage such as n%.

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 Types Of Gradients:
• Gradients are divided into four categories:
‘
a. Ruling gradient
b. Limiting gradient

c. Exceptional gradient

d. Minimum gradient

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 a. Ruling gradient:
•Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within
‘ which the designer attempts to design the vertical
profile of a road.
•Ruling gradient is also known as „Design
gradient‟.
•For selection of ruling gradient factors such as
type of terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling
power of vehicle etc are considered.

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 b. Limiting gradient:
•Steeper than ruling gradient. In hilly roads, it may
‘
be frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient
and adopt limiting gradient, it depends on

a. Topography

b. Cost in constructing the road

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c. Exceptional gradient:
•Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients
given at unavoidable situations.
•They should be limited for short stretches not
exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.

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 Type of terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional
gradient gradient gradient

‘ Plain and rolling 3.3 % 5% 6.7 %

1 in 30 1 in20 1 in 15

Mountainous and steep having 5% 6% 7%

elevation more than 3000 m above 1 in20 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3
MSL

Mountainous and steep having 6% 7% 8%

elevation more than 3000 m above 1 in 16.7 1 in 14.3 1 in 12.5
MSL

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d. Minimum gradient:
•This is important only at locations where surface
drainage is important.
• Camber will take care of the lateral drainage.
•But the longitudinal drainage along the side
drains require some slope for smooth flow of water.

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•Therefore minimum gradient is provided for
drainage purpose and it depends on the rainfall,
type of soil and other site conditions.

•A minimum of 1in 500 may be sufficient for

concrete drain and 1in 200 or 1 in 100 for open soil
drains.

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Grade Compensation:
•When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced
on a road which has already maximum permissible
gradient, then gradient should be decreased to
compensate for loss of tractive efforts due to curve.
•This reduction in gradient at horizontal curve is
called grade compensation.

Grade compensation, % = 30+R/R

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IRC gave the following specification for the
grade compensation:
1.Grade compensation is not required for grades
flatter than 4% because the loss of tractive force
is negligible.
2.The maximum grade compensation is limited
to 75/R%.

Compensated = ruling – grade

gradient gradient compensation

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 A parabolic curve that is applied to make a smooth
and safe transition between two grades on a roadway
or a highway.
VPI
VPC: Vertical Point of Curvature
VPI: Vertical Point of Intersection
VPT: Vertical Point of Tangency VPC VPT
G1, G2: Tangent grades in percent
A: Algebraic difference in grades
L: Length of vertical curve
 At an intersection of two slopes on a highway or
a roadway

 To provide a safe and comfort ride for vehicles

on a roadway.
 Def: the horizontal distance in feet (meters)
needed to make 1% change in gradient.

 Application:
 To determine the minimum lengths of vertical curves
 To determine the horizontal distance from the VPC to
the high point of Type I or the low point of Type III
 Minimum length of a crest vertical curve needs
to satisfy the safety, comfort, and appearance
criteria.
 Minimum length of a crest vertical curve is equal
3 time the design speed (only for English Unit).
 General equation for the length of a crest vertical curve
in terms of algebraic difference in grades.
AS 2
L
 When S is less than L
100 2h1  2h2 
2

 When S is greater than L

L  2S 

200 h1  h2 
2

A
L: length of vertical curve, ft
S: sight distance, ft
A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
h1: height of eye above roadway, ft (3.5ft)
h2: height of object above roadway surface, ft (2ft)

 These equations are often used to check the design speed

of an existing vertical curve. K values are preferred to be
used when design a new vertical curve because it
provides a better safety distance.
 Design base on stopping sight distance

 Design base on passing sigh distance

 MUTCD passing sight distance

 Decision sight distance
 Def: the total distances from when the driver decides
to apply the break until the vehicle stop.

d= 1.47Vt+1.075V2/a
t: break reaction time, (assumed
2.5s)
V: design speed, mph
a: deceleration rate, ft/s2

Page 113 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design

of Highways and Streets 2004
 2
S
• In Exhibit 3-72, K values are calculated by the equation. K 
•K values can also be used when S > L because there is no 2158
significant error between S>L and S<L.

Page 272 AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004
Page 275 of AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
2004
 A design of a sag vertical curves need to satisfy at least four difference
criteria.
 Head light sight distance
 Passenger comfort
 Drainage control
 General appearance
 General equation
S<L S>L

AS 2
L 200h1  S tan  
200h1  S tan   L  2S 
A
L: length of sag vertical cure, ft
S: light beam distance, ft
A: algebraic difference in grades, percent
: angle of light beam intersects the surface of the roadway, degree (assumed 1o)
h1: head light height, (assumed 2ft)
 The design length of a sag vertical curve is based on the head
light sight distance, but the head light sight distance needs to be
designed almost equal to the stopping sight distance because of
safety criterion. Therefore, stopping sight distance values can be
use for S value in general equation. Therefore, K values can be
used to calculate the length of the curve.
 For passenger comfort, the below equation can be used.
 L: length of sag vertical curve, ft AV 2
 A: algebraic difference in grades, percent L
 V: design speed, mph 46.5
 Drainage of curbed roadways needs to retain a grade at least 0.5
percent or sometimes 0.3 percent for outer edges of the roadway.
 For appearance, the minimum curve length can be calculated by
equation L=100A for small or intermediate values of A.
 S2
In exhibit 3-75, K values are calculated by equation K
400  3.5S
Page 277 AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
2004
Summit Curve
 Objective –
To join 2 different grades of roads with smooth vertical
curve. Four different conditions for formation summit curve
which are shown below -
Summit Curves

SSD

Line of Sight

PVC PVT n2
n1
L h2
h1

Concept-
Design of summit curve on the basis of sight distance.
On summit curves, centrifugal force acting outwards hence the springs of vehicle
is not compressed and therefore passenger comfort is not a issue.
Design of summit curve as a square parabola because the rate of change of slope
is decreasing always so more sight distance available at the top of curve.
Summit Curves
 Equation of summit curve –
𝑁𝑥 2
𝑦=
2𝐿

For Sight distance < length of curve

𝑁𝑠2
𝐿=
2( 𝐻 + ℎ)
Summit Curves
 For sight distance > length of curve

2( 𝐻+ ℎ)
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑁
H and h = 1.2 m and 1.2 m for OSD and 1.2 m and 0.15 m
for SSD
S = Sight distance
N = algebraic sum of grades
Valley Curve
 Objective –
To join 2 different grades of roads with smooth vertical
curve. Four different conditions for formation summit curve
which are shown below -
Valley Curves

Light Beam Distance (SSD)

n1 headlight beam (diverging by β degrees)

n2

PVC PVT

h1 PVI
L h2=0

Concept –
In day time, no problem of any sight distance but in night time head light sight
distance should be sufficient for vehicle to stop before colliding with object.
In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along with the
weight of the vehicle. This will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause
discomfort to the passengers.
Valley Curves
 Length of valley curve –
The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two
similar transition curves of equal length.
Equation of transition curve –
2𝑁
𝑦= 2
𝑥 3
3𝐿
Valley Curves
 Length of curve on the basis of comfort condition –
𝑁𝑉3
𝐿=
𝐶
80
where, C = ( V in km/h)
75+𝑉

 Length of curve on the basis of head light sight distance –

Valley Curves
When length of curve > Stopping sight distance

𝑁𝑆2
ℎ1 + 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛ß =
2𝐿

When length of curve < stopping sight distance

L
ℎ1 + 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛ß = S − N
2

ß = beam angle ( nearly 1˚)

h1= height of head light from ground ( nearly 0.75m)
 Paying more attention to the drainage design when value of K >167
 The length of vertical curve can be computed by using K values in both crest and sag
vertical curves.
 Minimum length of a crest vertical curve is equal 3 time the design speed (only for English
Unit).
 The “roller-coaster” or the “hidden up” type of profile should be avoided.
 Two vertical curves in the same direction separated by a short section of tangent grade
should be avoided.
 On long grades, the steepest grades should be placed at the bottom of the curve and flatten
the grades near the top of ascent.
 It is desirable to reduce the grade through the intersection where at-grade intersection occur
on roadway sections with moderate to steep grades.
 Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless adequate drainage can be provided.
 The stopping sight distance for trucks is not necessary to be considered in designing vertical
because the truck driver able to see farther than passenger car. For that reason, the stopping
sight distance for trucks and passenger cars is balance.
 Most of cases the stopping sight distance will be used for vertical design length, but
engineering judgments also get involve in decision making.
Thank You